Статті в журналах: "LASER WAKEFIELD ACCELERATION (LWFA)"

1

Kimura, W. D., N. E. Andreev, M. Babzien, I. Ben-Zvi, D. B. Cline, C. E. Dilley, S. C. Gottschalk, et al. "Inverse free electron lasers and laser wakefield acceleration driven by CO 2 lasers." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 364, no. 1840 (January 24, 2006): 611–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2005.1726.

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The staged electron laser acceleration (STELLA) experiment demonstrated staging between two laser-driven devices, high trapping efficiency of microbunches within the accelerating field and narrow energy spread during laser acceleration. These are important for practical laser-driven accelerators. STELLA used inverse free electron lasers, which were chosen primarily for convenience. Nevertheless, the STELLA approach can be applied to other laser acceleration methods, in particular, laser-driven plasma accelerators. STELLA is now conducting experiments on laser wakefield acceleration (LWFA). Two novel LWFA approaches are being investigated. In the first one, called pseudo-resonant LWFA, a laser pulse enters a low-density plasma where nonlinear laser/plasma interactions cause the laser pulse shape to steepen, thereby creating strong wakefields. A witness e -beam pulse probes the wakefields. The second one, called seeded self-modulated LWFA, involves sending a seed e -beam pulse into the plasma to initiate wakefield formation. These wakefields are amplified by a laser pulse following shortly after the seed pulse. A second e -beam pulse (witness) follows the seed pulse to probe the wakefields. These LWFA experiments will also be the first ones driven by a CO 2 laser beam.

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2

Kim, Hyung Taek, Vishwa Bandhu Pathak, Calin Ioan Hojbota, Mohammad Mirzaie, Ki Hong Pae, Chul Min Kim, Jin Woo Yoon, Jae Hee Sung, and Seong Ku Lee. "Multi-GeV Laser Wakefield Electron Acceleration with PW Lasers." Applied Sciences 11, no. 13 (June 23, 2021): 5831. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app11135831.

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Laser wakefield electron acceleration (LWFA) is an emerging technology for the next generation of electron accelerators. As intense laser technology has rapidly developed, LWFA has overcome its limitations and has proven its possibilities to facilitate compact high-energy electron beams. Since high-power lasers reach peak power beyond petawatts (PW), LWFA has a new chance to explore the multi-GeV energy regime. In this article, we review the recent development of multi-GeV electron acceleration with PW lasers and discuss the limitations and perspectives of the LWFA with high-power lasers.

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3

Hidding, Bernhard, Ralph Assmann, Michael Bussmann, David Campbell, Yen-Yu Chang, Sébastien Corde, Jurjen Couperus Cabadağ, et al. "Progress in Hybrid Plasma Wakefield Acceleration." Photonics 10, no. 2 (January 17, 2023): 99. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/photonics10020099.

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Plasma wakefield accelerators can be driven either by intense laser pulses (LWFA) or by intense particle beams (PWFA). A third approach that combines the complementary advantages of both types of plasma wakefield accelerator has been established with increasing success over the last decade and is called hybrid LWFA→PWFA. Essentially, a compact LWFA is exploited to produce an energetic, high-current electron beam as a driver for a subsequent PWFA stage, which, in turn, is exploited for phase-constant, inherently laser-synchronized, quasi-static acceleration over extended acceleration lengths. The sum is greater than its parts: the approach not only provides a compact, cost-effective alternative to linac-driven PWFA for exploitation of PWFA and its advantages for acceleration and high-brightness beam generation, but extends the parameter range accessible for PWFA and, through the added benefit of co-location of inherently synchronized laser pulses, enables high-precision pump/probing, injection, seeding and unique experimental constellations, e.g., for beam coordination and collision experiments. We report on the accelerating progress of the approach achieved in a series of collaborative experiments and discuss future prospects and potential impact.

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4

Bingham, Robert. "Basic concepts in plasma accelerators." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 364, no. 1840 (February 2006): 559–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2005.1722.

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In this article, we present the underlying physics and the present status of high gradient and high-energy plasma accelerators. With the development of compact short pulse high-brightness lasers and electron and positron beams, new areas of studies for laser/particle beam–matter interactions is opening up. A number of methods are being pursued vigorously to achieve ultra-high-acceleration gradients. These include the plasma beat wave accelerator (PBWA) mechanism which uses conventional long pulse (∼100 ps) modest intensity lasers ( I ∼10 14 –10 16 W cm −2 ), the laser wakefield accelerator (LWFA) which uses the new breed of compact high-brightness lasers (<1 ps) and intensities >10 18 W cm −2 , self-modulated laser wakefield accelerator (SMLWFA) concept which combines elements of stimulated Raman forward scattering (SRFS) and electron acceleration by nonlinear plasma waves excited by relativistic electron and positron bunches the plasma wakefield accelerator. In the ultra-high intensity regime, laser/particle beam–plasma interactions are highly nonlinear and relativistic, leading to new phenomenon such as the plasma wakefield excitation for particle acceleration, relativistic self-focusing and guiding of laser beams, high-harmonic generation, acceleration of electrons, positrons, protons and photons. Fields greater than 1 GV cm −1 have been generated with monoenergetic particle beams accelerated to about 100 MeV in millimetre distances recorded. Plasma wakefields driven by both electron and positron beams at the Stanford linear accelerator centre (SLAC) facility have accelerated the tail of the beams.

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5

Barraza-Valdez, Ernesto, Toshiki Tajima, Donna Strickland, and Dante E. Roa. "Laser Beat-Wave Acceleration near Critical Density." Photonics 9, no. 7 (July 8, 2022): 476. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/photonics9070476.

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We consider high-density laser wakefield acceleration (LWFA) in the nonrelativistic regime of the laser. In place of an ultrashort laser pulse, we can excite wakefields via the Laser Beat Wave (BW) that accesses this near-critical density regime. Here, we use 1D Particle-in-Cell (PIC) simulations to study BW acceleration using two co-propagating lasers in a near-critical density material. We show that BW acceleration near the critical density allows for acceleration of electrons to greater than keV energies at far smaller intensities, such as 1014 W/cm2, through the low phase velocity dynamics of wakefields that are excited in this scheme. Near-critical density laser BW acceleration has many potential applications including high-dose radiation therapy.

