Готові списки джерел за темами / Laser steel hardening

Добірка наукової літератури з теми "Laser steel hardening"

Автор: Grafiati

Опубліковано: 30 травня 2022

Оновлено: 31 травня 2022

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Статті в журналах з теми "Laser steel hardening"

Афанасьєва, Ольга Валентинівна, Наталія Олексіївна Лалазарова та Олена Георгіївна Попова. "Нові технології лазерної поверхневої обробки". Aerospace technic and technology, № 2 (28 квітня 2021): 59–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.32620/aktt.2021.2.07.

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Subject and purpose. Currently, gas, solid-state, and fiber lasers are used to process materials in the aviation industry. For the thermal treatment of steels, gas CO2 lasers with a capacity of more than 1 kW used, which are reliable in operation but have high cost and low efficiency. There are no results on the use of low-power (up to 20 W) pulsed-mode lasers for surface hardening of steel products. The purpose of this work is to determine the modes of surface hardening of products from carbon and alloy steels using low-power solid-state pulsed YAG lasers. Methodology. For laser hardening, a 5 W solid-state YAG laser was used (diode pumping, radiation wavelength λ = 1,064 μm, pulse mode). The use of a nonlinear crystal made it possible to obtain UV radiation with λ = 0,355 μm (third harmonic). The following modes were investigated: processing with single pulses (duration 0,1...0,4 ms) and multi-pulse processing with short (30...70 ms) pulses. The scanning speed was 8...2 mm/s. The energy in the pulse was determined by the photoelectric method. Thermal hardening was performed on the following steels: У12, P6M5. The possibility of UV radiation hardening was evaluated on steel 20, 45, У12, and ШХ15. Findings. The optimum values of pulse duration for maximum hardness in laser hardening of the investigated steels. With multi-pulse treatment of steels, the pulse duration is shorter than with single-pulse treatment, the hardening intensity is higher, and the quality of the processed surface is better. Single-pulse and multi-pulse processing are accompanied by partial melting of the surface of steel products, which does not allow it to be used in cases where a high quality of the surface is required. Laser hardening of steel by ultraviolet radiation is not accompanied by melting. Conclusion. For surface hardening of products, where partial melting of the surface is possible, low-power lasers in pulse mode can be used. Laser hardening by ultraviolet radiation is a promising direction for thermal hardening of steels, which allows maintaining the original quality of the surface layer. Thermal hardening with low-power lasers can be effective for small-sized areas of the processed parts of the fuel equipment of aircraft engines, friction elements, and, especially, the tool is small.

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Matsui, Fumiaki, Masami Shibao, Naoharu Yoshida, Kimihiro Shibata, Hiroki Sakamoto, Hiroshi Sakurai, Akio Hirose, and Kojiro F. Kobayashi. "Property of Laser Welded Bake-Hardening Steel in Tailored Blanks for Automobile." Materials Science Forum 449-452 (March 2004): 397–400. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.449-452.397.

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The behavior of bake-hardening of the laser weldment was investigated. The bake-hardening steel(BH steel) was welded with Nd:YAG laser followed by plastic deformation and subsequent heat-treatment. Then the influence of laser welding on the behavior of bake-hardening was investigated. The hardness of the laser weld metal significantly increased after welding. After the plastic deformation, both the base metal and weld metal became harder by work-hardening. The heat treatment resulted in more increment of hardness in both the base metal and weld metal by bake-hardening. The amount of bake-hardening reached a maximum value at the plastic strain of 5% or more. We modified a kinetic equation proposed for predicting the strength of a low-carbon bake-hardening steel and applied to the estimation of hardness of the base metal and weld metal. The calculated hardness values agree with the experimental data. The calculated activation energy for bake-hardenig was that for diffusion of carbon and nitrogen atoms in α-Fe. Thus the hardening is thought to be governed by diffusion of these solute atoms.

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Maharjan, Niroj, Naien Wu, and Wei Zhou. "Hardening Efficiency and Microstructural Changes during Laser Surface Hardening of 50CrMo4 Steel." Metals 11, no. 12 (December 13, 2021): 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/met11122015.

