Статті в журналах з теми "Internet des objets – Programmation"

L'Internet des objets est en constante croissance aussi bien dans le grand public que dans l'industrie. Cela regroupe beaucoup de disciplines et de thématiques, de la propagation d'onde aux tableaux de bords en passant par les réseaux, les protocoles, la programmation de micro-contrôleurs et la gestion d'énergie. La formation proposée ici se concentre sur la mise en oeuvre de communication wifi à l'aide de micro-contrôleurs et du protocole MQTT ainsi que sur la programmation orientée événements avec le logiciel Node-RED.

Dans cet article, l’auteure observe la relation entre les objets d’une collection muséale tels qu’ils sont disposés dans l’exposition et tels qu’ils sont valorisés sur les sites Internet des institutions muséales. L’objectif étant d’évaluer le degré de congruence entre ces deux lieux, il s’agira de comparer les deux médias que sont l’exposition et le site Internet afin de mettre au jour la relation qui les unit et de comprendre s’il y a un rapport de subordination ou de complémentarité entre les deux. Cette analyse sera menée à l’aide des outils descriptifs du webdesign avec les exemples de trois institutions muséales visitées en mai 2013 : Boréalis Centre d’histoire de l’industrie papetière de Trois-Rivières, le Centre d’histoire de Montréal et le musée Grévin de Montréal. À travers l’analyse de la place des substituts numériques de ces objets sur les sites Internet de ces institutions se dessine une typologie de ces sites : ceux qui expliquent l’image et ceux qui donnent simplement à voir le lieu d’exposition. On observera que la majorité des sites Internet étudiés n’accordent pas une place centrale à leurs objets de collection. Le contenu des sites semble davantage focalisé sur l’évocation du lieu et les informations pratiques. Il y aurait donc un décalage dans la façon dont les objets de musée (notamment des musées d’histoire et d’ethnographie) sont exposés dans les deux médias. En outre, cette circulation de l’objet de collection entre le statut d’expôt, de document, de source et d’oeuvre, complexifie la mise en place d’un site Internet qui distingue clairement ce qui relève de la collection et ce qui relève de la description de la collection. À l’heure où le document et l’archive tendent à faire partie des collections, les sites Internet observés rendent compte de cette indécision. En observant le parti pris de ces sites, on remarque que les images numériques montrent les lieux de l’exposition (notamment l’organisation spatiale de l’espace) plus que leurs objets.

La photonique silicium suit la devise : « plus petit, moins cher, plus rapide », comme la microélectronique plusieurs années auparavant, en exploitant une intégration à très grande échelle des composants et circuits intégrés de plus en plus complexes. L’incroyable évolution des systèmes communicants avec en particulier le déploiement des réseaux Internet et mobiles, des objets connectés et des capteurs a fait émerger la photonique silicium pour répondre à ces nouveaux enjeux majeurs.

Titulaire d’un doctorat en Informatique et Intelligence artificielle (systèmes industriels), obtenu à ISAE-Supaéro, Yannick Meiller est professeur à ESCP Europe . Ses travaux de recherche et ses enseignements portent pour l’essentiel sur le numérique et les domaines associés (traitements de l’information, Internet des objets, protection des données à caractère personnel, sécurité, systèmes d’information…), ainsi que sur le management de projets innovants . Il nous explique ici pourquoi la sécurité de l’information est un sujet à enseigner dans les écoles de management .

L’objectif de cet article est de tracer un portrait du contexte social de l’actuelle transition et de ce qui est en voie d’émergence et qui lance un défi tant à la sociologie présente qu’à celle des prochaines décennies. Le but est de montrer qu’il y a un changement qualitatif, un passage de la modernité à non pas la postmodernité, mais à une autre forme sociohistorique de rapports sociaux, la « conscientivité ». Pour ce faire, l’auteur analyse quatre tendances sociohistoriques : l’évolution du rapport objectivation-subjectivation; l’évolution du rapport capital-sujet; la transformation du rapport identité-solidarité; et, finalement, le changement du système de valeurs. La thèse que soutient l’auteur est que l’actuelle transition concerne simultanément la possibilité et la nécessité de passer à l’ère de la conscientivité, mais que la probabilité de ce passage est remise en question en raison de la possibilité d’une reproduction élargie du capitalisme qui, ainsi, pousserait ses caractéristiques structurales à un haut degré d’exacerbation, niant totalement la légitimité et la primauté du sujet. La première section est consacrée à la question de la structuration génétique de la situation de transition que l’auteur aborde à travers la dialectique de l’objectivation-subjectivation. Sont ensuite examinés trois modes d’objectivation (celui de la production des objets matériels, celui de la production des objets non matériels et celui de la production des objets intelligents) et leurs conséquences sur le développement des possibilités de subjectivation. Les deux sections suivantes s’intéressent à la problématique de la continuité capitaliste, de ses discontinuités (phases longues d’expansion) et de l’épuisement de la modernité. Après avoir indiqué comment la continuité est brisée par des causes endogènes dues à l’incessant affrontement entre les logiques du Capital et du sujet, l’auteur fait état du développement de la crise du mode de régulation fordien-keynésien, en s’attardant aux causes et aux conséquences de la guerre déclarée par le Capital au sujet, à l’incidence sur la forme de la crise de l’épuisement de la capacité d’absorption de la sphère de la consommation et, finalement, à la croissance des possibilités et moyens d’individuation à travers le déploiement des modes de vie fordien puis fordien-keynésien. La troisième section porte sur la possibilité de passer à un nouveau mode de régulation, la régulation discutée-programmée, qui faciliterait un passage à la conscientivité. Y sont abordées successivement les problématiques suivantes : le surgissement du nouveau paradigme technoéconomique, la programmation, et d’un nouveau mode d’aliénation; la transformation du rapport de concurrence; l’émergence de la forme discutée-programmée de régulation à l’échelle mondiale; la durée de la transition compte tenu de l’allure « irraisonnable » que prend la domination du Capital. Dans la quatrième partie du texte, il est question de la transformation des rapports identitaires et de la forme de la solidarité ainsi que du rôle de la volonté du sujet et de la conscience dans cette transformation. Dans la dernière partie, l’auteur s’emploie à montrer la nécessité de passer à un système de valeurs qui transcende les déterminismes des donnés originaux. En conclusion, l’auteur rassemble un certain nombre de remarques afin de définir la conscientivité.

Cet article examine les écritures parentales autour de la naissance et de la prime enfance. Bribes biographiques ou énoncés développés accompagnant ou non la photographie, ces écrits peuvent s’insérer dans les rubriques d’un journal de naissance du secteur de l’édition, être archivés dans un cahier au nom de l’enfant ou s’afficher sur Internet grâce au support électronique du blog. Plusieurs études qualitatives (FRANCIS, 2006, 2007, 2010) ont permis de croiser différents types de données : la structure et l’organisation de journaux de naissance, les textes réalisés par les futurs parents et parents, ainsi que des entretiens réalisés auprès des familles - parents et enfants - ayant pour objectif d’aborder les pratiques familiales autour de ces objets. Les résultats montrent que les écritures parentales donnent à voir des représentations sur la famille, l’enfance et le rôle du parent. A la frontière des « écritures du moi » et des « écrits pour autrui » (SIMONET-TENANT, 2001 ; LEJEUNE et BOGAERT, 2006) les journaux de naissance peuvent être définis comme des objets à connotation mémorielle. Ils sont l’occasion d’activités langagières qui cherchent, dans un premier temps, à fixer par l’écrit et l’image l’histoire familiale puis, dans un second temps, à évoquer et transmettre la mémoire familiale. Si l’étude des pratiques familiales autour des blogs et journaux de naissance souligne les figures du parent biographe (FRANCIS, 2006) et le rôle de l’enfant, elle situe également l’activité biographique du parent dans son ampleur socialisatrice.Mots-clés: prime enfance, représentation de l'enfance, socialisation des enfants, écritures parentales.Voir aussi la traduction de cet article pour la langue portugaise dans lemême numéro.