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6

Wu, Ying, Changhai Yu, Zhiyong Qin, Wentao Wang, Zhijun Zhang, Rong Qi, Ke Feng, et al. "Energy Enhancement and Energy Spread Compression of Electron Beams in a Hybrid Laser-Plasma Wakefield Accelerator." Applied Sciences 9, no. 12 (June 23, 2019): 2561. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app9122561.

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We experimentally demonstrated the generation of narrow energy-spread electron beams with enhanced energy levels using a hybrid laser-plasma wakefield accelerator. An experiment featuring two-color electron beams showed that after the laser pump reached the depletion length, the laser-wakefield acceleration (LWFA) gradually evolved into the plasma-driven wakefield acceleration (PWFA), and thereafter, the PWFA dominated the electron acceleration. The energy spread of the electron beams was further improved by energy chirp compensation. Particle-in-cell simulations were performed to verify the experimental results. The generated monoenergetic high-energy electron beams are promising to upscale future accelerator systems and realize monoenergetic γ -ray sources.

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7

Kumar, Sonu, Dhananjay K. Singh, and Hitendra K. Malik. "Comparative study of ultrashort single-pulse and multi-pulse driven laser wakefield acceleration." Laser Physics Letters 20, no. 2 (December 30, 2022): 026001. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1612-202x/aca978.

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Abstract Laser wakefield acceleration (LWFA) is a promising technique to build compact and powerful particle accelerators. In such accelerators, the electric fields required to accelerate charged particles are sustained by electron density modulations in the plasma. The plasma wave modulating the electron density may be excited by an intense laser pulse. However, propagation of intense laser pulse in plasma is subject to various instabilities which result in significant losses of laser energy, reducing the efficiency of wakefield generation. Using a train of lower intensity pulses instead of a single higher intensity pulse appears to be a more efficient scheme for LWFA. Here we have studied this alternative scheme by applying an ultra-short femtosecond Gaussian laser beam consisting pulse train of a various number of pulses in different cases to underdense plasma. The plasma density modulation and strength of the resulting wakefield have been compared in various cases of multi-pulse and single-pulse lasers, for the same amount of input energies. Here we demonstrate that applying multi-laser pulses of optimally selected lower intensities and proper spacing leads to stronger wakefield generation and more efficient electron acceleration compared to the case of a single pulse of higher energy.

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8

Nicks, B. S., T. Tajima, D. Roa, A. Nečas, and G. Mourou. "Laser-wakefield application to oncology." International Journal of Modern Physics A 34, no. 34 (December 10, 2019): 1943016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0217751x19430164.

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Recent developments in fiber lasers and nanomaterials have allowed the possibility of using laser wakefield acceleration (LWFA) as the source of low-energy electron radiation for endoscopic and intraoperative brachytherapy, a technique in which sources of radiation for cancer treatment are brought directly to the affected tissues, avoiding collateral damage to intervening tissues. To this end, the electron dynamics of LWFA is examined in the high-density regime. In the near-critical density regime, electrons are accelerated by the ponderomotive force followed by an electron sheath formation, resulting in a flow of bulk electrons. These low-energy electrons penetrate tissue to depths typically less than 1 mm. First a typical resonant laser pulse is used, followed by lower-intensity, longer-pulse schemes, which are more amenable to a fiber-laser application.

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9

OSTERMAYR, TOBIAS, STEFAN PETROVICS, KHALID IQBAL, CONSTANTIN KLIER, HARTMUT RUHL, KAZUHISA NAKAJIMA, AIHUA DENG, et al. "Laser plasma accelerator driven by a super-Gaussian pulse." Journal of Plasma Physics 78, no. 4 (April 12, 2012): 447–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022377812000311.

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AbstractA laser wakefield accelerator (LWFA) with a weak focusing force is considered to seek improved beam quality in LWFA. We employ super-Gaussian laser pulses to generate the wakefield and study the behavior of the electron beam dynamics and synchrotron radiation arising from the transverse betatron oscillations through analysis and computation. We note that the super-Gaussian wakefields radically reduce the betatron oscillations and make the electron orbits mainly ballistic over a single stage. This feature permits to obtain small emittance and thus high luminosity, while still benefitting from the low-density operation of LWFA (Nakajima et al. 2011 Phys. Rev. ST Accel. Beams14, 091301), such as the reduced radiation loss, less number of stages, less beam instabilities, and less required wall plug power than in higher density regimes.

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10

Martinez de la Ossa, A., R. W. Assmann, M. Bussmann, S. Corde, J. P. Couperus Cabadağ, A. Debus, A. Döpp, et al. "Hybrid LWFA–PWFA staging as a beam energy and brightness transformer: conceptual design and simulations." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 377, no. 2151 (June 24, 2019): 20180175. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2018.0175.

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We present a conceptual design for a hybrid laser-driven plasma wakefield accelerator (LWFA) to beam-driven plasma wakefield accelerator (PWFA). In this set-up, the output beams from an LWFA stage are used as input beams of a new PWFA stage. In the PWFA stage, a new witness beam of largely increased quality can be produced and accelerated to higher energies. The feasibility and the potential of this concept is shown through exemplary particle-in-cell simulations. In addition, preliminary simulation results for a proof-of-concept experiment in Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf (Germany) are shown. This article is part of the Theo Murphy meeting issue ‘Directions in particle beam-driven plasma wakefield acceleration’.

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11

Joshi, Chan, Wei Lu, and Zhengming Sheng. "Progress in laser acceleration of particles." Journal of Plasma Physics 78, no. 4 (August 2012): 321–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022377812000669.

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Laser acceleration of particles is currently a very active area of research in Plasma Physics, with an emphasis on acceleration of electrons and ions using short but intense laser pulses. In this special issue we access the current status of this field by inviting leading researchers all over the world to contribute their original works here. Many of these results were first presented at the recent Laser-Particle Acceleration Workshop (LPAW 2011) held in Wuzhen, China in June 2011. In addition to the laser wakefield acceleration (LWFA) of electrons (Tzoufras et al.) and laser acceleration of ions (Tsung et al.), there were exciting new proposals for a proton-driven plasma wakefield accelerator (Xia et al.) and for a dielectric-structure-based two-beam accelerator (Gai et al.) presented at this workshop, and we are very pleased to have the authors' contributions on these included here.