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Laser surface hardening is an attractive heat treatment solution used to selectively enhance the surface properties of components by phase transformation. A quantitative parameter to measure the efficacy of hardening processes is still lacking, which hinders its application in industries. In this paper, we propose a simple approach to assess the effectiveness of the process by calculating its thermal efficiency. The proposed method was applied to calculate the hardening efficiency during different laser processing conditions. This study revealed that only a small portion of supplied laser energy (approximately 1–15%) is utilized for hardening. For the same laser system, the highest efficiency is achieved when surface melting is just avoided. A comparative study showed that pulsed lasers are more efficient in energy utilization for hardening than continuous wave laser. Similarly, the efficiency of a high-power laser is found to be higher than a low-power laser and an increase in beam absorption produces higher hardening efficiency. The analysis of the hardened surface revealed predominantly martensite. The hardness value gradually decreased along the depth, which is attributed to the decrease in percentage of martensite.

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Babu Viswanathan, G., and R. Sivakumar. "Laser Surface Hardening of Steel." Key Engineering Materials 38-39 (January 1991): 393–412. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/kem.38-39.393.

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UENO, Kotaro, and Takashi HOSONO. "Laser Hardening of Steel Foil." Proceedings of The Manufacturing & Machine Tool Conference 2019.13 (2019): B01. http://dx.doi.org/10.1299/jsmemmt.2019.13.b01.

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Lakhtin, Yu M., A. N. Safonov, T. V. Gulyaeva, Ya D. Kogan, and A. V. Buryakin. "Laser hardening of 11Kh12N2V2MF steel." Metal Science and Heat Treatment 27, no. 4 (April 1985): 247–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00652086.

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Bakhracheva, Yu S. "Combined Methods of Laser Processing of Steel." Solid State Phenomena 284 (October 2018): 242–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/ssp.284.242.

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This article examines the influence of laser heat treatment of nitrocementation steel on the phase composition, structure and hardness of surface layers. It is shown that the combined heat treatment of steels – nitrocementation and laser hardening allows to provide high wear resistance of surface layers of steel.

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Li, W. B., K. E. Easterling, and M. F. Ashby. "Laser transformation hardening of steel—II. Hypereutectoid steels." Acta Metallurgica 34, no. 8 (August 1986): 1533–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0001-6160(86)90098-2.

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Morimoto, Junji, Yutaka Katoh, Shinji Fukuhara, Nobuyuki Abe, Masahiro Tsukamoto, and Shigeru Tanaka. "Micro-Hardening of Carbon Steel with a Direct Diode Laser." Solid State Phenomena 118 (December 2006): 197–200. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/ssp.118.197.

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Surface treatments, surface modification and surface engineering are required to improve the wear resistance, erosion resistance, friction resistance and corrosion protection. Transformation hardening of metals has been used since ancient times to increase the hardness and thereby vastly reduce the wear rate of metal surfaces in use. Today several processes are in use to achieve the controlled heating and rapid cooling required for transformation process. Transformation hardening is one of the most attractive processes for high power diode lasers, since their moderate beam quality and their low power density is sufficient for many applications. Generally laser hardening generates less distortion than conventional methods. In this study, the effect of laser beam characteristics (beam profile, power density, power etc) was examined on the micro hardening of carbon steel.

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Hung, Tsung-Pin, Hao-En Shi, and Jao-Hwa Kuang. "Temperature Modeling of AISI 1045 Steel during Surface Hardening Processes." Materials 11, no. 10 (September 25, 2018): 1815. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma11101815.

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A Coupled thermo-mechanical finite element model was employed to simulate the possible effects of varying laser scanning parameters on the surface hardening process for AISI 1045 and AISI 4140 steels. We took advantage of the high-power density of laser beams to heat the surface of workpieces quickly to achieve self-quenching effects. The finite element model, along with the temperature-dependent material properties, was applied to characterize the possible quenching and tempering effects during single-track laser surface heat treatment. We verified the accuracy of the proposed model through experiments. The effects of laser surface hardening parameters, such as power variation, scanning speed, and laser spot size, on the surface temperature distribution, hardening width, and hardening depth variations during the single-track surface laser treatment process, were investigated using the proposed model. The analysis results show that laser power and scanning speed are the key parameters that affect the hardening of the material. The numerical results reveal that the proposed finite element model is able to simulate the laser surface heat treatment process and tempering effect of steel.

