Дисертації з теми "Irrigation water Measurement Mathematical models"

The Indus Basin Irrigation System (IBIS) irrigates 16 million ha of land in Pakistan. The irrigation water is also used for domestic consumption in rural areas and where the ground water is brackish. Many major cities and towns dispose their untreated wastewater directly into the irrigation canal network, which ultimately has adverse impacts on the downstream water quality. In order to better understand the water quality variations, several parameters were measured along a 45 km long irrigation canal (Hakra-6R) in Punjab, Pakistan during the year 2000. The parameters measured were: biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), nitrate (NO3), ammonia (NH3), Escherichia coli (E.coli), dissolved oxygen (DO), pH, and water temperature. The PC-QUASAR model was used as predictive tool to simulate the water quality concentrations along the downstream locations of Hakra-6R canal. The measured data were used to validate the PC-QUASAR model. The model efficiencies ranged from 0.40 to 0.96 for selected parameters. A sensitivity analysis showed that the nitrification, denitrification, BOD sedimentation, and BOD algae rate were the most sensitive parameters of model performance. The BOD decay and sediment oxygen rates have negligible influence on model output. Water quality analysis showed that irrigation water was highly contaminated regarding microbiological aspects (E.coli ∼ 4000 N/100ml).

Experimental studies on infiltration/soil-water movement processes are vital to better understanding movement of soil-water in the vadose zone. The objective of this experimental research was to investigate infiltration/soil-water movement processes utilizing laboratory experiments and computer modeling. Small scale laboratory soil box infiltration experiments were conducted and utilized for the improved parameterization of the Green-Ampt (GA) saturated moisture content parameter to produce an effective moisture content parameter (Be) for utilization in a modified GA model. By incorporating ?e values into GA modeling, modeling results showed greatly improved wetting front prediction across different soil conditions. A new soil packing method was proposed for replicating complex microtopographical surfaces with uniform bulk densities in laboratory soil box experiments which proved efficient and effective at accomplishing both objectives. A rainfall simulator and an instantaneous-profile laser scanner were used to simulate rainfall and quantify surface microtopography for experiments. The results clearly show the effect of microtopography on infiltration and soil-water movement characteristics. This offers valuable insight into infiltration/soil-water movement processes as affected by different soil and surface microtopographic conditions.
National Science Foundation (Grant No. EAR-0907588)

Undertaken in conjunction with JUMP (Joint Universities Masters Programme in Hydrology and Water Resources). Bibliography: leaves 76-83. Establishes a methodology using genetic algorithms to find the optimum operating policy for variable speed pumps in a water supply network over a period of 24 hours.

This thesis presents the results of a computational study on salt transport and accumulation in crop root zone. The main objective of this study is to examine the impacts of past land use on the environment and to examine the effect of irrigation water on the rising of groundwater level and the subsequent salinity problem in rice growing area under given climatic conditions. A special focus has been such impacts in the Wakool irrigation area, NSW, Australia. To this end, a computational model for the assessment and prediction of salinisation in agricultural areas has been developed. This modelling system consists of a land surface scheme (ALSIS) for simulating unsaturated soil moisture and moisture flux, a groundwater flow model (MODFLOW) for estimating the spatial and temporal variations of groundwatertable, a surface flow model (DAFLOW) for calculating water flow in river networks, a module for calculating solute transport at unsaturated zone and a 3-D model (MOC3D) for simulating solute transport in groundwater as well as a module for calculating the spatial and temporal distributions of overland flow depth during wet seasons. The modelling system uses a finite difference linked technique to form a quasi three dimensional model. The land surface scheme is coupled with the groundwater flow model to account for the interactions between the saturated and unsaturated zones. On the land surface, the modelling system incorporates a surface runoff model and detailed treatments of surface energy balance, which is important in es-timating the evapotranspiration, a crucial quantity in calculating the moisture and moisture fluxes in the root zone. Vertical heterogeneity of soil hydraulic properties in the soil profile has been considered. The modelling system has the flexibility of using either Clapp and Hornberger (1978), Broadbridge and White (1988), van Genuchten (1980) or Brooks and Corey (1966) soil water retention models. Deep in the soil, the impact of groundwater table fluctuation on soil moisture and salinity in the unsaturated soil is also included. The calibration and validation for the system have been partially performed with observed groundwater levels in the Wakool irrigation area. The applications of the model to theWakool region are made in two steps. Firstly, a one-dimensional simulation to a selected site in the Wakool irrigation area is carried out to study the possible impact of ponded irrigation on salinisation and the general features of salt movement. Secondly, a more realistic three-dimensional simulation for the entire Wakool region is performed to study the spatial and temporal variations of root zone soil salinity under the influence of past land use from 1975 to 1994. To allow the assessment and prediction of the effects of ponded rice irrigation water (which contains salt) on soil salinity in the area, several hypothetical scenarios using different qualities of water for rice irrigation are tested. To facilitate comparative analysis of different scenarios, a base case is defined, for which irrigation water is assumed to be free of salt. The simulated results show that irrigation increases overall recharge to groundwater in the Wakool irrigation area. The use of ponded irrigation for rice growing has a substantial effect on salt accumulation in the root zone and the rising of groundwater level, indicating that irrigation at rice bay is a major budget item for controlling soil salinity problem in the local area.

The actual evapotranspiration rate for wheat at the Campus Agriculture Center (CAC) and alfalfa at the Maricopa Agricultural Center (MAC) were measured using the Bowen ratio technique for near real-time irrigation scheduling. The Bowen ratio method underestimated evapotranspiration when compared with AZMET and Penman data. There were problems with the hygrometer and the net radiometer which might have caused this underestimation. The height-fetch ratio requirement was not met, and this may have affected the data. Irrigation scheduling programs and the technique to schedule irrigation in a near real-time were developed. Irrigation programs were not field tested because of the problem with field data. Simulated data was successfully used to demonstrate its application. It was found that irrigation could be scheduled in a near real-time with the programs provided reliable data and proper data acquisition systems are used.