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12

Liang, Xiao, Youjian Yi, Song Li, Ping Zhu, Xinglong Xie, Huiya Liu, GuangJin Mu, et al. "A laser wakefield acceleration facility using SG-II petawatt laser system." Review of Scientific Instruments 93, no. 3 (March 1, 2022): 033504. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/5.0071761.

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Laser wakefield acceleration (LWFA) using PW-class laser pulses generally requires cm-scale laser–plasma interaction Rayleigh length, which can be realized by focusing such pulses inside a long underdense plasma with a large f-number focusing optic. Here, we present a new PW-based LWFA instrument at the SG-II 5 PW laser facility, which employs f/23 focusing. The setup also adapted an online probing of the plasma density via Nomarski interferometry using a probe laser beam having 30 fs pulse duration. By focusing 1-PW, 30-fs laser pulses down to a focal spot of 230 µm, the peak laser intensity reached a mild-relativistic level of 2.6 × 1018 W/cm2, a level modest for standard LWFA experiments. Despite the large aspect ratio of >25:1 (transverse to longitudinal dimensions) of the laser pulse, electron beams were observed in our experiment only when the laser pulse experienced relativistic self-focusing at high gas-pressure thresholds, corresponding to plasma densities higher than 3 × 1018 cm−3.

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13

Petrov, G., J. Davis, W. Schumaker, M. Vargas, V. Chvykov, B. Hou, A. Maksimchuk, et al. "Development of mini-undulators for a table-top free-electron laser." Laser and Particle Beams 36, no. 3 (September 2018): 396–404. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0263034618000423.

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AbstractThe development of laser wakefield accelerators (LWFA) over the past several years has led to an interest in very compact sources of X-ray radiation – such as “table-top” free electron lasers. However, the use of conventional undulators using permanent magnets also implies system sizes which are large. In this work, we assess the possibilities for the use of novel mini-undulators in conjunction with a LWFA so that the dimensions of the undulator become comparable with the acceleration distances for LWFA experiments (i.e., centimeters). The use of a prototype undulator using laser machining of permanent magnets for this application is described and the emission characteristics and limitations of such a system are determined. Preliminary electron propagation and X-ray emission measurements are taken with a LWFA electron beam at the University of Michigan.

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14

Siders, Galvin, Erlandson, Bayramian, Reagan, Sistrunk, Spinka, and Haefner. "Wavelength Scaling of Laser Wakefield Acceleration for the EuPRAXIA Design Point." Instruments 3, no. 3 (August 21, 2019): 44. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/instruments3030044.

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Scaling the particle beam luminosity from laser wakefield accelerators to meet the needs of the physics community requires a significant, thousand-fold increase in the average power of the driving lasers. Multipulse extraction is a promising technique capable of scaling high peak power lasers by that thousand-fold increase in average power. However, several of the best candidate materials for use in multipulse extraction amplifiers lase at wavelengths far from the 0.8–1.0 μm region which currently dominates laser wakefield research. In particular, we have identified Tm:YLF, which lases near 1.9 µm, as the most promising candidate for high average power multipulse extraction amplifiers. Current schemes to scale the laser, plasma, and electron beam parameters to alternative wavelengths are unnecessarily restrictive in that they stress laser performance gains to keep plasma conditions constant. In this paper, we present a new and more general scheme for wavelength scaling a laser wakefield acceleration (LWFA) design point that provides greater flexibility in trading laser, plasma, and electron beam parameters within a particular design point. Finally, a multipulse extraction 1.9 µm Tm:YLF laser design meeting the EuPRAXIA project’s laser goals is discussed.

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15

Hidding, Bernhard, Andrew Beaton, Lewis Boulton, Sebastién Corde, Andreas Doepp, Fahim Ahmad Habib, Thomas Heinemann, et al. "Fundamentals and Applications of Hybrid LWFA-PWFA." Applied Sciences 9, no. 13 (June 28, 2019): 2626. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app9132626.

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Fundamental similarities and differences between laser-driven plasma wakefield acceleration (LWFA) and particle-driven plasma wakefield acceleration (PWFA) are discussed. The complementary features enable the conception and development of novel hybrid plasma accelerators, which allow previously not accessible compact solutions for high quality electron bunch generation and arising applications. Very high energy gains can be realized by electron beam drivers even in single stages because PWFA is practically dephasing-free and not diffraction-limited. These electron driver beams for PWFA in turn can be produced in compact LWFA stages. In various hybrid approaches, these PWFA systems can be spiked with ionizing laser pulses to realize tunable and high-quality electron sources via optical density downramp injection (also known as plasma torch) or plasma photocathodes (also known as Trojan Horse) and via wakefield-induced injection (also known as WII). These hybrids can act as beam energy, brightness and quality transformers, and partially have built-in stabilizing features. They thus offer compact pathways towards beams with unprecedented emittance and brightness, which may have transformative impact for light sources and photon science applications. Furthermore, they allow the study of PWFA-specific challenges in compact setups in addition to large linac-based facilities, such as fundamental beam–plasma interaction physics, to develop novel diagnostics, and to develop contributions such as ultralow emittance test beams or other building blocks and schemes which support future plasma-based collider concepts.

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16

Ghotra, Harjit Singh. "Multi-pico-Coulomb and multi-GeV electron beam generation from LWFA with a cm scale gas cell." Laser Physics 33, no. 7 (May 22, 2023): 076005. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1555-6611/acd371.

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Abstract Analytical calculations are made for the scaling and design parameters for the generation of a multi-pico Coulomb and multi-GeV electron beam from a laser Wakefield acceleration (LWFA). The numerical values are optimized for electron acceleration from a cm-scale gas cell and self-guided laser plasma in the bubble domain, where the low-density plasma serves as an accelerating medium. A graphical analysis of the matched parameters is presented for 1–10 GeV electron beam energy gain, where the laser pulse is powered between 30 ∼ 700 TW with delivery capabilities of 1–100 J pulse energy, 25–150 fs pulse duration, and 15–95 μm spot size operating with 1018–19 W cm−2 laser intensity at a plasma density ∼1017 cm−3. The result shows the generation of multi-pico-Coulomb and multi-GeV electron beams. These parameters will be helpful for the future LWFA related experiments using cm scale gas cells in the bubble regime.