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Більше джерел

Дисертації з теми "Laser steel hardening"

Zhang, Tao. "Laser surface hardening of AISI 1518 alloy steel." Thesis, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/10948/723.

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The laser surface hardening process will enhance the hardness profile of automotive components and ensure better process control and predictability of quality as compared to the conventional hardening processes. A 2KW Nd-YAG laser system was used to harden the surface of alloy steel with various process parameters (laser power, focal spot diameter and beam velocity). The results (microhardness, microstructure change and residual stress distribution) were measured and analyzed with Vickers microhardness tester, optical/electron microscope and hole-drilling residual stress equipment. Statistical analyses of the experimental data were used for explaining the relationships between process parameters, microhardness and microstructure. General thermal hardening was applied in the research to show the influence of heating temperature and cooling method on microstructure and mechanical properties. Also, the results were compared with laser surface hardening process from microhardness, microstructure and residual stress to show the advantage of laser surface hardening. Through analysis of the results of the laser surface hardening experiments, a suitable laser power density and interaction time for optimum hardening was obtained. The presented laser surface hardening process can also be applied to other alloy steel surface hardening process.

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Rönnerfjäll, Victor. "Laser Hardening for Application on Crankshaft Surfaces Using Non-Uniform Beam Intensity Distributions." Thesis, Luleå tekniska universitet, Institutionen för teknikvetenskap och matematik, 2019. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:ltu:diva-76620.

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A controlled continuous laser output using a circular geometry with a gaussian intensity distribution was used to harden the surface of a particular metal specimen (44MnSiVS6). Said beam operated within a relatively small power interval, just barely past the melting point. The resulting martensite track was shown to expand laterally at a positive exponential rate, with respect to the energy input. This was furthermore accompanied with an increase of the average slope at each lateral edge. The thickness was seen to expand at a significantly slower rate (by about one order of magnitude), with declining efficiency in regard to the energy input used. Thermal measurements along the surface indicated somewhat uniform temperature patterns within a relatively large area surrounding the middle of the beam spot. Though a slight elevation in temperature was often noted in the vicinity of its centre. In addition to using a gaussian beam, three other intensity distributions were utilized. The results obtained from said distributions may suggest effectual alterations to occur in terms of the shape and extent of the resulting martensite zone, if the spread of the gaussian intensity profile is allowed to be modified. Ideally, this would be carried out while still remaining close to the melting point, as well as keeping the spot size unchanged. A series of vicker's hardness measurements was carried out for each track induced by a different beam distribution. A clear transition in hardness was noted across the perceived boundary between the martensite zone and the base material, confirming the legitimacy regarding the phase identification.
Stiffcrank - Advanced laser surface hardening of microalloyed steels for fatigue enhancement of automotive engine components, funded by EU-RFCS, no. 754155

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Афанасьева, О. В., та Н. А. Лалазарова. "Влияние импульсной лазерной обработки на свойства инструментальных сталей". Thesis, ХНАДУ, 2016. http://openarchive.nure.ua/handle/document/9249.

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Целью настоящей работы является разработка режимов упрочнения поверхности деталей и инструмента с использованием YAG-лазеров малой мощности. Исследования проводились на инструментальных сталях: углеродистой и быстрорежущей, после стандартной термической обработки. Основным варьируемым параметром была длительность импульса В качестве параметра контроля свойств упрочненного слоя была выбрана микротвердость. Было показано, что для каждой стали существует оптимальное значение длительности импульса, обеспечивающее максимальную твёрдость.

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Hromada, Martin. "Povrchové kalení ocelí vláknovým YbYAG laserem." Master's thesis, Vysoké učení technické v Brně. Fakulta strojního inženýrství, 2013. http://www.nusl.cz/ntk/nusl-230458.