En recherche comme en exploitation forestière, la donnée Lidar aéroportée apporte des clefs de compréhension surla structure du terrain, de la forêt et par extension, des informations sur la biomasse aérienne. Mais pour être utile, cette donnée Lidar doit couvrir de vastes étendues tout en étant très résolue spatialement. Ces caractéristiques se traduisent par de grands volumes de données très difficiles à visualiser, manipuler et étudier sans l’aide de logiciels très onéreux.Dans le cadre du projet ANR FORESEE, nous avons développé un logiciel web, de visualisation mixte nuage de pointsLidar / surface 3D issue d’un Modèle Numérique de Terrain / carte / photographie aérienne et terrestre / donnée vectorielle : la plateforme zForest. Ce logiciel, qui s’adresse aux chercheurs en télédétection et à terme aux exploitants forestiers, permet la navigation à grande échelle dans des données massives et leur exploration, du niveau de détail le plus large (la région) jusqu’au plus fin (l’arbre). Cet outil permet la mesure, l’annotation et l’extraction des données. Il propose également une interface de programmation web (API) permettant à d’autres outils du marché d’utiliser ses données sources. zForest étant une plateforme web, elle est disponible sans installation sur tous les navigateurs internet récents, facilitant son accessibilité et son déploiement.

ABSTRACTThe objetives of this articles is to analyse how the actors that involved in the Indonesian footballconflict frame their official statement. The conflict in this articles is the controversy of BhayangkaraFC in competition Liga 1 sesaon 2017. The controversy occurs when Indonesian FootballAssociation’s decision give advantage for Bhayangkara FC to win the league. This decision arousecomplain from several Liga 1’s contestant. This articles using frame by Robert N.Entman as analysis tool. The research objets are official statements taken from the actors’ official website. The limitation of the actors’ are : Bali United and Madura United as the league contestant that thinkthe PSSI’s decision is unfair; PSSI as the Indonesian FA, and PT Liga Indonesia Baru (PT LIB)as the competition organizer. The results shows that all parties, except PT LIB, are blaming eachother in this case. The official statement by the actors are influenced on their own interestKeywords : crisis communication, frame analysis, internet public relations, sport communication,sport public relations

Ce texte propose une réflexion sur ce que sont les spécificités de l’enquête de terrain menée dans Internet ou prenant pour objet des usages des communications électroniques. Discutant l’argumentation développée par plusieurs auteurs sur la singularité et la nouveauté de ce contexte d’enquête, l’auteure soutient que ce n’est pas tant le contexte lui-même qui rendrait nécessaire l’innovation méthodologique, mais que ce sont plutôt les regards portés sur ce contexte et la réification d’un cyberespace pensé comme univers parallèle et distinct du « réel » qui ont mené plusieurs auteurs à tenir pour acquis que le contexte électronique constituait un terrain radicalement différent des autres et appelant l’innovation méthodologique. L’auteure souligne le fait que les réflexions sur ce contexte d’enquête font couramment abstraction de la diversité et de la pluralité des objets d’étude relatifs à ce contexte, de même que de la pluralité des démarches et des postures disciplinaires qu’on trouve dans ce champ de recherche. En outre, elle souligne la nécessité de distinguer le contexte de l’enquête et l’objet de recherche pour mieux comprendre ce qui caractérise différents types de démarches.

Exchange. According to the results of the analysis, the purpose of scientific research is formed, which is that for automate process of the buying and selling of media content, to carry out simulations and to prove the feasibility of using the implemented platforms on the basis of the advanced method of application of the object model of interaction of DSP-SSP systems. The authors found that Ad Exchange is an intermediary between DSP and SSP platforms and implements the module one to many. Has been identified that this system enables the digital marketplace where publishers and advertisers come together to trade digital inventory. It is concluded that Ad Exchange is a standalone platform that facilitates and simplifies programmatic ads buying. The authors presented the model of the Ad Exchange system, presents advantages and disadvantages are indicated. It is concluded that the Validator block, which advertises only for a specific contingent of people, was first proposed by the authors as the most important component of this model. The Validator block is the main advantage of the system presented in the article over others. An advanced technique for using an object model of DSP-SSP systems interaction through Ad Exchange is offered. It is determined that an important component for the implementation of this methodology is Analytic, which was implemented on the DSP platform, where the client can keep track of important winnings, clicks and othere. By incorporating the Validator block, the well-known DSP and SSP algorithm is improved. Based on the proposed model, a simulation was performed where the Validator block was implemented. It is concluded that Ad Exchange is a tool for automating the process of buying and selling Internet content. This allows you to earn more money and save time on transactions. The recommendations developed by the authors track poor quality proposals and deal with risks.

Depuis une dizaine d’années, les séries télévisées de provenance américaine sont devenues l’objet déclaré de passion de la part de catégories peu enclines jusque-là à valoriser ce genre télévisé tout autant qu’un format de premier plan dans la programmation de soirée des grandes télévisions en France. Consommées dans un contexte technologique transformé par les supports DVD et internet, les séries télévisées saisonnières ou unitaires renouvellent le mode cultivé dominant de consommation des pratiques culturelles, de nature ascétique, en même temps que les significations sociales attachées aux oeuvres culturelles. À partir d’entretiens avec des amateurs, formant corpus dont le noyau dur est constitué d’une population de jeunes adultes, cet article rend compte d’une pratique culturelle qui articule un genre et ses hiérarchies internes à une consommation dans l’espace domestique, selon un temps décalé et dédié, et fréquemment solitaire, avec un système de valeurs et de significations contrastant avec la traditionnelle cinéphilie. La consommation des séries peut se décrire comme un régime de valeur culturel, défini ainsi parce qu’il articule un genre esthétique et un système de valeurs pour une population. Cette configuration n’est pas sans mettre à l’épreuve le modèle de l’oeuvre cinématographique, consommée en salle, et marquée en France du sceau de « l’auteur ». Aussi l’attitude amateur face aux séries télévisées est-elle un excellent révélateur des transformations en cours concernant les pratiques médiatiques et culturelles portant sur des biens issus des industries culturelles et directement articulées à l’environnement numérique.

À l’occasion des 100 ans de l’entreprise Puig, en 2014, un véritable plan de communication a été mis en œuvre pour montrer l’importance de cette institution espagnole de la vente de cosmétique, de parfum et de prêt à porter de luxe. Le point d’orgue étant l’inauguration de son nouvel immeuble, dans le quartier des affaires à Barcelone. Parmi les outils de communication, le livre Puig, 100 années d’une entreprise familiale écrit par la journaliste Eugenia de la Torriente, alors en poste à El Pais . Cet ouvrage revient sur la carrière des trois générations de dirigeants qui se sont succédé à la tête de cet empire : Antonio Puig Castello (1889-1979) le fondateur de l’enseigne, son fils Mariano Puig Planas (1927-2021) et le petit-fils Marc Puig Guasch (1962-). Au-delà du récit, ce livre cherche à mettre en avant certains choix et à en dissimuler d’autres, notamment à propos de la marque Uriage qui est absente du récit, alors que Puig en est propriétaire depuis 2011. Ces décisions sont bien sûr conscientes et il est important de revenir sur cette période qui est synonyme de stratégie de positionnement sur le luxe pour Puig. L’analyse des objets de communication (livre, communiqué de presse) et des archives Internet de la marque permet de caractériser la stratégie de Puig comme un exemple pertinent des « entreprises d’édition », consistant à être expert de la façon de vendre les produits. Point de chimiste ou d’expert en molécule, mais des hommes qui ont pris le temps de connaître leur marché, avec son lot de succès et d’échecs, pour devenir une des entreprises de parfumerie les plus influentes au monde, tout en cherchant à rester discrets aux yeux des néophytes.