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17

Nicks, Bradley Scott, Ernesto Barraza-Valdez, Sahel Hakimi, Kyle Chesnut, Genevieve DeGrandchamp, Kenneth Gage, David Housley, et al. "High-Density Dynamics of Laser Wakefield Acceleration from Gas Plasmas to Nanotubes." Photonics 8, no. 6 (June 11, 2021): 216. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/photonics8060216.

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The electron dynamics of laser wakefield acceleration (LWFA) is examined in the high-density regime using particle-in-cell simulations. These simulations model the electron source as a target of carbon nanotubes. Carbon nanotubes readily allow access to near-critical densities and may have other advantageous properties for potential medical applications of electron acceleration. In the near-critical density regime, electrons are accelerated by the ponderomotive force followed by the electron sheath formation, resulting in a flow of bulk electrons. This behavior represents a qualitatively distinct regime from that of low-density LWFA. A quantitative entropy index for differentiating these regimes is proposed. The dependence of accelerated electron energy on laser amplitude is also examined. For the majority of this study, the laser propagates along the axis of the target of carbon nanotubes in a 1D geometry. After the fundamental high-density physics is established, an alternative, 2D scheme of laser acceleration of electrons using carbon nanotubes is considered.

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18

Wheeler, Jonathan, Gérard Mourou, and Toshiki Tajima. "Laser Technology for Advanced Acceleration: Accelerating Beyond TeV." Reviews of Accelerator Science and Technology 09 (January 2016): 151–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s1793626816300073.

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The implementation of the suggestion of thin film compression (TFC) allows the newest class of high power, ultrafast laser pulses (typically 20[Formula: see text]fs at near-infrared wavelengths) to be compressed to the limit of a single-cycle laser pulse (2[Formula: see text]fs). Its simplicity and high efficiency, as well as its accessibility to a single-cycle laser pulse, introduce a new regime of laser–plasma interaction that enhances laser acceleration. Single-cycle laser acceleration of ions is a far more efficient and coherent process than the known laser-ion acceleration mechanisms. The TFC-derived single-cycle optical pulse is capable of inducing a single-cycle X-ray laser pulse (with a far shorter pulse length and thus an extremely high intensity) through relativistic compression. The application of such an X-ray pulse leads to the novel regime of laser wakefield acceleration of electrons in the X-ray regime, yielding a prospect of “TeV on a chip.” This possibility of single-cycle X-ray pulses heralds zeptosecond and EW lasers (and zeptoscience). The additional invention of the coherent amplification network (CAN) fiber laser pushes the frontier of high repetition, high efficiency lasers, which are the hallmark of needed applications such as laser-driven LWFA colliders and other, societal applications. CAN addresses the crucial aspect of intense lasers that have traditionally lacked the above properties.

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19

Papp, Daniel, Ales Necas, Nasr Hafz, Toshiki Tajima, Sydney Gales, Gerard Mourou, Gabor Szabo, and Christos Kamperidis. "Laser Wakefield Photoneutron Generation with Few-Cycle High-Repetition-Rate Laser Systems." Photonics 9, no. 11 (November 3, 2022): 826. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/photonics9110826.

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Simulations of photoneutron generation are presented for the anticipated experimental campaign at ELI-ALPS using the under-commissioning e-SYLOS beamline. Photoneutron generation is a three-step process starting with the creation of a relativistic electron beam which is converted to gamma radiation, which in turn generates neutrons via the γ,n interaction in high-Z material. Electrons are accelerated to relativistic energies using the laser wakefield acceleration (LWFA) mechanism. The LWFA process is simulated with a three-dimensional particle in cell code to generate an electron bunch of 100s pC charge from a 100 mJ, 9 fs laser interaction with a helium gas jet target. The resultant electron spectrum is transported through a lead sphere with the Monte Carlo N-Particle (MCNP) code to convert electrons to gammas and gammas to neutrons in a single simulation. A neutron yield of 3×107 per shot over 4π is achieved, with a corresponding neutron yield per kW of 6×1011 n/s/kW. The paper concludes with a discussion on the attractiveness of LWFA-driven photoneutron generation on high impact, and societal applications.

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20

Molodozhentsev, Alexander Yu, and Konstantin O. Kruchinin. "Compact LWFA-Based Extreme Ultraviolet Free Electron Laser: Design Constraints." Instruments 6, no. 1 (January 14, 2022): 4. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/instruments6010004.

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The combination of advanced high-power laser technology, new acceleration methods and achievements in undulator development offers the opportunity to build compact, high-brilliance free electron lasers driven by a laser wakefield accelerator. Here, we present a simulation study outlining the main requirements for the laser–plasma-based extreme ultraviolet free electron laser setup with the aim to reach saturation of the photon pulse energy in a single unit of a commercially available undulator with the deflection parameter K0 in the range of 1–1.5. A dedicated electron beam transport strategy that allows control of the electron beam slice parameters, including collective effects, required by the self-amplified spontaneous emission regime is proposed. Finally, a set of coherent photon radiation parameters achievable in the undulator section utilizing the best experimentally demonstrated electron beam parameters are analyzed. As a result, we demonstrate that the ultra-short, few-fs-level pulse of the photon radiation with the wavelength in the extreme ultraviolet range can be obtained with the peak brilliance of ∼7×1028 photons/pulse/mm2/mrad2/0.1%bw.

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21

Roa, Dante, Jeffrey Kuo, Harry Moyses, Peter Taborek, Toshiki Tajima, Gerard Mourou, and Fuyuhiko Tamanoi. "Fiber-Optic Based Laser Wakefield Accelerated Electron Beams and Potential Applications in Radiotherapy Cancer Treatments." Photonics 9, no. 6 (June 8, 2022): 403. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/photonics9060403.