The National Water Act (Act 36 of 1998) provides for an ecological Reserve as the quantity (flow) and quality of water needed to protect aquatic ecosystems. While there are methods available to quantify the ecological Reserve in terms of flow, methods of linking flow to water quality are lacking. Therefore, the research presented in this thesis investigated various modelling techniques to estimate the effect of flow on water quality. The aims of the research presented in this thesis were: Aim 1: Can the relationship between flow and water quality be accurately represented by simple statistical models? Aim 2: Can relatively simple models accurately represent the relationship between flow and water quality? Aim 3: Can the effect of diffuse sources be omitted from a water quality model and still obtain realistic simulations, and if so under what conditions? Aim 4: Can models that solely use historical monitoring data, accurately represent the relationships between flow and water quality? In Chapter 3, simple Q-C regressions of flow and water quality were investigated using Department of Water Affairs (DWA) historical monitoring data. It was found that while flow versus salinity regressions gave good regression fits in many cases, the Q-C regression approach is limited. A mechanistic/statistical model that attempted to estimate the point and diffuse signatures of nutrients in response to flow was developed in Chapter 4 using DWA historical monitoring data. The model was verified as accurate in certain case studies using observed point loading information. In Chapter 5, statistical models that link land cover information to diffuse nutrient signatures in response to flow using DWA historical data were developed. While the model estimations are uncertain due to a lack of data, they do provide an estimation of the diffuse signature within catchments where there is flow and land cover information available. Chapter 6 investigates the extension of an existing mass-balance salinity model to estimate the effect of saline irrigation return flow on in-stream salinity. The model gave accurate salinity estimates for a low order stream with little or no irrigation within its catchment, and for a permanently flowing river within a catchment used extensively for irrigation. Chapter 7 investigated a modelling method to estimate the reaction coefficients involved in nitrification using only DWA historical monitoring data. Here, the model used flow information to estimate the residence time of nutrients within the studied river reaches. While the model obtained good estimations of nitrification for the data it was applied to, very few DWA data sets were suitable for the model. Chapter 8 investigated the ability of the in-stream model QUAL2K to estimate nutrient concentrations downstream of point and diffuse inputs of nutrients. It was found that the QUAL2K model can give accurate results in cases where point sources dominate the total nutrient inputs into a river. However, the QUAL2K simulations are too uncertain in cases where there are large diffuse source inputs of nutrients as the load of the diffuse inputs is difficult to measure in the field. This research highlights the problem of data scarcity in terms of temporal resolution as well as the range of constituents measured within DWA historical monitoring data for water quality. This thesis in addition argues that the approach of applying a number of models is preferable to applying one model to investigate the research aims, as particular models would be suited to particular circumstances, and the development of new models allowed the research aims of this thesis to be explored more thoroughly. It is also argued that simpler models that simulate a few key processes that explain the variation in observed data, are more suitable for implementing Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) than large comprehensive water quality models. From this research, it is clear that simple statistical models are not adequate for modelling the relationship between flow and water quality, however, relatively simple mechanistic models that simulate a limited number of processes and water quality variables, can provide accurate representations of this relationship. Under conditions where diffuse sources are not a major factor within a catchment, models that omit diffuse sources can obtain realistic simulations of the relationship between flow and water quality. Most of the models investigated in this thesis demonstrate that accurate simulations of the relationships between flow and water quality can be obtained using solely historical monitoring data.