La trigonometría es un área fundamental de la matemática con muchas dificultades en los procesos de aprendizaje y enseñanza. Este artículo describe el estado actual de las investigaciones doctorales recientes sobre didáctica de la trigonometría, analizando los vacíos existentes e identificando posibles temas de investigación. Se realizó una revisión sistemática de 18 tesis doctorales relacionadas con los descriptores trigonometría y funciones trigonométricas, obtenidas mediante buscadores académicos y repositorios de diferentes universidades existentes en internet, utilizando como categorías de análisis los objetos matemáticos abordados, la enseñanza, el aprendizaje, el currículo de matemática y el contenido de trigonometría. El análisis realizado evidenció que existen deficiencias conceptuales, pedagógicas y tecnológicas en los docentes, al igual que problemas de comprensión de los alumnos cuando estudian la trigonometría. Se concluye que hay pocas investigaciones relacionadas con la enseñanza y el aprendizaje de las funciones trigonométricas, lo cual constituye una gran oportunidad para futuras investigaciones doctorales. ABSTRACT Trigonometry is a fundamental area of ​​mathematics with many difficulties in the learning and teaching processes. This article describes the current state of recent doctoral research on the didactics of trigonometry, analyzing the existing gaps and identifying possible research topics. A systematic review of 18 doctoral theses related to the descriptors trigonometry and trigonometric functions, obtained through academic search engines and repositories of different universities existing on the Internet, was carried out, using as categories of analysis the mathematical objects addressed, teaching, learning, the curriculum of mathematics and trigonometry content. The analysis carried out showed that there are conceptual, pedagogical and technological deficiencies in teachers, as well as comprehension problems of students when they study trigonometry. It is concluded that there is little research related to the teaching and learning of trigonometric functions, which constitutes a great opportunity for future doctoral research. Key words: Mathematics education; Trigonometry; Trigonometric functions; Doctoral theses RESUMO A trigonometria é uma área fundamental da matemática com muitas dificuldades nos processos de aprendizagem e ensino. Este artigo descreve o estado atual da pesquisa de doutorado recente sobre a didática da trigonometria, analisando as lacunas existentes e identificando possíveis tópicos de pesquisa. Foi realizada uma revisão sistemática de 18 teses de doutorado relacionadas aos descritores trigonometria e funções trigonométricas, obtidas por meio de buscadores acadêmicos e repositórios de diferentes universidades existentes na Internet, utilizando como categorias de análise os objetos matemáticos abordados, ensino, aprendizagem, o currículo de conteúdo de matemática e trigonometria. A análise realizada mostrou que existem deficiências conceituais, pedagógicas e tecnológicas dos professores, bem como problemas de compreensão dos alunos quando estudam trigonometria. Conclui-se que há poucas pesquisas relacionadas ao ensino e aprendizagem de funções trigonométricas, o que constitui uma grande oportunidade para futuras pesquisas de doutorado. Palavras-chaves: Educação matemática; Trigonometria; Funções trigonométricas; Teses de doutorado RÉSUMÉ La trigonométrie est un domaine fondamental des mathématiques avec de nombreuses difficultés dans les processus d’apprentissage et d’enseignement. Cet article décrit l’état actuel des recherches doctorales récentes sur la didactique de la trigonométrie, en analysant les lacunes existantes et en identifiant des sujets de recherche possibles. Une revue systématique de 18 thèses de doctorat liées aux descripteurs trigonométrie et fonctions trigonométriques, obtenues par le biais de moteurs de recherche académiques et de référentiels de différentes universités existant sur Internet, a été réalisée, en utilisant comme catégories d’analyse les objets mathématiques abordés, l’enseignement, l’apprentissage, la programme de contenu de mathématiques et de trigonométrie. L’analyse effectuée a montré qu’il existe des lacunes conceptuelles, pédagogiques et technologiques chez les enseignants, ainsi que des problèmes de compréhension des élèves lorsqu’ils étudient la trigonométrie. Il est conclu qu’il existe peu de recherches liées à l’enseignement et à l’apprentissage des fonctions trigonométriques, ce qui constitue une grande opportunité pour de futures recherches doctorales. Mots-clés: Enseignement des mathématiques; Trigonométrie; Fonctions trigonométriques; Thèses de doctorat

The author of the article, on the basis of the theological teaching of John Paul II on the unity of Christian Churches, reveals the subject of the ecclesiastical vocation of the UGCC in the modern era of interchurch relations of Christianity. The object of research is the theological and ecumenical works (encyclicals, epistles, speeches) of John Paul II, Pope in 1978-2000. The immediate subject of research is his theological and historical reflection on the ecclesiastical nature of the UGCC and the mission of this Eastern Catholic Church for the entire universal Church of Christ. Taking into account the above, the purpose of this study is to highlight the theological and historical views of John Paul II regarding the ecclesial mission of the UGCC in the context of modern ecumenical dialogue between the Churches of East and West. Thanks to the critical-historical method and theological analysis of the teachings of John Paul II about the beginnings of the birth of the Kievan Church, its medieval activity in the historical search for the restoration of unity between the Christian East and West, and contemporary for her perspectives of the ecumenical movement in the process of research, a theological synthesis of judgments, ideas and proposals was formed. The main conclusions of the article are: 1) the ecumenical views of John Paul II on the unity of the Catholic and Orthodox Churches remain relevant for Christians of the 21st century and are programmatic for theologians working on new ways to restore unity between East and West; 2) an assessment of past historical attempts to restore the unity of the Church, in particular the Union of Brest (1596), should be based on the then ecclesial context and illuminated as local attempts to search for the unity of the Church, thanks to which the Church received a unique practical experience in implementing the ideas of unity between East and West; 3) the UGCC, which was born as a result of the Union of Brest and today is developing as one of the Eastern Catholic Churches, is a great treasure for Christianity, because it unites Catholic and Orthodox elements in its ecclesiology; 4) in search of new forms of unity between the Eastern and Western Churches, the UGCC receives its own ecclesiastical vocation, to open to the Western Church a world of Eastern tradition and to the Eastern Church a world of Catholic tradition.

L’enseignement de la programmation fonctionnelle « pure » présente au moins deux difficultés pédagogiques spécifiques : d’abord l’absence des structures de contrôle habituelles dans le paradigme impératif, ensuite la nécessité de maîtriser, par conséquent, l’induction. L’utilisation d’un langage « réel » dans un tel cadre s’avère délicat, car ces concepts sont obscurcis par des contraintes syntaxiques par ailleurs légitimes s’agissant de langages permettant de réaliser de « vrais » logiciels. C’est pourquoi la machine de Peano a été conçue, offrant une syntaxe simple et permettant de manipuler les objets classiques de la programmation fonctionnelle (listes et arbres). Ce texte décrit la machine, ainsi que son utilisation dans le cadre d’une initiation à la programmation fonctionnelle, tant en musicologie qu’en première année de licence scientifique.

Les études sur Internet tendent à mettre en évidence l’action humaine et à reléguer les objets techniques et leurs opérations à l’arrière-plan. En considérant que ces objets peuvent eux-mêmes se connecter via Internet, au moyen de capteurs qui leur sont accouplés – ce que l’on nomme l’Internet des Objets (IdO) –, on peut néanmoins soutenir que ces objets interagissent et que, ce faisant, ils conduisent d’autres (humains ou non-humains) à agir : c’est ce que défend la Théorie de l’acteur-réseau (TAR), selon laquelle les objets sont sociaux et participent de la production du social, en tant qu’ils sont le résultat d’associations entre des éléments hétérogènes. Tenant compte de ce qui précède, cet article enquête sur l’interaction des objets connectés faisant partie de l’IdO, pour montrer que cette interaction est d’ordre sociotechnique.