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Ultra-compact electron beam technology based on laser wakefield acceleration (LWFA) could have a significant impact on radiotherapy treatments. Recent developments in LWFA high-density regime (HD-LWFA) and low-intensity fiber optically transmitted laser beams could allow for cancer treatments with electron beams from a miniature electronic source. Moreover, an electron beam emitted from a tip of a fiber optic channel could lead to new endoscopy-based radiotherapy, which is not currently available. Low-energy (10 keV–1 MeV) LWFA electron beams can be produced by irradiating high-density nano-materials with a low-intensity laser in the range of ~1014 W/cm2. This energy range could be useful in radiotherapy and, specifically, brachytherapy for treating superficial, interstitial, intravascular, and intracavitary tumors. Furthermore, it could unveil the next generation of high-dose-rate brachytherapy systems that are not dependent on radioactive sources, do not require specially designed radiation-shielded rooms for treatment, could be portable, could provide a selection of treatment energies, and would significantly reduce operating costs to a radiation oncology clinic.

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22

LEMOS, N., J. L. MARTINS, J. M. DIAS, K. A. MARSH, A. PAK, and C. JOSHI. "Forward directed ion acceleration in a LWFA with ionization-induced injection." Journal of Plasma Physics 78, no. 4 (January 10, 2012): 327–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022377811000602.

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AbstractIn this work we present an experimental study where energetic ions were produced in an underdense 2.5 × 1019 cm−3 plasma created by a 50 fs Ti:Sapphire laser with 5 TWs of power. The plasma comprises 95% He and 5% N2 gases. Ionization-induced trapping of nitrogen K-shell electrons in the laser-induced wakefield generates an electron beam with a mean energy of 40 MeV and ~1 nC of charge. Some of the helium ions at the wake–vacuum interface are accelerated with a measured minimum ion energy of He1+ ions of 1.2 MeV and He2+ ions of 4 MeV. The physics of the interaction is studied with 2D particle-in-cell simulations. These reveal the formation of an ion filament on the axis of the plasma due to space charge attraction of the wakefield-accelerated high-charge electron bunch. Some of these high-energy electrons escape the plasma to form a sheath at the plasma–vacuum boundary that accelerates some of the ions in the filament in the forward direction. Electrons with energy less than the sheath potential cannot escape and return to the plasma boundary in a vortex-like motion. This in turn produces a time-varying azimuthal magnetic field, which generates a longitudinal electric field at the interface that further accelerates and collimates the ions.

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23

Arjmand, S., M. P. Anania, A. Biagioni, M. Ferrario, M. Del Franco, M. Galletti, V. Lollo, D. Pellegrini, R. Pompili, and A. Zigler. "Investigating of plasma diagnostics by utilizing spectroscopic measurements of Balmer emission." Journal of Instrumentation 18, no. 05 (May 1, 2023): C05007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/18/05/c05007.

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Abstract Plasma technology offers revolutionary potential for particle accelerators by enabling the acceleration of electron beams to ultra-relativistic velocities in a small-scale dimension. The compact nature of plasma-based accelerators permits the creation of accelerating gradients on the GV scale. Plasma acceleration structures are created by utilizing either ultra-short laser pulses (Laser Wakefield Acceleration, LWFA) or energetic particle beams (Particle Wakefield Acceleration, PWFA), which need to be tailored to the plasma parameters. However, both methods face the challenge of limited acceleration length, which is currently only a few centimeters. To overcome this challenge, one approach is to generate plasma within a capillary tube, which can extend the acceleration length up to approximately forty centimeters or more. Consequently, it is crucial to characterize the produced plasma in terms of density and geometric structure. Optical emission spectroscopy (EOS) methods can be employed to measure and characterize the plasma electron density by analyzing the emitted plasma light. This paper presents measurements of the plasma electron density distribution for a hydrogen-filled capillary tube using both Balmer alpha (Hα) and Balmer beta (Hβ) lines. Comparing the intensities of Hα and Hβ emissions enables more precise measurements of the plasma electron density and provides additional information about other plasma properties.

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24

Lazzarini, C. M., L. V. Goncalves, G. M. Grittani, S. Lorenz, M. Nevrkla, P. Valenta, T. Levato, S. V. Bulanov, and G. Korn. "Electron acceleration at ELI-Beamlines: Towards high-energy and high-repetition rate accelerators." International Journal of Modern Physics A 34, no. 34 (December 10, 2019): 1943010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0217751x19430103.

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The high energy electron experimental platform * at ELI-Beamlines will give to the users high energy tunable electron beams with low energy spread and divergence, by employing laser-wakefield-acceleration scheme (LWFA) driven by PW-class laser system working at 10 Hz. The platform will offer great flexibility over electron beam parameter space and is foreseen to exploit different targets, acceleration and laser-guiding advanced schemes. In this paper we summarize about more compact accelerators that can be envisioned by the use of really short (near single-cycle) fem-mJ-level laser pulses interacting with nanoparticle and solid targets, as well as with specific near-critical density targets. * Originally developed as H.E.L.L., within the Particle acceleration by Laser program (RP3).

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25

Costa, G., M. P. Anania, S. Arjmand, A. Biagioni, M. Del Franco, M. Del Giorno, M. Galletti, et al. "Characterisation and optimisation of targets for plasma wakefield acceleration at SPARC_LAB." Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion 64, no. 4 (March 3, 2022): 044012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1361-6587/ac5477.

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Abstract One of the most important features of plasma-based accelerators is their compactness because plasma modules can have dimensions of the order of mm cm − 1 , providing very high-accelerating fields up to hundreds of GV m − 1 . The main challenge regarding this type of acceleration lies in controlling and characterising the plasma itself, which then determines its synchronisation with the particle beam to be accelerated in an external injection stage in the laser wakefield acceleration (LWFA) scheme. This issue has a major influence on the quality of the accelerated bunches. In this work, a complete characterisation and optimisation of plasma targets available at the SPARC_LAB laboratories is presented. Two plasma-based devices are considered: supersonic nozzles for experiments adopting the self-injection scheme of laser wakefield acceleration and plasma capillary discharge for both particle and laser-driven experiments. In the second case, a wide range of plasma channels, gas injection geometries and discharge voltages were extensively investigated as well as studies of the plasma plumes exiting the channels, to control the plasma density ramps. Plasma density measurements were carried out for all the different designed plasma channels using interferometric methods in the case of gas jets, spectroscopic methods in the case of capillaries.