Climate change and a growing demand for freshwater resources due to population increases and socio-economic changes will make water a limiting factor (in terms of both quantity and quality) in development. The need for reliable quantitative estimates of water availability cannot be over-emphasised. However, there is frequently a paucity of the data required for this quantification as many basins, especially in the developing world, are inadequately equipped with monitoring networks. Existing networks are also shrinking due mainly to shortages in human and financial resources. Over the past few decades mathematical models have been used to bridge the data gap by generating datasets for use in management and policy making. In southern Africa, the Pitman monthly rainfall-runoff model has enjoyed relatively popular use as a water resources estimation tool. However, it is acknowledged that models are abstractions of reality and the data used to drive them is imperfect, making the model outputs uncertain. While there is acknowledgement of the limitations of modelled data in the southern African region among water practitioners, there has been little effort to explicitly quantify and account for this uncertainty in water resources estimation tools and explore how it affects the decision making process. Uncertainty manifests itself in three major areas of the modelling chain; the input data used to force the model, the parameter estimation process and the model structural errors. A previous study concluded that the parameter estimation process for the Pitman model contributed more to the global uncertainty of the model than other sources. While the literature abounds with uncertainty estimation techniques, many of these are dependent on observations and are therefore unlikely to be easily applicable to the southern African region where there is an acute shortage of such data. This study focuses on two aspects of making hydrologic predictions in ungauged basins. Firstly, the study advocates the development of an a priori parameter estimation process for the Pitman model and secondly, uses indices of hydrological functional behaviour to condition and reduce predictive uncertainty in both gauged and ungauged basins. In this approach all the basins are treated as ungauged, while the historical records in the gauged basins are used to develop regional indices of expected hydrological behaviour and assess the applicability of these methods. Incorporating uncertainty into the hydrologic estimation tools used in southern Africa entails rethinking the way the uncertain results can be used in further analysis and how they will be interpreted by stakeholders. An uncertainty framework is proposed. The framework is made up of a number of components related to the estimation of the prior distribution of the parameters, used to generate output ensembles which are then assessed and constrained using regionalised indices of basin behavioural responses. This is premised on such indices being based on the best available knowledge covering different regions. This framework is flexible enough to be used with any model structure to ensure consistent and comparable results. While the aim is to eventually apply the uncertainty framework in the southern African region, this study reports on the preliminary work on the development and testing of the framework components based on South African basins. This is necessitated by the variations in the availability and quality of the data across the region. Uncertainty in the parameter estimation process was incorporated by assuming uncertainty in the physical and hydro-meteorological data used to directly quantify the parameter. This uncertainty was represented by the range of variability of these basin characteristics and probability distribution functions were developed to account for this uncertainty and propagate it through the estimation process to generate posterior distributions for the parameters. The results show that the framework has a great deal of potential but can still be improved. In general, the estimated uncertain parameters managed to produce hydrologically realistic model outputs capturing the expected regimes across the different hydro-climatic and geo-physical gradients examined. The regional relationships for the three indices developed and tested in this study were in general agreement with existing knowledge and managed to successfully provide a multi-criteria conditioning of the model output ensembles. The feedback loop included in the framework enabled a systematic re-examination of the estimation procedures for both the parameters and the indices when inconsistencies in the results were identified. This improved results. However, there is need to carefully examine the issues and problems that may arise within other basins outside South Africa and develop guidelines for the use of the framework.
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Thesis (MEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2014.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The outdoor water consumption of residential properties is a major contributor to the seasonal fluctuation of the overall water consumption of these properties. The estimation of the relating outdoor water demand has become valuable to property developers and planners alike. This could enable designers to optimise designs of water distribution networks and assist in water resource planning and gaining legislative approvals. For the purposes of this study the outdoor water-use components were mathematically defined and combined to develop an outdoor water-demand model. In order to evaluate the results of an outdoor water demand model on a monthly temporal scale it was necessary to develop a proxy outdoor water consumption evaluation method based on the metered monthly consumption of residential properties. The method entailed verifying that the generally non-seasonal indoor water consumption as a function of the winter water consumption. This entailed analysis of the total monthly, indoor and outdoor water consumption data adopted from a noteworthy North American water end-use project. The indoor water consumption estimated in this manner could then be subtracted from the overall monthly water consumption to obtain estimated monthly outdoor water consumption data. The estimated outdoor consumption could be compared with the simulated outdoor water demand, as described by the model. The parameters that formed part of the mathematical outdoor water demand model were formulated from data available for residential estates, where conditions such as types of vegetation, irrigated area and size of pool could be prescribed in a constitution, usually instituted by a home owners association. The data was derived from one estate located in the Western Cape Province of South Africa. The mathematical model was simulated using the Monte Carlo method and the @Risk software. Three residential estates located in South Africa were subsequently modelled. Additionally, the model was employed to estimate outdoor water demand for houses located in Northern America for verification purposes. The Monte Carlo simulations of the outdoor water demand model presented in this study yielded realistic results when compared with the proxy outdoor consumption figures as well as the metered actual outdoor water consumption data analysed. The peak monthly outdoor water demand estimation results were particularly close to the consumption data. This study serves as a baseline for further research into outdoor water demand. Research into the effects of water restriction and conservation potential could follow from this work, especially in today’s environmentally conscious society.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die buite waterverbruik van residensiëel eiendomme dra grootliks by tot die seisoenale fluktuasie van die algehele water verbruik van hierdie eiendomme. Die beraming van die dienooreenkomstige buite wateraanvraag kan waarde toevoeg vir eiendomsontwikkelaars and beplanners, indien dit ontwerpers kan instaat stel om water verspreindingsnetwerke te optimeer en te help met water hulpbron beplanning en wetlikke goedkeurings. Vir die doeleindes van hierdie studie is die buite waterverbruik komponente wiskundig gedefinieër en gekombineer om ‘n buite wateraanvraag model te ontwikkel. Ten einde die resultate van ‘n buite water aanvraag model op ‘n maandelikse tydskaal te evalueer, was dit nodig om ‘n benaderingsmetode te ontwikkel, gebaseer of die gemeterde maandelikse water verbruike gebruik. Die metode behels dat die data, verkry van ‘n bekende Noord-Amerikaanse water eindverbruikprojek, van die algmeen nie-seisoenale binneshuise water verbruik vergelyk word met die maandelikse winter water verbruik. Derhalwe kon die binneshuise waterverbruik wat op hierdie manier beraam is afgetrek word van die algehel maandelikse waterverbruik om die maandelikse buitewater verbruik te beraam. Die beraamde buitewater verbruik kon sodoende vergelyk kan word met ‘n gesimuleerde buite wateraanvraag soos beskryf deur die gesimuleerde model. Die parameters wat deel uitgemaak het van die wiskundige buite waterverbuik model was gedefinieër uit data wat beskikbaar was vir residensiële ontwikkelings, waar voorwaardes soos plantegroei, besproeiingsarea of swembad grote dikwels voorgeskryf kan word in ‘n grondwet ingestel deur ‘n huiseienaarsvereniging. Die data wat in hierdie model gebuik word is hoofsaaklik afskomstig van ‘n landgoed geleë in die Weskaap provinsie, Suid-Afrika. Die wiskundige model was gesimuleer met behulp van die Monte Carlo metode en die @Risk sagteware. Drie residensiële landgoede geleë in Suid-Afrika was daaropvolgend gemodelleer. Daarbenewens is die model gebruik die buite watergebruik van groepe huise geleë in Noord-Amerika te beraam vir verifikasie doeleindes. Die Monte Carlo simulasies van die buite water aanvraag model van hierdie studie het realistiese resultate in vergelyking met die beraamde buite verbruike sowel as die werklike gemeterde buite water verbruiksdata opgelewer. Die piek maandelikse buite water aanvraag beramings resultate was veral vergelykbaar met die piek maandeliks waterverbruik data. Hierdie studie dien as 'n basis vir verdere navorsing in buite waterverbruik. Navorsing gefokus op die gevolge van water beperkings en bewaring potensiaal kan as aanvullende voordele van hierdie studie ontstaan, veral in vandag se omgewingsbewuste samelewing.