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Diploma thesis is focused on laser hardening by Yb:YAG fiber laser. Experiment is based on hardening of testing pieces made of steel 12 050 with different parameters of distance and movement speed of laser head. In theoretical part are described principle of laser, types of lasers, laser technology in industry, types of lasers, types of hardening and types of hardness measuring. In practical part are firstly evaluated macrostructure and microstructure photos and Vickers hardness. In conclusion are analyzed the results of laser hardening and after that the best laser hardening parameters were selected.

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Chang, Cheng. "Study on the Microstructure and Characteristics of CX Stainless Steel Formed via Selective Laser Melting." Thesis, Troyes, 2021. http://www.theses.fr/2021TROY0021.

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Bien que l'acier CX ait attiré l'attention, une recherche systématique sur l'acier CX fondu au laser sélectif (SLM) fait encore défaut. Cette étude vise à combler cette lacune de recherche en se concentrant sur la conception des matériaux, la fabrication, les macro/microstructures, le post-traitement et les propriétés des matériaux de l'acier SLM CX. Pour explorer l'effet des paramètres SLM et du post-traitement sur les macro/microstructures de l'acier CX, une étude sur les caractéristiques de microstructure et les propriétés des matériaux de l'acier SLM CX a été menée. Avec une densité d'énergie optimale, des échantillons d'acier SLM CX avec une bonne rugosité de surface et une densité relative élevée peuvent être obtenus. Pour améliorer les performances globales de l'acier SLM CX, une étude a été réalisée sur les composites d'acier SLM TiC/CX sous différentes teneurs en carbure de titane. De l'acier SLM 10% en poids TiC/CX presque entièrement dense avec une bonne rugosité de surface peut être obtenu. Deux types de méthodes de modification de surface ont été appliqués afin d'améliorer la qualité de surface de l'acier SLM CX. Des revêtements haute performance LC 5% en poids WC/NiCrBSi-WC avec une dureté élevée et une bonne résistance à l'usure ont été fabriqués sur l'acier SLM CX via la technologie de revêtement laser. De plus, une méthode de traitement d'usure mécanique de surface a été utilisée pour améliorer les propriétés de surface de l'acier SLM CX. En bref, ce travail sera utile pour des recherches ultérieures sur l'acier SLM CX
Although CX steel has gained considerable attentions, a systematic research on the selective laser melted (SLM) CX steel is still lacking. For this reason, this study aims to fill this research gap by focusing on the material design, manufacturing process, microstructural evolution, post-processing methods and material properties of the SLM CX steel. Aiming to explore the effect of SLM process parameters and post-processing methods on the microstructure and properties of the CX steel, a systematic study on the microstructural evolution and material properties of the SLM CX steel was conducted. Under optimal linear density, SLM CX steel samples with good surface roughness and high relative density can be fabricated. In order to further improve the overall performance of the SLM CX steel, a thorough study was carried out on the SLM TiC/CX steel composites under different titanium carbide contents. Nearly full dense SLM 10wt.% TiC/CX steel with favorable surface roughness can be attained. Two types of surface modification methods were applied so as to ameliorate the surface quality of the SLM CX steel. High-performance LC 5wt.% WC/NiCrBSi-WC coatings with ultra-high hardness and exceptional wear resistance were successfully manufactured on the SLM CX steel via LC technology. Additionally, an advanced surface mechanical attrition treatment method was utilized to enhance the surface properties of the SLM CX steel. In short, this work will be useful for further research of the SLM CX steel

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Jedličková, Veronika. "Využití laserové skenovací hlavy pro povrchové kalení." Master's thesis, Vysoké učení technické v Brně. Fakulta strojního inženýrství, 2021. http://www.nusl.cz/ntk/nusl-443208.

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The diploma thesis addressed the issue of laser surface hardening using dynamic oscillation of the laser beam. The theoretical part presents the hardening technology and suitable using of laser equipments. The fiber laser YLS 2000 was used in the experiment and the hardened material was steel 12 050, which is suitable for laser hardening. The influence of two selected parameters of the scan head on the resulting structure and hardness of hardening layers was examined. Based on the results, the choice of optimal parameters for identical conditions with the experiment was recommended.