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26

Luo, W., H. B. Zhuo, Y. Y. Ma, X. H. Yang, N. Zhao та M. Y. Yu. "Ultrashort-pulse MeV positron beam generation from intense Compton-scattering γ-ray source driven by laser wakefield acceleration". Laser and Particle Beams 31, № 1 (20 грудня 2012): 89–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0263034612000948.

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AbstractIntense Compton-scattering γ-ray radiation driven by laser wakefield acceleration (LWFA) and generation of ultrashort positron beams are investigated by Monte Carlo simulation. Using an LWFA driven GeV electron bunch and a 45 femtosecond, 90 mJ/pulse, and 10 Hz Ti:Sapphire laser for driving the Compton scattering, fs γ-ray pulses were generated. The latter have a flux of ≥108/s, peak brightness of ≥1020 photons/(s mm2 mrad2 0.1% bandwidth), and photon energy of 5.9 to 23.2 MeV. The γ-ray pulses then impinge on a thin high-Z target. More than 107 positrons/s in the form of sub-100 fs pulses at several MeV can be produced. Such ultrashort positron pulses can be useful as the pump-probe type positron annihilation spectroscopy as well as in other applications.

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27

Lai, P. W., K. N. Liu, D. K. Tran, S. W. Chou, H. H. Chu, S. H. Chen, J. Wang, and M. W. Lin. "Laser wakefield acceleration of 10-MeV-scale electrons driven by 1-TW multi-cycle laser pulses in a sub-millimeter nitrogen gas cell." Physics of Plasmas 30, no. 1 (January 2023): 010703. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/5.0131155.

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By focusing conventional 1-TW 40-fs laser pulses into a dense 450- μm-long nitrogen gas cell, we demonstrate the feasibility of routinely generating electron beams from laser wakefield acceleration (LWFA) with primary energies scaling up to 10 MeV and a high charge in excess of 50 pC. When electron beams are generated with a charge of ≈30 pC and a beam divergence of ≈40 mrad from the nitrogen cell having a peak atom density of [Formula: see text] cm−3, increasing the density inside the cell by 25%—controlled by tuning the backing pressure of fed nitrogen gas—can induce defocusing of the pump pulse that leads to a twofold increase in the output charge but with a trade-off in beam divergence. Therefore, this LWFA scheme has two preferred regimes for acquiring electron beams with either lower divergence or higher beam charge depending on a slight variation of the gas/plasma density inside the cell. Our results identify the high potential for implementing sub-millimeter nitrogen gas cells in the future development of high-repetition-rate LWFA driven by sub-TW or few-TW laser pulses.

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28

Zhang, Luyao, Yinghui Zheng, Guicun Li, Zhengmao Jia, Yanyan Li, Yi Xu, Yuxin Leng, Zhinan Zeng, Ruxin Li, and Zhizhan Xu. "Bright High-Order Harmonic Generation around 30 nm Using Hundred-Terawatt-Level Laser System for Seeding Full Coherent XFEL." Applied Sciences 8, no. 9 (August 24, 2018): 1446. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app8091446.

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In the past few years, the laser wakefield acceleration (LWFA) electron is a hot topic. One of its applications is to produce soft X-ray free-electron laser (XFEL). During this process, high harmonic generation (HHG) is a potential seed. To decrease the timing jitter between LWFA and HHG, it is better for them to come from the same laser source. We have experimentally investigated bright high-order harmonic generation with a 200-terawatt (TW)/1-Hz Ti: Sapphire laser system. By using the loosely focused method and optimizing the phase-matching conditions, we have obtained bright high-order harmonics around 30 nm. Output energy of the 29th harmonic (27.6 nm) reaches as high as 100 nJ per pulse, and the harmonic beam divergence is estimated to be 0.3 mrad in a full width at half maximum (FWHM). Although the hundred-TW-level laser system has the problems of poor beam quality and shot-to-shot energy fluctuation for HHG, the generated soft X-ray (~30 nm) sources can also have good stability by carefully optimizing the laser system.

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29

D'Arcy, R., A. Aschikhin, S. Bohlen, G. Boyle, T. Brümmer, J. Chappell, S. Diederichs, et al. "FLASHForward: plasma wakefield accelerator science for high-average-power applications." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 377, no. 2151 (June 24, 2019): 20180392. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2018.0392.

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The FLASHForward experimental facility is a high-performance test-bed for precision plasma wakefield research, aiming to accelerate high-quality electron beams to GeV-levels in a few centimetres of ionized gas. The plasma is created by ionizing gas in a gas cell either by a high-voltage discharge or a high-intensity laser pulse. The electrons to be accelerated will either be injected internally from the plasma background or externally from the FLASH superconducting RF front end. In both cases, the wakefield will be driven by electron beams provided by the FLASH gun and linac modules operating with a 10 Hz macro-pulse structure, generating 1.25 GeV, 1 nC electron bunches at up to 3 MHz micro-pulse repetition rates. At full capacity, this FLASH bunch-train structure corresponds to 30 kW of average power, orders of magnitude higher than drivers available to other state-of-the-art LWFA and PWFA experiments. This high-power functionality means FLASHForward is the only plasma wakefield facility in the world with the immediate capability to develop, explore and benchmark high-average-power plasma wakefield research essential for next-generation facilities. The operational parameters and technical highlights of the experiment are discussed, as well as the scientific goals and high-average-power outlook. This article is part of the Theo Murphy meeting issue ‘Directions in particle beam-driven plasma wakefield acceleration’.

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30

TAJIMA, T., and K. HOMMA. "FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICS EXPLORED WITH HIGH INTENSITY LASER." International Journal of Modern Physics A 27, no. 25 (October 10, 2012): 1230027. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0217751x1230027x.