Rates of snowmelt distributed across Emerald Lake watershed, an alpine basin located in the Sierra Nevada, California, were estimated for water year 1987 using a point snowmelt model applied to regions that were classified based on distributed snow water equivalence and net solar radiation (NSR). A 5-m resolution digital elevation model (DEM) and a 5-m classified digital terrain model of snow water equivalence (SWE) were resampled to coarser resolutions (25-m, 30-m, 50-m, and 100-m) using the nearest neighbor approach. These images were used to define other snowmelt physical parameters and the initial state of the snowpack before melting. Topographic parameters calculated at 50-m and 100-m resolution exhibited significant differences in their histogram distribution as compared to the 5-m DEM. The most important were variations in slope, aspect, sky view factor, and terrain configuration factor, which influenced radiation calculations and the definition of distributed parameters for snowmelt calculations. Elevations, however, did not change significantly from one resolution to the other. The distribution of topographic parameters modeled at 25-m and 30-m, remained almost unchanged. Four, seven and ten classes of snow water equivalence and net solar radiation were combined using a band interleave process to determine the maximum number of combined classes. The point snowmelt model was then applied to these areas, which shared similar SWE and NSR characteristics, to obtain hourly melt rates. Modeled snowmelt rates were compared to the total daily discharge observed at the outlet of Emerald Lake watershed. There was good agreement for resolutions S-, 25-, 30-, and 50-m but not for the 100-m OEM, as modeled net solar radiation was too high and water was released from the basin too early. Model performance using three tests (Nash-Sutcliffe criteria, sum of squares of the deviations and the sum of the absolute differences between observed discharge and computed melting) showed that the 30-m resolution OEM with combined classes of 7 SWE and 7 NSR provided the best snowmelt performance for this distributed approach. Finally, fractional snow cover area at one month intervals were estimated, showing that this approach offers the potential to model spatially distributed snow covered area in alpine regions.

In shallow water environments, sound propagation experiences multiple interactions with the surface/bottom interfaces, with hydrodynamic disturbances such as internal waves, and with tides and fronts. It is thus very difficult to make satisfactory predictions of sound propagation in shallow water. Given that many of the ocean characteristics can be modeled as stochastic processes, the statistical measure, spatial coherence, is consequently an important quantity. Spatial coherence provides valuable information for array performance predictions. However, for the case of long-range, low frequency propagation, studies of spatial coherence influenced by various environmental parameters are limited insofar as having the appropriate environmental data with which to model and interpret the results. The comprehensive Asian Seas International Experiment 2001 (ASIAEX01) examined acoustic propagation and scattering in shallow water. Environmental oceanographic data were taken simultaneously with the acoustic data. ASIAEX01 provided a unique data set which enabled separate study of the characteristics of the oceanographic features and their influence on long range sound propagation. In this thesis, the environmental descriptors considered include sediment sound speed and attenuation, background internal waves, episodic non-linear internal waves, and air-sea interface conditions. Using this environmental data, the acoustic data are analyzed to show the characteristics of spatial coherence in a shallow water waveguide. It is shown that spatial coherence can be used as an inversion parameter to extract geoacoustic information for the seabed. Environmental phenomena including internal waves and wind-generated surface waves are also studied. The spatial and temporal variations in the sound field induced by them are presented. In addition, a tank experiment is presented which simulates propagation in a shallow water waveguide over a short range. Based on the data model comparison results, the model proposed here is effective in addressing the major environmental effects on sound propagation in shallow water.

Stream ecosystems have experienced significant negative impacts from land use, resource exploitation, and urban development. Statistical models allow researchers to explore the relationships between these landscape variables and stream conditions. Weighting the relevant landscape variables based on hydrologically defined distances offers a potential method of increasing the predictive capacity of statistical models. Using observations from three grouped watersheds in the Portland Metro Area (n=66), I have explored the use of three different weighting schemes against the standard method of taking an areal average. These four different model groups were applied to four stream temperature metrics: mean seven-day moving average maximum daily temperature (Mean7dTmax), number of days exceeding 17.8 °C (Tmax7d>17.8), mean daily range in stream temperature (Range_DTR), and the coefficient of variation in maximum daily temperature (CV_Tmax). These metrics were quantified for the 2011 dry season. The strength of these model groups were also examined at a monthly basis for each of the four months within the dry season. The results demonstrate mixed effectiveness of the weighting schemes, dependent on both the stream temperature metric being predicted as well as the time scale under investigation. Models for Mean7dTmax showed no benefit from the inclusion of distance weighted metrics, while models for Range_DTR consistently improved using distance weighted explanatory variables. Trends in the models for 7dTmax>17.8 and CV_Tmax varied based on temporal scale. Additionally, all model groups demonstrated greater explanatory power in early summer months than in late summer months.

This paper analyzes the management problem of the conjunctive use of surface and ground water in an irrigation system on both sides of the Lower Yellow River. For this purpose, a stochastic dynamic programming model is developed. In the model, the statistical characteristics of seasonal rainfall within 2 years are considered; groundwater level control is also emphasized in order to prevent soil salinity and waterlogging. Through computer calculations, optimal operation policies are obtained for efficient conjunctive use of surface and groundwater. These policies take into account the interactions between pumping groundwater by farmers, canal diversions by irrigation system managers, and the physical response of the stream- aquifer system, and minimize the total operation costs. In this paper, we take an irrigation district, the People's Victory Canal System, as an example to illustrate the development and solution of the model. At the same time, the effects of system parameters, including surface irrigation efficiency and rainfall recharge coefficient, on the optimal policies or total operation costs, are discussed. The analytical results in this example indicate that the variation in optimal operation costs caused by the proportion of rainfall infiltrated is small, but the effect of surface irrigation efficiency on the costs is significant. Hence, the surface irrigation efficiency must be increased as much as possible. Then, efficient conjunctive use of surface and groundwater can be attained with the optimal policies.