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Tao, Chun Ju, and 陶君儒. "The Depth of Hardening/Molted Zone during Laser Scanning Carbon Steel." Thesis, 1993. http://ndltd.ncl.edu.tw/handle/50512826285773192472.

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Jian, Zhi-Ming, and 簡志明. "Characteristics of hardened Layer Produced by Laser Cladding and Transformation Hardening on Medium Carbon Steel." Thesis, 1996. http://ndltd.ncl.edu.tw/handle/12337355866842845358.

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Sheu, Kai Nan, and 許凱南. "The effects of surface hardening on tool steel hacksaws by CO2 laser." Thesis, 1995. http://ndltd.ncl.edu.tw/handle/77722117227259236707.

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Silva, Francisco Jorge Carneiro Moreira da. "Investigation of the Process Window for Laser Surface Hardening a SAEM2 High-speed steel." Dissertação, 2020. https://hdl.handle.net/10216/129642.

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Частини книг з теми "Laser steel hardening"

Banas, G., F. V. Lawrence, J. M. Rigsbee, and H. E. Elsayed-Ali. "Laser Shock Hardening of Welded Maraging Steel." In Surface Engineering, 280–90. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 1990. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-0773-7_29.

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Demian, G., M. Demian, L. Grecu, and V. Grecu. "Tribological Testing on the Steel Hardening with Laser." In Friction, Wear and Wear Protection, 682–89. Weinheim, Germany: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9783527628513.ch89.

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Stein, Stefan, Rainer Börret, Andreas Kelm, Elvira Reiter, Gerhard Schneider, and Harald Riegel. "Hardening and Roughness Reduction of Carbon Steel by Laser Polishing." In Advanced Structured Materials, 411–19. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-07383-5_29.

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Morimoto, Junji, Yutaka Katoh, Shinji Fukuhara, Nobuyuki Abe, Masahiro Tsukamoto, and Shigeru Tanaka. "Micro-Hardening of Carbon Steel with a Direct Diode Laser." In Solid State Phenomena, 197–200. Stafa: Trans Tech Publications Ltd., 2006. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/3-908451-25-6.197.

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Goia, Flavia Aline, and Milton Sergio Fernandes de Lima. "Surface Hardening of an AISI D6 Cold Work Steel Using a Fiber Laser." In 18th International Federation for Heat Treatment and Surface Engineering, 499–511. 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959: ASTM International, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1520/stp49453t.

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Liu, Changsheng, Qingkui Cai, and Hao Xu. "The Influence of Laser Transformation Hardening on Fatigue Crack Initiation of 40Cr Steel." In Low Cycle Fatigue and Elasto-Plastic Behaviour of Materials—3, 148–53. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 1992. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-2860-5_24.

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Lesyk, Dmytro, Walid Alnusirat, Silvia Martinez, Bohdan Mordyuk, and Vitaliy Dzhemelinskyi. "Comparison of Effects of Laser, Ultrasonic, and Combined Laser-Ultrasonic Hardening Treatments on Surface Properties of AISI 1045 Steel Parts." In Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, 313–22. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-91327-4_31.

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Lesyk, Dmytro, Matej Hruska, Vitaliy Dzhemelinkyi, Oleksandr Danyleiko, and Milan Honner. "Selective Surface Modification of Complexly Shaped Steel Parts by Robot-Assisted 3D Scanning Laser Hardening System." In Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems, 30–36. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-05230-9_3.

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Kovalenko, Vladimir S., and Leonid F. Golovko. "Laser hardening of chrome steels." In The Industrial Laser Handbook, 121–22. New York, NY: Springer US, 1992. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-2882-0_14.

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Тези доповідей конференцій з теми "Laser steel hardening"

Veronesi, P., R. Sola, E. Colombini, R. Giovanardi, and G. Parigi. "Laser hardening of steel sintered parts." In 2017 IEEE 3rd International Forum on Research and Technologies for Society and Industry - Innovation to Shape the Future for Society and Industry (RTSI). IEEE, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/rtsi.2017.8065936.