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Over the last century the method of particle acceleration to high energies has become the prime approach to explore the fundamental nature of matter in laboratory. It appears that the latest search of the contemporary accelerator based on the colliders shows a sign of saturation (or at least a slow-down) in increasing its energy and other necessary parameters to extend this frontier. We suggest two pronged approach enabled by the recent progress in high intensity lasers. First we envision the laser-driven plasma accelerator may be able to extend the reach of the collider. For this approach to bear fruit, we need to develop the technology of high averaged power laser in addition to the high intensity. For this we mention that the latest research effort of ICAN is an encouraging sign. In addition to this, we now introduce the concept of the noncollider paradigm in exploring fundamental physics with high intensity (and large energy) lasers. One of the examples we mention is the laser wakefield acceleration (LWFA) far beyond TeV without large luminosity. If we relax or do not require the large luminosity necessary for colliders, but solely in ultrahigh energy frontier, we are still capable of exploring such a fundamental issue. Given such a high energetic particle source and high-intensity laser fields simultaneously, we expect to be able to access new aspects on the matter and the vacuum structure from fundamental physical point of views. LWFA naturally exploits the nonlinear optical effects in the plasma when it becomes of relativistic intensity. Normally nonlinear optical effects are discussed based upon polarization susceptibility of matter to external fields. We suggest application of this concept even to the vacuum structure as a new kind of order parameter to discuss vacuum-originating phenomena at semimacroscopic scales. This viewpoint unifies the following observables with the unprecedented experimental environment we envision; the dispersion relation of photons at extremely short wavelengths in vacuum (a test of the Lorentz invariance), the dispersion relation of the vacuum under high-intensity laser fields (nonperturbative QED and possibly QCD effects), and wave-mixing processes possibly caused by exchanges of low-mass and weakly coupling fields relevant to cosmology with the coherent nature of high-flux photons (search for light dark matter and dark energy). These observables based on polarization susceptibility of vacuum would add novel insights to phenomena discovered in cosmology and particle physics where order parameters such as curvature and particle masses are conventionally discussed. In other words the introduction of high intensity laser and its methodology enriches the approach of fundamental and particle physics in entirely new dimensions.

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31

BOLTON, PAUL R. "NONINVASIVE LASER PROBING OF ULTRASHORT SINGLE ELECTRON BUNCHES FOR ACCELERATOR AND LIGHT SOURCE DEVELOPMENT." International Journal of Modern Physics B 21, no. 03n04 (February 10, 2007): 527–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0217979207042331.

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Companion development of ultrafast electron beam diagnostics capable of noninvasively resolving single bunch detail is essential for the development of high energy, high brightness accelerator facilities and associated beam-based light source applications. Existing conventional accelerators can exhibit timing-jitter down to the 100 femtosecond level which exceeds their single bunch duration capability. At the other extreme, in relatively jitterless environments, laser-plasma wakefield accelerators (LWFA) can generate single electron bunches of duration estimated to be of order 10 femtoseconds making this setting a valuable testbed for development of broadband electron bunch diagnostics. Characteristics of electro-optic schemes and laser-induced reflectance are discussed with emphasis on temporal resolution.

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32

Ning, Li, Mu Jie, and Kong Fancun. "Numerical Studies on Bow Waves in Intense Laser-Plasma Interaction." Laser and Particle Beams 2023 (February 15, 2023): 1–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2023/9414451.

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Laser-driven wakefield acceleration (LWFA) has attracted lots of attention in recent years. However, few writers have been able to make systematic research into the bow waves generated along with the wake waves. Research about the bow waves will help to improve the understanding about the motion of the electrons near the wake waves. In addition, the relativistic energetic electron density peaks have great potential in electron acceleration and reflecting flying mirrors. In this paper, the bow waves generated in laser-plasma interactions as well as the effects of different laser and plasma parameters are investigated. Multidimensional particle-in-cell simulations are made to present the wake waves and bow waves by showing the electron density and momentum distribution as well as the electric field along x and y directions. The evolution of the bow wave structure is investigated by measuring the open angle between the bow wave and the wake wave cavity. The angle as well as the peak electron density and transverse momentum is demonstrated with respect to different laser intensities, spot sizes, plasma densities, and preplasma lengths. The density peak emits high-order harmonics up to 150 orders and can be a new kind of “flying mirror” to generate higher order harmonics. The study on the bow waves is important for further investigation on the electron motion around the wake waves, generation of dense electron beams, generation of high-order harmonics, and other research and applications based on the bow waves.

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33

WELSH, G. H., S. M. WIGGINS, R. C. ISSAC, E. BRUNETTI, G. G. MANAHAN, M. R. ISLAM, S. CIPICCIA, C. ANICULAESEI, B. ERSFELD, and D. A. JAROSZYNSKI. "High resolution electron beam measurements on the ALPHA-X laser–plasma wakefield accelerator." Journal of Plasma Physics 78, no. 4 (February 27, 2012): 393–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022377812000220.

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AbstractThe Advanced Laser–Plasma High-Energy Accelerators towards X-rays (ALPHA-X) programme at the University of Strathclyde is developing laser–plasma accelerators for the production of ultra-short high quality electron bunches. Focussing such LWFA bunches into an undulator, for example, requires particular attention to be paid to the emittance, electron bunch duration and energy spread. On the ALPHA-X wakefield accelerator beam line, a high intensity ultra-short pulse from a 30 TW Ti:Sapphire laser is focussed into a helium gas jet to produce femtosecond duration electron bunches in the range of 90–220 MeV. Measurements of the electron energy spectrum, obtained using a high resolution magnetic dipole spectrometer, show electron bunch r.m.s. energy spreads down to 0.5%. A pepper-pot mask is used to obtain transverse emittance measurements of a 128 ± 3 MeV mono-energetic electron beam. An average normalized emittance of ϵrms,x,y = 2.2 ± 0.7, 2.3 ± 0.6 π-mm-mrad is measured, which is comparable to that of a conventional radio-frequency accelerator. The best measured emittance of ϵrms,x, = 1.1 ± 0.1 π-mm-mrad corresponds to the resolution limit of the detection system. 3D particle-in-cell simulations of the ALPHA-X accelerator partially replicate the generation of low emittance, low energy spread bunches with charge less than 4 pC and gas flow simulations indicate both long density ramps and shock formation in the gas jet nozzle.