Orientador: Niederauer Mastelari
Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Mecânica
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Resumo: A concentração volumétrica de água na produção de óleo cru é um parâmetro constantemente monitorado para acompanhar as sempre inconstantes propriedades do reservatório assim com para razões de otimização; resumindo, o que é importante é o volume de óleo na produção. A medição da concentração volumétrica de água é geralmente feita em bancada (colhendo uma amostra da produção e analisando-a em um laboratório) ou por sensores que monitoram a concentração em tempo real. Uma das técnicas utilizadas para a medição online da concentração de água é a espectroscopia por impedância. De fato, propriedades dielétricas e condutivas formam a impedância elétrica da solução. Na presente análise foram considerados os dois tipos básicos de emulsão: água em óleo (A/O) e óleo em água (O/A). O objetivo deste trabalho foi comparar a concentração de água medida com a predição do modelo matemático baseado nas medições das propriedades dielétricas e condutivas da solução. As emulsões de água e óleo foram sintetizadas em condições de laboratório. A concentração de água variou entre 13,1% à 41,1% em volume para as emulsões A/O e de 50% à 60% em volume para as emulsões O/A à temperaturas de 25°C à 62°C e salinidade da água de 0 (água deionizada), 1Kg/m³ e 10Kg/m³ de NaCl. A constante dielétrica e condutividade das emulsões foram medidas em um sensor composto por dois cilindros concêntricos cuja área dos eletrodos é bem maior que a distância entre eles. Essa geometria favorece os efeitos polarização e é apropriada para materiais dielétricos como as emulsões A/O, além de aumentar o erro de medição em soluções condutivas. Para melhores resultados com as emulsões O/A foi utilizado em sensor de placas paralelas com uma distância entre eletrodos bem maior que a sua área o que favorece os efeitos de transporte de carga. Os dados foram medidos por uma Ponte RLC de precisão Agilent E4980A em uma faixa de frequência de 20Hz à 1MHz. Os dados obtidos nos testes foram proporcionais à concentração de água na solução e seguiram o modelo matemático de Maxwell com um erro máximo de 4%. Os resultados também mostraram que a constante dielétrica não sofre influência significativa da temperatura e salinidade da água, assim como a medida do volume de água. Já para as emulsões O/A os testes mostraram grande influência da temperatura e salinidade da água nas medições, onde o conhecimento prévio destas condições é imprescindível ao método
Abstract: The volumetric concentration of water in crude oil production is a parameter constantly monitored to access the ever changing reservoir properties as well as for economical purposes; after all what is needed is the net oil production. The measurement of water concentration is usually done in over-the-bench (sampling the crude stream and screening in a chemistry lab) or by online instruments which continuously monitor the concentration. One of the techniques for online assessment of water concentration is the impedance spectroscopy. In fact, the dielectric and conductive property of the liquid phase is proportional to the electrical impedance. In the present analysis it was considered the two basic types of emulsions: the water in oil (W/O) and the oil in water (O/W). The objective of this work was to compare the measured water concentration against model's prediction based on the measured dielectric and conductive properties of the emulsions. The water and oil emulsions were synthesized in laboratory conditions. The water concentration range was 13.1% to 41.1% (v/v) for W/O emulsions and 50% to 60% (v/v) for O/W emulsions at temperatures of 25oC to 62oC and water salinity of 0 (de-ionized water), 1Kg/m³ and 10Kg/m³ of NaCl. The emulsion dielectric constant and conductivity were measured in a sensor made by two concentric cylinders whose electrodes area is much bigger than the distance between them. This geometry favors the polarization effects and is appropriate for dielectric solution as A/O emulsions. For better results for the O/A emulsion it was used a parallel electrode sensor where the distance between the electrodes is much bigger than the electrodes area which favors the charge transport effects. The data were measured by the Precision LCR Meter Agilent E4980A in a frequency range of 20Hz to 1MHz. The experimental data was found proportional to the volumetric concentration and follows Maxwell correlation within 4%. The experimental tests also disclosed that the dielectric constant, or the volumetric concentration, were almost insensitive to the changes in temperature and in salinity and so the water concentration of W/O emulsions. For O/W emulsions the tests showed a great influence of the temperature and salinity on the conductivity measurements. So, for O/W emulsions the temperature and water salinity must be considered
Mestrado
Mecanica dos Sólidos e Projeto Mecanico
Mestre em Engenharia Mecânica

The main objective of this study is to develop a modeling methodology that facilitates incorporating the plant pathway into environmental contamination models recognizing the fact that plants are dynamic entities that regulate their life cycle according to natural and anthropogenic environmental conditions. A modeling framework that incorporates the plant pathway into an integrated water flow and contaminant transport model in terrestrial systems is developed. The modeling framework is aimed to provide a tool to analyze the plant pathway of exposure to contaminants. The model developed using this framework describes the temporal and spatial variation of the contaminant concentration within the plant as it is interacting with the soil and the atmosphere. The first part of the study focuses on the integration of the dynamics of water and contaminant distribution and plant related processes within the vadose zone. A soil-plant system model is developed by coupling soil-water flow, contaminant transport, plant life-cycle, and plant pathway models. The outcome unifies single media continuous models with multimedia compartmental models in a flexible framework. The coupling of the models was established at multiple interfaces and at different levels of solution steps (i.e. model development phase vs. numerical solution phase). In the second part of the study, the soil-plant system model is extended to cover large spatial areas by describing the environmental system as a collection of soil-plant systems connected through overland flow and transport processes on the ground surface and through lateral interactions in the subsurface. An overland flow model is integrated with the previously coupled model of unsaturated zone soil-water flow and plant life-cycle by solving the flow model equations simultaneously within a single global matrix structure. An overland / subsurface interaction algorithm is developed to handle the ground surface conditions. The simultaneous solution, single-matrix approach is also adopted when integrating the overland transport model with the previously coupled models of vadose zone transport and plant pathway. The model developed is applied to various environmental contamination scenarios where the effect of the presence of plants on the contaminant migration within environmental systems is investigated.