Depuis quelques années, sous couvert d’assurer efficacement le bien de la collectivité et de chacun de ses membres, la pratique du nudging s’est répandue de manière exponentielle dans les politiques de gouvernance de nombreuses organisations tant publiques que privées. Le nudging consiste à infléchir les choix et les comportements des nudgés dans le sens voulus par les nudgeurs, sans que les premiers puissent opposer une réelle résistance. En dépit de l’idéologie qu’il affiche, qualifiée par ses promoteurs de « paternalisme libertarien », et de sa prétention à laisser aux nudgés la liberté de leurs choix, les dispositifs factitifs qu’il met au point s’avèrent, à l’analyse, obéir à des principes exactement contraires. L’approche socio-sémiotique et interactionnelle proposée ici en démonte les principaux mécanismes, et ce faisant, s’efforce d’en démontrer la vraie nature : Parce que tout nudge exploite la régularité et la prévisibilité des automatismes et des engrammes (les « biais cognitifs ») recensés et scientifiquement démontrés par les économistes du comportement, il se révèle être une opération de nature totalement programmatique, en ce qu’elle fait fi de la compétence modale (volitive et cognitive) des sujets ciblés et les réduit à des non-sujets, voire à de simples objets. Et parce qu’il fait appel à la dissimulation, au simulacre et au leurre, il s’apparente très fortement aux stratagèmes, aux ruses et aux dispositifs du type « pièges ». In fine, le régime de sens dont il relève est celui de l’insiginifiance, et son régime d’interaction celui d’une variante manipulatoire de la programmation.

While it has become commonplace to present users as co-creators or “produsers” of digital media, their participation is generally considered in terms of content production. The case of Internet Relay Chat (IRC) shows that users can be fully involved in the design process, a co-construction in the sense of Science and Technology Studies (STS): a collective, simultaneous, and mutual construction of actors and artifacts. A case study of the early development of two IRC networks sheds light on that process and shows that “ordinary users” managed to invite themselves as co-designers of the socio-technical device. The article concludes by suggesting that IRC openness to user agency is not an intrinsic property of software-based media and has more to do with its architecture and governance structure.Cet article présente des travaux ayant pris pour objet des situations, des pratiques, des objets et des processus de communication dans les champs scientifique et technique. Il propose ainsi de définir la spécificité de l’approche communicationnelle au sein du domaine « Sciences, technologies, sociétés » (STS). Il insiste sur la teneur critique de cette approche dans sa phase d’émergence au cours des années 1970-1980, et il distingue différents courants de travaux constitutifs de l’approche communicationnelle au sein des STS dans les décennies 1980 et 1990. Il souligne enfin la difficulté d’articuler à la fois l’attention à la singularité des formes, des objets et des situations et la prise en compte des dynamiques spatiotemporelles de grande ampleur qui influencent les enjeux de communication dans le domaine STS.

Recently, web services have presented a new and evolving model for constructing the distributed system. The meteoric growth of the Web over the last few years proves the efficacy of using simple protocols over the Internet as the basis for a large number of web services and applications. Web service is a modern technology of web, which can be defined as software applications with a programmatic interface based on Internet protocol. Web services became common in the applications of the web by the help of Universal, Description, Discovery and Integration; Web Service Description Language and Simple Object Access Protocol. The architecture of web services refers to a collection of conceptual components in which common sets of standard can be defined among interoperating components. Nevertheless, the existing Web service's architecture is not impervious to some challenges, such as security problems, and the quality of services. Against this backdrop, the present study will provide an overview of these issues. Therefore, it aims to propose web services architecture model to support distributed system in terms of application and issues.

Abstract: The increased volume and complexity of information available via the Internet and other networked information and communications systems (ICTs) have heightened the need for more efficient and effective ways of searching on-line resources. Technologies involving automated and human-operated software continue to evolve in meeting these needs but process and standardization remain key problems in determining who will do the work and how data and software programming should be structured to maximize the effort. The problem is exacerbated by database and search tool customization, as a widening range of organizations attempts to adapt the "metadata" technologies and approaches to unique information environments and resources. This paper overviews metadata in its current application and development as an Internet technology, and points to its relevance to communications - a field that has yet to embrace the movement thematically. Résumé: La complexité et le volume croissants de l'information disponible sur Internet et autres systèmes d'information et de communication en réseau ont augmenté le besoin de moyens plus efficaces pour faire une recherche en ligne. Les technologies employant des logiciels automatisés et non-automatisés continuent à évoluer pour subvenir à ces besoins, mais la difficulté des procédures et le manque de standardisation présentent des défis dans le choix de travailleurs et dans la programmation de données et de logiciels de manière à maximiser leur rendement. La fabrication sur commande de bases de données et d'outils de recherche exacerbe ce problème. En effet, un éventail croissant d'organisations essaie d'adapter les technologies et approches de la métadonnée à des ressources et environnements informatiques différents. Cet article passe en revue le développement et l'application actuels de la métadonnée en tant que technologie d'Internet, et souligne sa pertinence pour les communications - un domaine qui jusqu'à présent n'a pas élaboré la thématique de ce mouvement.

ABSTRACT The article first introduces the domestication approach, its origins, its key elements, and its general contributions and limitations. It then examines ways in which the domestication analysis could be developed. One issue concerns contemporary objects of study and research questions given developments in information and communication technologies since the earliest domestication studies. Other issues include developing the analysis of the centrality of ICTs in our lives. Where appropriate, these issues are illustrated by considering examples of the computer, the Internet, and the mobile phone. To illustrate how the domestication framework can inform wider academic and policy fields, the final section considers its contribution to debates about the digital divide.RÉSUMÉ Cet article porte sur la domestication en tant que théorie sur la manière dont l’individu intègre de nouveaux objets dans son quotidien. Il décrit les grandes lignes de cette approche, ses origines, ses éléments clés et ses contributions et limitations générales. Il examine ensuite certaines manières dont on pourrait faire avancer cette théorie aujourd’hui. Une possibilité concernerait le développement des technologies de l’information et de la communication (TIC) depuis les premières études en domestication, et l’impact des TIC sur les objets d’étude et les questions de recherche contemporains. Une autre possibilité consisterait à approfondir l’analyse de la centralité des TIC dans la vie quotidienne. Cet article, quand cela s’avère pertinent, a recours aux exemples de l’ordinateur, de l’Internet et du téléphone mobile. La section finale considère la contribution de la domestication aux débats sur le fossé numérique, afin de montrer comment cette théorie peut jeter de la lumière sur des questions académiques et politiques plus vastes.

This article explores the intersection of Rhetorical Genre Studies (RGS) and Actor-Network Theory (ANT). These two traditions are particularly important in the Canadian research context. We examine genre and ANT to uncover what we believe is a complementary relationship that promises much to the study of science, especially in the age of the internet. Specifically, we see RGS as a way to account for how objects come to “be” as complex wholes and so act across/among levels of network configurations. Moreover, the nature of these objects’ (instruments’) action is such that we may attribute them to a kind of rhetorical agency. We look to the InFORM Network’s grassroots, citizen science-oriented response to the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster as a case that exemplifies how a combined RGS and ANT perspective can articulate the complex wholes of material/rhetorical networks.Cet article examine Rhetorical Genre Studies (RGS) et Actor-Network Theory (ANT). Ces deux modes d’étude sont importants dans les contextes de la recherche Canadienne. Nous prennons genre et ANT, pour retrouver une perspective que nous croyons puisse contribuer beaucoup aux études de la science dans l’âge de l’internet. On comprend les genres de textes comme une moyenne de rendre compte de la façon dont les objets deviennent des ensembles complexes et donc agir entre les différents niveaux de configuration réseau. En plus, la nature des actions de ces objets (ou instruments scientifique) est telle qu’on puisse attribuer a eux une sorte d’agence rhétorique. Nous voyons le citizen science reponse de l’InFORM Network a la disastre au Fukushima Daiichi comme une example de la puissance d’un perspectif RGS/ANT pour articuler les “entieres-complexes” des networks qui sont material/rhetorical au meme temps.