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34

Benka, Stephen G. "Laser wakefield acceleration." Physics Today 57, no. 11 (November 2004): 9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.4796314.

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35

Sha, Weijian, Jean-Christophe Chanteloup, and Gérard Mourou. "Ultrafast Fiber Technologies for Compact Laser Wake Field in Medical Application." Photonics 9, no. 6 (June 16, 2022): 423. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/photonics9060423.

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Technologies, performances and maturity of ultrafast fiber lasers and fiber delivery of ultrafast pulses are discussed for the medical deployment of laser-wake-field acceleration (LWFA). The compact ultrafast fiber lasers produce intense laser pulses with flexible hollow-core fiber delivery to facilitate electron acceleration in the laser-stimulated wake field near treatment site, empowering endoscopic LWFA brachytherapy. With coherent beam combination of multiple fiber amplifiers, the advantages of ultrafast fiber lasers are further extended to bring in more capabilities in compact LWFA applications.

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36

Kotaki, Hideyuki, Masaki Kando, Tomonao Hosokai, Shuji Kondo, Shinichi Masuda, Shuhei Kanazawa, Takashi Yokoyama, Toru Matoba, and Kazuhisa Nakajima. "High energy laser wakefield acceleration." International Journal of Applied Electromagnetics and Mechanics 14, no. 1-4 (December 20, 2002): 255–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.3233/jae-2002-383.

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37

Shaw, J. L., N. Lemos, K. A. Marsh, D. H. Froula, and C. Joshi. "Experimental signatures of direct-laser-acceleration-assisted laser wakefield acceleration." Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion 60, no. 4 (February 28, 2018): 044012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1361-6587/aaade1.

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38

Wang Jian, Gu Yu-Qiu, Cai Da-Feng, Jiao Chun-Ye, Wu Yu-Chi, He Ying-Ling, Teng Jian, Yang Xiang-Dong, Wang Lei, and Zhao Zong-Qing. "Photon acceleration in the laser wakefield." Acta Physica Sinica 57, no. 10 (2008): 6471. http://dx.doi.org/10.7498/aps.57.6471.

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39

Caizergues, C., S. Smartsev, V. Malka, and C. Thaury. "Phase-locked laser-wakefield electron acceleration." Nature Photonics 14, no. 8 (July 6, 2020): 475–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41566-020-0657-2.

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40

Mendon�a, J. T., and E. Ribeiro. "Quantum Mechanisms of Laser Wakefield Acceleration." Physica Scripta T107, no. 5 (2004): 252. http://dx.doi.org/10.1238/physica.topical.107a00252.

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41

Levato, Tadzio, Michal Nevrkla, Muhammad Fahad Nawaz, Lorenzo Giuffrida, Filip Grepl, Haris Zulic, Jan Pilar, et al. "Experimental Study of Nanosecond Laser-Generated Plasma Channels." Applied Sciences 10, no. 12 (June 13, 2020): 4082. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app10124082.

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Generation of plasma-channels by interaction of gas targets with nanosecond laser beams was investigated experimentally. Such laser-generated plasma channels are very promising for subsequent guiding of high peak power femtosecond laser pulses, over several tens of centimeters, as required in laser wake field electron-acceleration (LWFA). The experimental setup was based on the use of a cylindrical lens (100 mm of focal length) with the aim of proposing a technical solution easy to be integrated into a compact experimental setup for acceleration of multi-GeV electron beams using high peak-power laser systems. A pilot experiment, showing production of asymmetric plasma channels over a length of several millimeters in N and Ar targets with initial neutral-gas atomic density around 5 × 1019 cm−3, is reported. Plasma effective threshold formation was estimated, along with future optimization of the optical setup for a symmetrization of such plasma channel. Scalability of this concept to several tens of centimeters is preliminarily discussed, along with the corresponding critical requirements for an optimal LWFA scheme.

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42

Najmudin, Z., K. Krushelnick, E. L. Clark, S. P. D. Mangles, B. Walton, A. E. Dangor, S. Fritzler, et al. "Self-modulated wakefield and forced laser wakefield acceleration of electrons." Physics of Plasmas 10, no. 5 (May 2003): 2071–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1564083.

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43

Woodbury, D., L. Feder, V. Shumakova, C. Gollner, R. Schwartz, B. Miao, F. Salehi, et al. "Laser wakefield acceleration with mid-IR laser pulses." Optics Letters 43, no. 5 (February 28, 2018): 1131. http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/ol.43.001131.

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44

Zhang, Guo-Bo, N. A. M. Hafz, Yan-Yun Ma, Lie-Jia Qian, Fu-Qiu Shao, and Zheng-Ming Sheng. "Laser Wakefield Acceleration Using Mid-Infrared Laser Pulses." Chinese Physics Letters 33, no. 9 (September 2016): 095202. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/0256-307x/33/9/095202.

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45

Gorbunov, L. M., S. Yu Kalmykov, and P. Mora. "Laser wakefield acceleration by petawatt ultrashort laser pulses." Physics of Plasmas 12, no. 3 (March 2005): 033101. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1852469.

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46

Andreev, N. E., and S. V. Kuznetsov. "Laser wakefield acceleration of short electron bunches." IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science 28, no. 4 (August 2000): 1211–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/27.893309.

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47

KITAGAWA, Yoneyoshi, and Yoshitaka MORI. "Progress of Laser Wakefield Electron Acceleration Research." Review of Laser Engineering 45, no. 2 (2017): 58. http://dx.doi.org/10.2184/lsj.45.2_58.

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48

Mendonça, J. T. "Laser wakefield acceleration in the Petawatt regime." Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion 51, no. 2 (January 7, 2009): 024007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/0741-3335/51/2/024007.

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49

Pugacheva, D. V., N. E. Andreev, and B. Cros. "Laser wakefield acceleration of polarized electron beams." Journal of Physics: Conference Series 774 (November 2016): 012107. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/774/1/012107.

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50

Amiranoff, F., S. Baton, D. Bernard, B. Cros, D. Descamps, F. Dorchies, F. Jacquet, et al. "Observation of Laser Wakefield Acceleration of Electrons." Physical Review Letters 81, no. 5 (August 3, 1998): 995–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1103/physrevlett.81.995.

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