Irrigation in 1980 accounted for approximately 52 per cent of the water consumed in Southern Africa. The need for planning water resources in the agricultural sector is therefore apparent. Much of Southern Africa's arable farming is carried out on land which, in terms of soil moisture availability to crops, can be described as marginal. Information on soil moisture is therefore valuable to the agriculturalist for planning irrigation schemes and for dryland farming. The objectives of this study were to provide the information mentioned above. This was achieved by producing a detailed delimitation of 712 zones throughout Southern Africa, of more or less homogeneous climate and by providing estimates of crop water requirements under dryland and irrigated conditions in each zone. At the same time the bulk of information which is normally forthcoming from such an analysis involving a large number of combinations of possible input, i.e. crops, soils and planting dates, was reduced, whilst the essential information content was retained. The study provided inter alia an estimate of the frequency of non-exceedance of certain levels of irrigation requirement, based on analyses of soil moisture budgets using long daily rainfall records. The soil moisture budgeting models which were used to estimate the above information were verified inter alia using field measurements of soil moisture. The irrigation analysis was designed such that the results should not became redundant when the inevitable improvement occurs in the estimation of crop factors or soil moisture variables nor if the farming practices change with respect to planting dates. A dryland soil moisture budget analysis for a range of crops and soils was performed in addition to the abovementioned irrigation analysis. The need for this latter study stemmed from the belief that irrigation should not be considered in isolation but rather as one of a range of options, many of them involving dryland farming, facing the agriculturalist. In addition to the dissertation, this study produced a map of Southern Africa on which the 712 homogeneous climate zones are depicted. For each of these zones four pages of computer printout were produced. These pages contain the results of the crop water requirements study for irrigated conditions and the crop water requirement deficit, runoff and an index of stress days for a range of crops, soils and planting dates, under dryland conditions.
Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 1988.

Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of the Degree of Doctor of Engineering, Durban University of Technology, 2017.
Water is an essential natural resource for human existence and survival on the earth. South Africa, a water stressed country, allocates a high percentage of its available consumptive water use to irrigation. Therefore, it is necessary that we optimize water use in order to enhance food security. This study presents the development of mathematical models for irrigation scheduling of crops, optimal irrigation water release and crop yields in Vaal Harts irrigation scheme (VIS) of South Africa. For efficient irrigation water management, an accurate estimation of reference evapotranspiration (ETₒ) should be carried out. However, due to non-availability of enough historical data for the study area, mathematical models were developed to estimate ETₒ. A 20-year monthly meteorological data was collected and analysed using two data–driven modeling techniques namely principal component analysis (PCA) and adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference systems (ANFIS). Furthermore, an artificial neural network (ANN) model was developed for real time prediction of future ETₒ for the study area. The real time irrigation scheduling of potatoes was developed using a crop growth simulation model called CROPWAT. It was used to determine the crop water productivity (CWP), which is a determinant of the relationship between water applied and crop yield. Finally, a new and novel evolutionary multi-objective optimization algorithm called combined Pareto multi-objective differential evolution (CPMDE) was applied to optimize irrigation water use and crop yield on the VIS farmland. The net irrigation benefit, land area and irrigation water use of maize, potatoes and groundnut were optimized. Results obtained show that ETₒ increases with temperature and windspeed. Other variables such as rainfall and relative humidity have less significance on the value of ETₒ. Also, ANN models with one hidden layer showed better predictive performance compared with other considered configurations. A 5-day time step irrigation schedule data and graphs showing the crop water requirements and irrigation water requirements was generated. This would enable farmers know when, where, and how much water to apply to a given farmland. Finally, the employed CPMDE optimization algorithm produced a set of non-dominated Pareto optimal solutions. The best solution suggests that maize, groundnut and potatoes should be planted on 403543.44 m2, 181542.00 m2 and 352876.05 m2areas of land respectively. This solution generates a total net benefit of ZAR 767,961.49, total planting area of 937961.49 m2 and irrigation water volume of 391,061.52 m3. Among the three crops optimized, maize has the greatest land area, followed by potatoes and groundnut. This shows that maize is more profitable than potatoes and groundnut with respect to crop yield and water use in the study area.
D

South Africa, in common with all countries with arid or semi-arid climatic conditions, is facing the consequences of irrigation development without effective subsurface drainage. The quality of irrigation water is also decreasing and hence more water is required for leaching. This is resulting in low irrigation water productivity, as a consequence of shallow water tables, thus limiting crop growth. This study investigated the nature and causes of shallow water table problems in the sugarcane fields of Pongola, South Africa. The DRAINMOD model was also assessed for its reliability to be used as drainage design tool in the area. A water table map of a 32 ha sugarcane field was generated using groundwater table data monitored in 36 piezometers from September 2011 to February 2012. Nearly 12 % of the 32 ha sugarcane field was found to be affected by shallow water tables of less than the 1.0 m Design Water Table Depth (WTD). The inability of the adopted Drainage Design Criteria (DDC) to cope with drainage needs was found to be the cause of the poor drainage problem. On the other hand, analysis of WTDs in a field with a poorly-maintained subsurface drainage system confirmed that the drainage problem is exacerbated by poor drainage maintenance. It was recommended that the subsurface DDC in the area be revisited and that timely maintenance also be provided The DRAINMOD model was calibrated and verified using actual WTD and Drainage Discharge (DD) data. The model evaluation results revealed that the DRAINMOD model can reliably predict WTDs, with a Goodness of fit (R2), Mean Absolute Error (MAE) and Coefficient of Residual Mass (CRM) of 0.826, 5.341 cm and -0.015, respectively. Similarly, the model evaluation results in predicting DDs were also good, with R2, MAE and CRM of 0.801, 0.181 mm.day-1 and 0.0004, respectively. A further application of the validated model depicted that drain pipes installed at depths ranging from 1.4 m to 1.8 m and a spacing ranging from 55 to 70 m, with a design discharge of 2.5 to 4.2 mm.day-1, were adequate in ensuring safe WTDs between 1.0 and 1.5 m in clay-loam soil. On the other hand, drain depths ranging from 1.4 to 1.8 m and spacing between 25 and 40 m, were found to be appropriate in maintaining WTDs between 1.0 and 1.5 m in clay soil, with drainage design discharge ranging from 2.5 to 5.1 mm.day-1. These findings suggest that the current drain spacing needs to be reduced, in order to maintain the 1 m design water table depth. Finally, for the adoptability of the DRAINMOD model in the area, the Rosetta program, a component of the HYDRUS-2D, was tested for its reliability in estimating saturated hydraulic conductivities required by the DRAINMOD model. Results of the investigation revealed that the program can reliably be used to estimate saturated hydraulic conductivities from easily accessed soil data (% sand, silt, clay and soil bulk density), with R2, MAE and CRM of 0.95, 0.035 m.day-1 and -0.031, respectively. Nonetheless, calibration of the DRAINMOD model based on saturated hydraulic conductivity estimated by the Rosetta program was recommended. The findings of this research will form the basis for implementing an agricultural drainage policy that will ensure sustainable rain-fed and irrigation crop production systems in South Africa.
Thesis (M.Sc.Eng.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2012.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI)
Phytoplankton size classes (pico-plankton, nano-plankton, and micro-plankton) provide information about pelagic ocean ecosystem structure, and their spatiotemporal variation is crucial in understanding ocean ecosystem structure and global carbon cycling. Remote sensing provides an efficient approach to estimate phytoplankton size compositions on global scale. In the first part of this thesis, a global sensitivity analysis method was used to determine factors mainly controlling the variations of remote sensing reflectance and inherent optical properties inverse algorithms. To achieve these purposes, average mass-specific coefficients of particles were first calculated through Mie theory, using particle size distributions and refractive indices as input; and then a synthesis remote sensing reflectance dataset was created using Hydrolight. Based on sensitivity analysis results, an algorithm for estimating phytoplankton size composition was proposed in the second part. This algorithm uses five types of spectral features: original and normalized remote sensing reflectance, two-band ratios, continuum removed spectra, and spectral curvatures. With the spectral features, phytoplankton size compositions were regressed using support vector machine. According to validation results, this algorithm performs well with simulated and satellite Sea-viewing Wide Field-of-view Sensor (SeaWiFS) and Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), indicating that it is possible to estimate phytoplankton size compositions through satellite data on global scale.