In the article analyzed the interaction of DSP-SSP systems through Ad Exchange. According to the results of the analysis, the purpose of scientific research is formed, which is that for automate process of the buying and selling of media content, to carry out simulations and to prove the feasibility of using the implemented platforms on the basis of the advanced method of application of the object model of interaction of DSP-SSP systems. The authors found that Ad Exchange is an intermediary between DSP and SSP platforms and implements the module one to many. Has been identified that this system enables the digital marketplace where publishers and advertisers come together to trade digital inventory. It is concluded that Ad Exchange is a standalone platform that facilitates and simplifies programmatic ads buying. The authors presented the model of the Ad Exchange system, presents advantages and disadvantages are indicated. It is concluded that the Validator block, which advertises only for a specific contingent of people, was first proposed by theauthors as the most important component of this model. The Validator block is the main advantage of the system presented in the article over others. An advanced technique for using an object model of DSP-SSP systems interaction through Ad Exchange is offered. It is determined that an important component for the implementation of this methodology is Analytic, which was implemented on the DSP platform, where the client can keep track of important winnings, clicks and other. By incorporating the Validator block, the well-known DSP and SSP algorithm is improved. Based on the proposed model, a simulation was performed where the Validator block was implemented. It is concluded that Ad Exchange is a tool for automating the process of buying and selling Internet content. This allows you to earn more money and save time on transactions. The recommendations developed by the authors track poor quality proposals and deal with risks.

The Shapefile format is a particular standard for storing GIS (Geographic Information System) data, designed and developed by the Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI). The purpose of this project was to extract the binary data describing the City of Lethbridge from ESRI Shapefiles, and then to demonstrate an ability to utilize and modify this data. The utilization component centered on pathfinding and visually drawing the data, while the modification component involved the creation of a new, human-readable file type which contained the processed Shapefile data. These goals were accomplished by converting the Shapefile data into custom ‘Node’ objects in C++ code. These nodes form the basis for further development, as more attributes can easily be added to them as needed. The implemented pathfinding is a matter of picking a starting and ending node, and travelling across their adjacent nodes until a shortest path is found, a search algorithm called A* (read: A Star). Although further work is necessary for a robust product, this platform is already highly modular and is freely available open source. Le format Shapefile est un standard particulier pour le stockage des données du système d’information géographique (SIG), conçu et développé par l’Institut de Recherche des Systèmes Environnementaux (ESRI). Le but de ce project était d’extraire les données binaires qui décrivent la ville the Lethbridge des Shapefiles ESRI, et de démontrer que ces données peuvent être utilisées et modifiées. Le composant d’utilisation était centré sur la navigation et la visualization des données, tandis que le composant de modification a demandé la création d’un nouveau format lisible aux humains qui contient les données Shapefile traitées. Ces buts ont été accomplies en convertissant l’information Shapefile en objets ‘nœud’ personnalisés dans le langage de programmation C++. Ces nœuds forment la base pour les développements plus approfondis, car plus d’attributs peuvent être facilement ajoutés aux nœuds lorsque nécessaire. Le système de navigation implémentée est alors une question de choisir un nœud de départ et de terminaison, puis voyager à travers leurs nœuds adjacents jusqu’à la découverte de la route la plus courte. Ce procès informatique est l’algorithme de recherche A* (lu : A Star). Quoi qu’encore plus de travail soient nécessaire pour le développement d’un produit able, cette plateforme est déjà très modulaire et disponible à l’open-source.

International audience The high-value Internet services that have been significantly enhanced with the integration of network virtualization and Software Defined Networking (SDN) technology are increasingly attracting the attention of end-users and major computer network companies (Google, Amazon, Yahoo, Cisco, ...). In order to cope with this high demand, network resource providers (bandwidth, storage space, throughput, etc.) must implement the right models to understand and hold the users' needs while maximizing profits reaped or the number of satisfied requests into the virtual networks. This need is even more urgent that users' requests can be linked, thereby imposing to the InP some constraints concerning the mutual satisfaction of requests, which further complicates the problem. From this perspective, we show that the problem of resource allocation to users based on their requests is a knapsack problem and can therefore be solved efficiently by using the best dynamic programming solutions for the knapsack problem. Our contribution takes the dynamic resources allocation as a multiple knapsack's problem instances on variable value requests. La multitude des services à forte valeur ajoutée offert par Internet et améliorés considérablement avec l'intégration de la virtualisation réseau et de la technologie des réseaux définis par logiciels (Software Defined Networking), suscite de plus en plus l'attention des utilisateurs finaux et des grands acteurs des réseaux informatiques (Google, Amazon, Yahoo, Cisco, ...); ainsi, pour faire face à cette forte demande, les fournisseurs de ressources réseau (bande passante, espace de stockage, débit, ...) doivent mettre en place les bons modèles permettant de bien prendre en main les besoins des utilisateurs tout en maximisant les profits engrangés ou le nombre de requêtes satis-faites dans les réseaux virtuels. Ce besoin est d'autant plus urgent que les requêtes des utilisateurs peuvent être interdépendantes, imposant de ce fait au FIP des contraintes de satisfaction mutuelle des requêtes, ce qui complexifie encore plus le problème. Dans cette optique, nous montrons que le problème d'allocation des ressources aux utilisateurs en fonction de leurs requêtes, se ramène à un problème de sac à dos et peut par conséquent être résolu de façon efficiente en exploitant les meilleures solutions de programmation dynamique pour le problème de sac à dos. Notre contribution considère l'allocation dynamique des ressources comme une application de plusieurs instances du problème de sac à dos sur des requêtes à valeurs variables.

On the VKontakte and Odnoklasniki networks, communities entitled “Born in the USSR” give Internet users the opportunity to immerse themselves in their lost homeland through the publication of photographic archives from everyday life in Soviet Union. The archives are allusions that can arouse memories of the lived past and engage users into a collective reconstruction of the past. It is a playful activity of recollection: the visitor finds objects and is invited to recognize them by the recurrent addressed question “who remembers that?”. Thanks to the accumulation of archives, the communities also offer a synthesis of Soviet culture. Thus, the archives act as triggers for memory and as representative samples of the disappeared world. This article aims to take an anthropological look at the notion of archive, focusing on how individuals use them to stimulate their memories and to belong to the community. Sur les réseaux VKontakte et Odnoklasniki, des communautés intitulées « Nés en URSS » proposent aux internautes de se plonger dans ce pays disparu, grâce à la publication d’archives photographiques représentant le quotidien soviétique. Les archives exposées sont autant d’allusions susceptibles d’éveiller chez le spectateur le souvenir du passé vécu et d’enclencher un travail de reconstruction du passé, exercé collectivement entre membres du groupe. Il s’agit d’une activité ludique de remémoration : le visiteur tombe sur des objets et il est invité à les reconnaître par les interpellations comme « qui s’en souvient ? ». Grâce à l’accumulation des archives, les communautés offrent également une synthèse de la culture soviétique. Les archives jouent ainsi le rôle de déclencheurs de la mémoire et d’échantillons représentatifs du monde d’hier. Cet article propose de porter un regard anthropologique sur la notion d’archives, en s’intéressant à la manière dont les individus en font usage pour stimuler leurs souvenirs et entretenir un sentiment d’appartenance à une communauté.