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Yang, Mei, Yishu Zhang, Haoxing You, Richard Smith, and Richard D. Sisson. "Hardening of Selective Laser Melted M2 Steel." In HT2021. ASM International, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.31399/asm.cp.ht2021p0007.

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Abstract Selective laser melting (SLM) is an additive manufacturing technique that can be used to make the near-net-shape metal parts. M2 is a high-speed steel widely used in cutting tools, which is due to its high hardness of this steel. Conventionally, the hardening heat treatment process, including quenching and tempering, is conducted to achieve the high hardness for M2 wrought parts. It was debated if the hardening is needed for additively manufactured M2 parts. In the present work, the M2 steel part is fabricated by SLM. It is found that the hardness of as-fabricated M2 SLM parts is much lower than the hardened M2 wrought parts. The characterization was conducted including X-ray diffraction (XRD), optical microscopy, Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) to investigate the microstructure evolution of as-fabricated, quenched, and tempered M2 SLM part. The M2 wrought part was heat-treated simultaneously with the SLM part for comparison. It was found the hardness of M2 SLM part after heat treatment is increased and comparable to the wrought part. Both quenched and tempered M2 SLM and wrought parts have the same microstructure, while the size of the carbides in the wrought part is larger than that in the SLM part.

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Rämö, Jari, Jyrki Latokartano, and Tuomo Tiainen. "Effect of laser hardening on fracture toughness of steel." In ICALEO® 2002: 21st International Congress on Laser Materials Processing and Laser Microfabrication. Laser Institute of America, 2002. http://dx.doi.org/10.2351/1.5066158.

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Liu, Weina, Fengming Bai, Dongyun Zhang, Ling Chen, Jingyi Wang, and Yang Xia. "Laser surface hardening for tooling high-speed steel." In Photonics China '98, edited by ShuShen Deng and S. C. Wang. SPIE, 1998. http://dx.doi.org/10.1117/12.317895.

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Daurelio, Giuseppe, Antonio D. Ludovico, Christos N. Panagopoulos, and Corrado Tundo. "Ferritic, martensitic, and precipitation hardening stainless steel laser weldings." In Second GR-I International Conference on New Laser Technologies and Applications, edited by Alexis Carabelas, Paolo Di Lazzaro, Amalia Torre, and Giuseppe Baldacchini. SPIE, 1998. http://dx.doi.org/10.1117/12.316611.

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Hussain, A., R. Akhtar, S. Shahdin, and M. A. Atta. "Surface hardening of steel with a low-power laser." In 11th International School on Quantum Electronics: Laser Physics and Applications, edited by Peter A. Atanasov and Stefka Cartaleva. SPIE, 2001. http://dx.doi.org/10.1117/12.425159.

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Adamiak, Stanislaw, Andrzej Bylica, and Marian Kuzma. "Structures of laser hardening of high-speed steel SW7M." In Szczecin - DL tentative, edited by Wieslaw L. Wolinski, Bohdan K. Wolczak, Jerzy K. Gajda, Danuta Gajda, and Ryszard S. Romaniuk. SPIE, 1991. http://dx.doi.org/10.1117/12.57185.

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Wen, Peng, Gang Wang, and Zhenhua Feng. "Hot wire laser cladding for repairing martensite precipitation hardening stainless steel." In ICALEO® 2015: 34th International Congress on Laser Materials Processing, Laser Microprocessing and Nanomanufacturing. Laser Institute of America, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.2351/1.5063188.

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Gureev, D. M., and D. O. Tchipanova. "Change of structural-and-phase composition under laser-ultrasonic hardening of tool steel." In 6th International Conference on Industrial Lasers and Laser Applications '98, edited by Vladislav Y. Panchenko and Vladimir S. Golubev. SPIE, 1999. http://dx.doi.org/10.1117/12.337517.

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Webber, Tim. "Hardening of steel with a high power cw Nd:YAG laser." In ICALEO® ‘92: Proceedings of the Laser Materials Processing Symposium. Laser Institute of America, 1992. http://dx.doi.org/10.2351/1.5058499.

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