The work presented in this thesis stemmed out of the apparent lack of a method for incorporating salinity effects into environmental life cycle assessments. Salination of the water resources is a well-known problem in South Africa, and is of strategic concern. Any environmental decision support. tool that does not allow the evaluation of salinity effects therefore has limited applicability in the South African context. The starting-point for the work presented in this thesis was to evaluate existing impact categories, and the characterisation models used to calculate equivalency factors for these impact categories, in an attempt to incorporate salinity effects into existing categories and/or characterisation models. The types of effects that elevated (above normal background levels) dissolved salt concentrations have on the natural and man-made environment were evaluated, and it was concluded that, although there was some overlap with existing impact categories, some of the salinity effects could not be described by existing impact categories. It was also concluded that there are clear and quantifiable causal relationships between releases to the environment and salinity effects. A separate salinity impact category was therefore recommended that includes all salinity effects, including; aquatic ecotoxicity effects, damage to man-made environment, loss of agricultural production (livestock and crops), aesthetic effects and effects to terrestrial fauna and flora. Damage to the man-made environment is evaluated in terms of effects on equipment and structures, interference with processes, product quality and complexity of waste treatment, and is used as an indicator for the environmental consequences derived from the caused additional activity in the man-made environment. Once a conceptual model for a separate salinity impact category had been formulated, existing characterisation models were evaluated to determine their applicability for modelling salinity effects. Salination is a global problem, but generally restricted to local or regional areas, and in order to characterise salinity effects, an environmental fate model would be required in order to estimate salt concentrations in the various compartments, particularly surface and subsurface water. A well-known environmental fate and effect model was evaluated to determine if it could be used either as is, or in modified form to calculate salinity potentiaIs for LCA. It was however concluded that the model is not suitable for the calculation of salinity potentials, and it was therefore decided to develop an environmental fate model that would overcome the limitations of existing model, in terms of modelling the movement of salts in the environment. In terms of spatial differentiation, the same approach that was adopted in the existing model was adopted in developing an environmental fate model for South African conditions. This was done by defining a aunit South African catchmenta (including the air volume above the catchment), which consists of an urban surface; rural agricultural soil (and associated soil moisture); rural natural soil (and associated moisture), groundwater (natural and agricultural) and one river with a flow equal to the sum of the flows of all rivers in South Africa, and a concentration equal to the average concentration of each river in the country. A non steady-state environmental fate model (or, hydrosalinity model) was developed that can predict environmental concentrations at a daily time-step in all the compartments relevant to the calculation of salinity potentials. The environmental fate model includes all the major processes governing the distribution of common ions (sodium, calcium, magnesium, sulphate, chloride and bicarbonate) in the various compartments, and described as total dissolved salts. The effect factors used in the characterisation model were based on the target water quality ranges given by the South African Water Quality Guidelines in order to calculate salinity potentials. The total salinity potential is made up of a number of salinity effects potentials, including; damage to man-made environment, aquatic ecotoxicity effects, damage to man-made environment, loss of agricultural production (livestock and crops), aesthetic effects and effects to terrestrial fauna and flora. The total salinity potentials for emissions into the various initial release compartments are shown in the table below. Initial release compartment Atmosphere River Rural natural surface Rural agricultural surface Total salinity potential (kg TDS equJkg) 0.013 0.16 0.03 1.00 The salinity potentiaIs are only relevant to South African conditions, and their use in LeA in other countries may not be applicable. This, in effect, means that the life cycle activities that generate salts should be within the borders of South Africa. It has been recognised that the LCA methodology requires greater spatial differentiation. Salination is a global problem, but generally restricted to local or regional areas on the globe, and it is foreseen that local or regional salinity potentials would need to be calculated for different areas of the earth where salinity is a problem. The LCA practitioner would then need to know something about the spatial distribution of LCA activities in order to apply the relevant salinity potentials. The LCA practitioner should also take care when applying the salinity potentials to prevent double accounting for certain impacts. Currently, this is simple because no equivalency factors exist for common ions, or for total dissolved salts as a lumped parameter. The distribution of salinity potentials, which make up the total salinity potential, appears to be supported by the environmental policies and legislation of South Africa, in which irrigation using saline water is listed as a controlled activity, and subject to certain conditions. The major recommendations regarding further work are focussed on the collection of data that will allow further refinement of the model, and to decrease the uncertainty and variability associated with the results. The values of the published equivalency factors are dependent on the mathematical definition of the local or regional environment, and these values have been calculated for Westem European conditions. Equivalency factors may vary by several orders of magnitude, depending on how the local or regional conditions have been defined. It is therefore recommended that the model developed in this work ultimately be included into a global nested model that can be used to calculate equivalency factors for other compounds, including heavy metals and organic compounds. This would result in equivalency factors for all compounds that are relevant to South Africa.
Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of Natal, Durban, 2003.