O presente artigo tem por objetivo a análise do funcionamento atual do sistema bancário brasileiro, sob uma perspectiva geográfica. Fixando a periodização do estudo a partir da instalação do Plano Real (1994), foi possível identificar quais as principais alterações nos conteúdos técnicos e normativos do território brasileiro que têm relação direta com o desenvolvimento recente do sistema bancário nacional. Dentre as principais novidades desse sistema, foi dado destaque a três questões: o maciço processo de privatização dos bancos públicos estaduais; a implementação do Sistema de Pagamentos Brasileiro (SPB); e a difusão das novas formas de prestação de serviços bancários (Correspondentes Bancários, cartões de crédito/débito e internet banking principalmente), possibilitada pelos objetos informacionais que vêm sendo instalados no território desde as últimas décadas do século XX. PALAVRAS-CHAVE: sistema bancário brasileiro, uso do território, objetos informacionais, conteúdos normativos do território, hipercapilaridade do crédito. GEOGRAPHICAL SPACE, BANKING SYSTEM AND OVERPRESENCE OF CREDIT IN BRAZIL Fábio Betioli Contel This paper aims to analyse today’s operation of the Brazilian banking system, under a geographical perspective. Beginning the time interval of this study from the installation of Plano Real (1994), it was possible to identify which were the main alterations in the technical and normative contents in the Brazilian territory that have a direct relationship with the recent development of the national banking system. Among the main innovations of that system, prominence was given to three issues: the massive process of privatization of state public banks; the implementation of the Brazilian System of Payments ( in Portugueses, SPB); and the diffusion of new ways of rendering banking services employees (banking correspondents, credit and debit cards and Internet banking, mainly), made possible by the informational objects that have been installed in Brazilian territory since the last decades of the XX century. KEYWORDS: Brazilian banking system, use of territory, informational objects, Brazilian normative contents, overpresence of credit. L’ESPACE GÉOGRAPHIQUE, LE SYSTÈME BANCAIRE ET L’HYPERCAPILLARITÉ DU CRÉDIT AU BRÉSIL Fábio Betioli Contel L’objectif de cet article est d’analyser le fonctionnement actuel du système bancaire brésilien dans une perspective géographique. En définissant la période d’étude à partir de la mise en place du “Plan Réal” (1994), il a été possible d’identifier les principales modifications de contenus techniques et normatifs du territoire brésilien qui sont en lien direct avec le développement récent du système bancaire national. Parmi les principales nouveautés de ce système, trois éléments ont été mis en évidence: le processus de privatisation en masse des banques publiques des Etats de la Fédération, la mise en oeuvre d’un Système de Paiements Brésilien (SPB) et la diffusion de nouvelles formes de prestations de services bancaires (Correspondants Bancaires, cartes de crédit/débit et surtout internet banking , grâce aux moyens informationnels installés sur le territoire depuis les dernières décennies du XXe siècle. MOTS-CLÉS: système bancaire brésilien, utilisation du territoire, objets informationnels, contenus normatifs du territoire, hypercapillarité du crédit. Publicação Online do Caderno CRH: http://www.cadernocrh.ufba.br