Includes bibliographical references (leaves [268]-285)
xiv, 285, [85] leaves : ill. (some folded), maps (col., folded) ; 30 cm.
Title page, contents and abstract only. The complete thesis in print form is available from the University Library.
Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Adelaide, Dept. of Geographical and Environmental Studies, 2002

Includes bibliographical references (leaves [268]-285)
xiv, 285, [85] leaves : ill. (some folded), maps (col., folded) ; 30 cm.
Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Adelaide, Dept. of Geographical and Environmental Studies, 2002

The movement of a fluid and solute through a porous medium is of great practical interest because this describes the spread of contaminants through an aquifer. Many contaminants occur at concentrations sufficient to alter the density of the fluid, in which case the physics is typically modelled mathematically by a pair of coupled, nonlinear partial differential equations. There is disagreement as to the exact form of these governing equations. Codes aiming to solve some version of the governing equations are typically tested against the Henry and Elder benchmark problems. Neither benchmark has an analytic solution, so in practice they are treated as exercises in inter code comparison. Different code developers define the boundary conditions of the Henry problem differently, and the Elder problems results are poorly understood. The Henry, Elder and some other problems are simulated on several different codes, which produce widely-varying results. The existing benchmarks are unable to distinguish which code, if any, simulates the problems correctly, illustrating the benchmarks' limitations. To determine whether these discrepancies might be due to numerical error, one popular code, SUTRA, is considered in detail. A numerical analysis of a special case reveals that SUTRA is numerically dispersive. This is confirmed using the Gauss pulse test, a benchmark that does have an analytic solution. To further explain inter code discrepancies, a testcode is developed which allows a choice of numerical methods. Some of the methods are based on SUTRA's while others are finite difference methods of varying levels of accuracy. Simulations of the Elder problem reveal that the benchmark is extremely sensitive to the choice of solution method: qualitative differences are seen in the flow patterns. Finally, the impact of numerical error on a real-world application, the simulation of saline disposals, is considered. Saline disposal basins are used to store saline water away from rivers and agricultural land in parts of Australia. Existing models of disposal basins are assessed in terms of their resemblance to real fieldsite conditions, and in terms of numerical error. This leads to the development of a new model which aims to combine verisimilitude with numerical accuracy.
Thesis (Ph.D.)--School of Mathematical Sciences (Applied Mathematics), 2004.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI)
Groundwater monitoring networks are subject to change by budgetary actions and stakeholder initiatives that result in wells being abandoned or added. A strategy for network design is presented that addresses the latter situation. It was developed in response to consensus in the state of Indiana that additional monitoring wells are needed to effectively characterize water availability in aquifer systems throughout the state. The strategic methodology has two primary objectives that guide decision making for new installations: (1) purposive sampling of a diversity of environmental variables having relevance to groundwater recharge, and (2) spatial optimization by means of maximizing geographic distances that separate monitoring wells. Design objectives are integrated in a discrete facility location model known as the p-median problem, and solved to optimality using a mathematical programming package.

The Middle Fork John Day Basin in Northeastern Oregon is prime habitat for spring Chinook salmon and Steelhead trout. In 2008, a major tributary supporting rearing habitat, Big Boulder Creek, was restored to its historic mid-valley channel along a 1 km stretch of stream 800 m upstream of the mouth. Reduction of peak summer stream temperatures was among the goals of the restoration. Using Distributed Temperature Sensing (DTS) Fiber Optic Technology, stream temperature was monitored prior to restoration in June 2008, and after restoration in September 2008, July 2009, and August 2009. Data gathered was used to determine locations of groundwater and hyporheic inflow and to form a stream temperature model of the system. The model was used both to develop an evaluation method to interpret components of model performance, and to better understand the physical processes important to the study reach. A very clear decreasing trend in surface temperature was seen throughout each of the DTS stream temperature datasets in the downstream 500 m of the study reach. Observed reduction in temperature was 0.5°C (±0.10) in June 2008, 0.3°C (±0.37) in September 2008, 0.6°C (±0.25) in July 2009, and 0.2°C (±0.08) in August 2009. Groundwater inflow was calculated to be 3% of the streamflow for July 2009 and 1% during the August 2009 installation. Statistically significant locations of groundwater and hyporheic inflow were also determined. July 2009 data was used to model stream temperature of the 1 km (RMSE 0.28°C). The developed model performance evaluation method measures timelag, offset, and amplitude at a downstream observed or simulated point compared with the boundary condition, rather than evaluating the model based on error. These measures are particularly relevant to small scale models in which error may not be a true reflection of the ability of a model to correctly predict temperature. Breaking down model performance into these three predictive measures was a simple and graphic method to show the model's predictive capability without sorting through large amounts of data. To better understand the model and the stream system, a sensitivity analysis was conducted showing high sensitivity to streamflow, air temperature, groundwater inflow, and relative humidity. Somewhat surprisingly, solar radiation was among the lowest sensitivity. Furthermore, three model scenarios were run: a 25% reduction in water velocity, a 5°C increase in air temperature, and no groundwater inflow. Simulations of removal of groundwater inflows resulted in a 0.5°C increase in average temperature over the modeled time period at the downstream end, further illustrating the importance of groundwater in this stream system to reduce temperatures.
Graduation date: 2012