Introduction This article reports on the emerging findings from a study undertaken as part of an international research collaboration (Australia, Belgium, Italy, UK; DP180103922) exploring the benefits and risks of the Internet of Toys (IoToys). IoToys builds upon technological innovations such as smartphone apps that remotely control home-based objects, and wearable technologies that measure sleep patterns and exercise regimes (Holloway and Green). Mascheroni and Holloway summarise the features of IoToys as entities that users can program, with human-toy interactivity, and which have network connectivity. In this discussion we focus on children’s play with a small programmable robot named Cozmo (fig. 1). The robot also has an ‘explorer mode’ in which children can view the world through the eyes of Cozmo, and a camera which can film the robot’s view, accessed through the mobile app. Children are encouraged to personify Cozmo, including feeding the robot and keeping it tuned up. Cozmo also has numerous functions including tricks, a coding lab, and games that utilise three provided ‘Power Cubes’ that encourage child-robot interaction: Keep Away – the player slides the cube closer to Cozmo then pulls away quickly when Cozmo ‘pounces’ – the aim of the game is to ensure Cozmo misses the cube. Quick Tap – a colour matching game which involves hitting the cubes (before Cozmo) when the colours match. Memory Match – Cozmo shows a pattern of colours, and the player then taps the cubes in the right colour order – each round the pattern gets longer. Fig. 1: Cozmo Whilst the toy uses Wi-Fi rather than connecting directly to the Internet, Cozmo was chosen as a focus for the study because many of its characteristics are typical of IoToys, including connectivity, programmability, and the human-toy connection (Mascheroni and Holloway). Children’s play lives have been changed through the development of digital technologies including smartphones, tablets, laptops, and games consoles (Marsh et al.) and inevitably, children’s play experiences now cross a range of boundaries including the “virtual/physical world, online/offline and digital/nondigital” (Marsh 5). As IoToys become more prevalent in the toy market, there is an increasing need to understand how these connected toys transcend digital-material boundaries between toy and media technology. Whilst toys such as Cozmo share similar traits with traditional toys, they also increasingly share characteristics with computing devices (i.e., video games, mobile apps) and domestic media (i.e., Amazon Alexa; Berriman and Mascheroni). The combination of the traditional and digital adds a layer of complexity to children’s play experiences as the interaction between the child and the robot is ‘reconfigured as a bidirectional, multidimensional, multisensory experience’ (Mascheroni and Holloway 5). By asking ‘what types of play does an Internet-enabled toy engender?’, this article examines the capabilities and limitations of Cozmo for children’s play experiences. Currently, there is little reliable information about children’s IoToy use despite the media attention the subject attracts. Many assumptions are made regarding how technological devices offer restricted opportunities for play (see Healey et al.), and therefore it is vital to investigate the benefits and limitations of these new-generation technologies for parents and children. This article contributes to ongoing debates focussing on children’s playful engagement with digital technology and the importance of engaging parents in discussions on different types of play and children’s development. Methodology This international study involved thirteen families across four countries (Australia, Belgium, Italy, UK; Appendix 1). Ethical clearance was obtained prior to the commencement of the study. Consent was gained from both the children and the parents, and the children were specifically asked if they could be audio-recorded and photographed by the researchers. Pseudonyms have been used in this article. Families were visited twice by a researcher, with each visit lasting around an hour. Firstly, the children were interviewed about their favourite toys, and the parent was interviewed about their thoughts on their children’s (digital) play practices. This provided background information about the child’s play ecologies, such as the extent to which they were familiar with IoToys. Cozmo was also introduced to the children during the first visit and researchers ensured they were confident using the toy before leaving. Cozmo was left with the children to use for a period of between one and three months before the researcher returned for the second visit. Families were reinterviewed, with a focus on what they thought about Cozmo, and how the children had engaged with the toy in their play. Data were deductively analysed using a revised version of Hughes’s taxonomy of play that takes account of the digital aspect of children’s play contexts. Hughes’s original framework, identifying the types of play children engage in, was developed before the rise of digital media. The revised taxonomy was developed by Marsh et al. (see Appendix 2) in a study that examined how apps can promote children’s play and creativity. Data emerging from this study illuminated how Hughes’s taxonomy can be applied in digital contexts, demonstrating that “what changes in digital contexts is not so much the types of play possible, but the nature of that play” (Marsh et al. 250). The adapted framework was applied to the data as a way of analysing play with Cozmo across digital and non-digital spaces, and selections from the transcripts were chosen to illustrate the categories, discussed in the next section. Framing Children’s Digital and Non-Digital Play Practices The findings from the data highlight numerous digital play types (Marsh et al.) that occurred during the children’s interactions with the robot, primarily: Imaginative play in a digital context in which children pretend that things are otherwise. Exploratory play in a digital context in which children explore objects and spaces through the senses to find out information or explore possibilities. Mastery play in digital contexts in which children attempt to gain control of environments. Communication play using words, songs, rhymes, poetry in a digital context. Other types of play that were observed include: Virtual Locomotor play involving movement in a digital context e.g., child may play hide and seek with others in a virtual world. Object play in which children explore virtual objects through vision and touch. Social play in a digital context during which rules for social interaction are constructed and employed. Imaginative Play “Imaginative play” was prevalent in all the case study families, in particular anthropomorphic/zoomorphic play. Anthropomorphic/zoomorphic play can be categorised as imaginative play when children are aware that the object is not real; they display a willing suspension of disbelief. The morphology of social robots is often classified into anthropomorphic (i.e., human-like) and zoomorphic (i.e., animal-like) and different morphologies can elicit differences in how users perceive and interact with robots (Barco et al.). This was the case for the children in this research, who all referred to the fact that the toy was a robot but often described Cozmo as having human/animal attributes. Across the sample, the children talked about Cozmo as if it was a fellow human being or pet. Eleanor (aged 8) stated that “I feel like he’s one of my family”, while Emma (aged 8) said “we sometimes call him ‘brother’ because he is a little bit like family”. Martina (aged 8) observed that Cozmo sometimes has “hiccups'' that prevent him from responding to her queries, reasoning that “it happens by itself because it eats too much”. Louis (aged 9) did not refer to Cozmo as being human, although he did attribute emotions to the toy, mentioning that Cozmo runs in circles whenever he is happy. Sofia’s mother stated that “one thing that made me laugh is that for Sofia it is a puppy. So, she would pet it, give it kisses”. The mother of Aryana (aged 9) commented that “they tried to like treat it like a living thing, not like toy, like a pet . ... They treat it not like something dead or something frozen, something live”. Epley et al. suggest that anthropomorphisation occurs because knowledge that individuals have about humans is developed earlier than knowledge about non-human entities. Therefore, the knowledge children have of being human is drawn upon when encountering objects such as robots. It may be of little surprise that children react like this because, as Marsh (Uncanny Valley 58) argues, “younger children are likely to possess less knowledge about both human and non-human entities than older children and adults, and, therefore, are more likely to anthropomorphise”. Severson and Woodard (2) argue that even in cases where children know the object is not real, the children ascribe feelings, thoughts, and desires to objects in such a serious manner that anthropomorphism is a “pervasive phenomenon that goes beyond mere pretense”. Robot toys such as Cozmo are specifically designed to stimulate anthropomorphism/zoomorphism. Beck et al. have shown that head movements help children identify emotions in robots. Cozmo is programmed to recognise faces and learn names, which inevitably contributes to children feeling an emotional connection. For example, Eleanor (aged 8) remarked that “he was always looking at me and it looked like he was listening to me when I was talking”. The desire for a connection with the robot was so strong for Oscar (aged 7) that he deliberately programmed the robot to respond to him, saying “I can make him do happy stuff which makes me feel like he likes me”. Emma’s mother stated that whenever Emma (aged 8) did something that seemed to make Cozmo happy, she would do those things repeatedly. Emma also referred to Cozmo as having agency, for example, when Cozmo built towers or turned himself into a bulldozer. Even though she made those commands herself via the app, Emma attributed the idea and action to Cozmo. Overall, the children implemented imaginative play practices through the pretence of Cozmo’s ‘human-like’ attributes such as knowing their name, “looking at” and “listening to” them, and displaying different emotions such as love, anger, and happiness. Exploratory Play “Exploratory play” usually occurred when the children first received the toy and most of the children immediately wanted to get to know Cozmo’s features and possibilities. Arthur’s father stated that the first thing Arthur (aged 8) did was grab the remote and start clicking buttons to find out what would happen. Oscar’s mother was amazed that her child had played initially for five hours using Cozmo when he did not spend this long with other toys. She explained that he had been exploring what the toy could do: “he was getting it to choose blocks, pick up blocks, do tricks, make faces, and do dances … . He really enjoyed that”. Controlling Cozmo to travel between rooms was an example of “Virtual Locomotor play”, although the robot could also lead to locomotor play in the physical world as children chased after Cozmo or danced with it. Further examples of virtual locomotor play occurred when the robot followed and chased children if they moved from the play area. Oscar (aged 7) enjoyed using this mode to set the robot on a course which led to it ‘spying’ on his younger sister. His mother noted that: because their bedrooms are opposite sides of the hallway, he kept sending Cozmo to go and watch what she was doing and waiting and seeing how long it took her to realise he was there. Jacob (aged 10) also swiftly realised Cozmo’s surveillance potential as he referred to the robot as a “spying machine”. Louis (aged 9) stated that after he had explored all the options Cozmo offers, playing with it became dull. To him, all the fun was in the exploratory play. Other children across the sample also reported that they stopped playing with Cozmo after a while when they felt like there was nothing new to explore. Mastery Play “Exploratory play” was also connected to “Mastery play” through programmatic sequencing which enabled the robot to move and follow different directions as requested by the children. For example, Eleanor (aged 8) commented, “I liked to play games with him ... . I liked doing the acting thing”. This involved programming the toy to undertake a series of actions that were sequenced in a performance. For Ebrahim (aged 7), the explorer mode also led to mastery play, as he set up an obstacle course for Cozmo using his toy soldiers, explaining that “I took a couple of my soldiers in here and made them out in a specific order and then I tried to get past them in explorer mode”. Arthur (aged 8) would continuously try to find ways to make Cozmo go through obstacle courses faster. He especially liked the coding and programming aspect of the toy, and his father would challenge him to think his decisions through to get better results. Children also utilised other objects in their exploratory and mastery play. Louis (aged 9) would put up barricades so that Cozmo could not escape, and Matteo (aged 9) constructed “high towers” and operated “stability tests” by using Cozmo’s explorer mode and constructing pathways through furniture and other objects. The blurring of physical/virtual and material/digital play, which is prevalent in contemporary play landscapes (Marsh et al., Children, Technology and Play), is highlighted during these episodes in which the children incorporated their own interests linked to their personal environments into their play with Cozmo. Mastery play inevitably involved “Object play”, as children played around with icons on the app to investigate their properties. Cozmo offers a variety of games which stimulate various abilities and can be played via the app or remote. Available games allow both child-robot interaction by means of the ‘Power Cubes’ provided with the robot, and programming games with different difficulty levels. Physical contact between the child and Cozmo, and the robot’s responses, encouraged anthropomorphism, as Jacob (aged 10) switched from referencing Cozmo as ‘it’ to ‘him’ as the discussion progressed: Interviewer: (to Jacob) We got a robot interfacing this time. (To Cozmo) Hello, are you still looking at me? That’s great. (To Jacob) So, do you want to show us your fist bumps that you coded? Jacob: Oh, I didn’t code it. Well, I did code it. Go to tricks. Do you want to fist bump him? Interviewer: Yeah, can I fist bump him? Jacob: Just put your fist near him like close, close, like that. In addition to the fist bump game, Dylan (aged 9) unlocked the Fist Bump app icon on his tablet enabling him to receive rewards by alternating physical fist bumps with himself and virtual fist bumps between Cozmo and the iPad. These object and exploratory play types were positioned as stimulating the robot’s feelings and emotions through musical sounds (like a robot “purring”) that seem to be designed to foster a stronger connection between the child and Cozmo. All the children in the research played Cozmo’s games; the tapping game and the building games with blocks were popular. A clear connection between mastery and object play is shown in those situations where children explore objects to gain control of their environment. While children pointed out that winning the games against Cozmo was almost impossible, some tried to change the game in their favour. Arthur (aged 8), for example, would move the blocks during games to slow down Cozmo. Whenever Emma (aged 8) became impatient with the games, she would move the blocks closer to Cozmo to finish certain games faster. Mastery play was valued by parents because of its interactivity and educational potential. Arthur’s father praised Cozmo’s programming and coding possibilities and valued the technical insight and problem-solving skills it teaches children. Oscar’s mother also valued the educational potential of the toy, but did not appear to recognise that the exploratory play he engaged in involved learning: I liked the fact that it had all these sorts of educational aspects to it. It would have been nice if we’d have got to use them. I like the idea that it could code, and it would teach coding ... but it wasn’t to be. There was some disappointment with the lack of engagement with the coding capabilities of Cozmo. Parents lamented that their children did not engage with coding activities but accepted that this was due to the level of difficulty or technical issues (i.e., Cozmo shutting down frequently), as well as their children’s inability to navigate coding activities (i.e., due to their age). Communication Play “Communication play” was observed as the English-speaking children learnt how to write things into Cozmo that the robot would then say. Ebrahim (aged 7) explained “you can type whatever you want him to say, like, I typed this, ‘I play with Monica’”. Emma (aged 8) made up entire stories for Cozmo to tell, and Arthur (aged 8) made up plays for Cozmo to perform. Oscar (aged 7) felt that the app had helped him learn to read: when asked how it helped him to read, he said “by me typing it in and him saying the words back to me so then I can hear what it says”. This highlights how IoToys can facilitate a playful approach to literacy and supports the work of Heljakka and Ihamäki (96), who assert a need to “widen understandings of toy literacy into multiple directions”. As such, the potential to support aspects of children’s literacy and digital learning in a way that is engaging and playful illuminates the benefits that these types of toys can provide. In contrast, Italian and Belgian children faced more difficulties in communicating with Cozmo as they did not speak English. However, this did not limit the possibility to interact and communicate with Cozmo, for example, through parental mediation or by referring to recognisable symbols (sounds, icons, and images in the app). Other Types of Play The data indicated that four play types (imaginative, exploratory, mastery, and communication play) were the most prevalent among the participating families, although there was also evidence of “Locomotor play” (during exploratory play), and “Object play” (during mastery play). “Social play” was also reported, for instance, when children played with the robot with siblings or friends. All the children wanted to show Cozmo to friends and family. Arthur (aged 8) even arranged with his teacher that he could bring Cozmo to school and show his classmates what Cozmo could do during a class presentation. “Creative play” (play that enables children to explore, develop ideas, and make things in a digital context) was limited in the data. Whilst there was some evidence of this type of play – for example, Oscar (aged 7) and Matteo (aged 9) built ramps and obstacle courses for Cozmo –, in general, there was limited evidence of children playing in creative ways to produce new artefacts with the robot. This is despite the toy having a creative mode, in which children can use the app to code games and actions for Cozmo. For Eleanor, it seemed that the toy did not foster open-ended play. Her mother noted that Eleanor normally enjoyed creative play, but she appeared to lose interest in the toy after displaying initial enthusiasm: “I don’t think it was creative enough, I think it’s not open-ended enough and that’s why she didn’t play with it, would be my guess”. Oscar (aged 7) also lost interest in the toy after the first few weeks of use, which his mother put down to technical issues: I think if it worked flawlessly every time he’d gone to pick it up then he would have been quite happy ... but after a couple of negative experiences where it wouldn’t load up and it’s very frustrating, maybe it just put him off. Other families also talked about how the battery was quick to drain and slow to charge, which impacted on the nature of the play. Emma’s mother stated that the WiFi settings needed to be changed to play with Cozmo which Emma (aged 8) could not do by herself. Therefore, she was only able to play with Cozmo when her mother was around to help her. According to the parents of Arthur and Emma (both aged 8), Cozmo often showed technical errors and did not perform certain games, which caused some frustration with the children. The mother of Aryana (aged 9) also reported a loss of interest in Cozmo, but not particularly related to technical reasons: “she lost interest all the time, so she didn’t follow the steps to the end, she just play a little bit and she'd say, ‘Oh I'm bored, I want to do something’ … mostly YouTube”. Such hesitant engagement may be due to technical issues but might also be due to the limitations regarding creative play identified in this study. Conclusion This study indicates that the Cozmo robot led to a variety of types of play, and that the adaptation of Hughes’s framework by Marsh et al. offered a useful index for identifying changing practices in children's play. As highlighted, children’s play with Cozmo often transcended the virtual and physical, online and offline, and digital and material, as well as providing a vehicle for learning. This analysis thus challenges the proposition that electronic objects limit children’s imagination and play. Prevalent in the findings was the willingness of children to suspend disbelief and engage in anthropomorphic/zoomorphic play with Cozmo by applying human-like attributes to the toy. Children related to the emotional connection with the robot much more than the technical aspects (i.e., coding), and whilst the children understood the limitations of the robot’s agency, there are studies to suggest that caution should be applied by robot developers to ensure that, as technology advances, children are able to maintain the understanding that robots are different from human beings (van den Berghe et al.). This is of particular importance when existing literature highlights that younger children have a less nuanced understanding of the ‘alive’ status of a robot than older children (Nijssen et al.). Children often incorporated more traditional toys and resources into their play with Cozmo: for instance, the use of toy soldiers and building blocks to create obstacle courses demonstrates the digital-material affordances of children’s play. All the children enjoyed the pre-programmed games that utilised the ‘Power Cubes’, and there was an element of competitiveness for the children who demonstrated an eagerness to ‘beat’ the toy. Importantly, parents reported that the app supported children’s literacy development in a playful way, although this was more beneficial for the children whose first language was English. The potential for children’s literacy development through playful child-robot interaction presents opportunities for further study. One significant limitation of the toy that emerged from the findings was the capacity to encourage children’s creative play. Kahn Jr. et al.'s earlier research showed that children endowed less animation to robot toys than to stuffed animals, as if children believe that toy robots have some agency and do not need assistance. Therefore, it is possible that children are less inclined to play in creative ways because they expect Cozmo to control his own behaviour. The research has implications for work with parents. The parents in this study emphasised the value of mastery play for education, but at times overlooked the worth of other types of play for learning. Engaging parents in discussion of the significance that different types of play have for children’s development could be beneficial not just for their own understanding, but also for the types of play they may then encourage and support. The study also has implications for the future development of IoToys. The producers of Cozmo promote types of play through the activities they support in the app, but a broader range of activities could lead to a wider variety of types of play to include, for example, fantasy or dramatic play. There are also opportunities to promote more creative play by, for example, enabling children to construct new artefacts for the robot toy itself, or providing drawing/painting tools that Cozmo could be programmed to use via the app. Broadening play types by design could be encouraged across the toy industry as a whole but, in relation to the IoToys, the opportunities for these kinds of approaches are exciting, reflecting rapid advances in technology that open up possible new worlds of play. This is the challenge for the next few years of toy development, when the first possibilities of the IoToys have been explored. Acknowledgement This research was funded by ARC Discovery Project award DP180103922 – The Internet of Toys: Benefits and Risks of Connected Toys for Children. The article originated as an initiative of the International Partners: Dr Louise Kay and Professor Jackie Marsh (University of Sheffield, UK), Associate Professor Giovanna Mascheroni (Università Cattolica, Italy), and Professor Bieke Zaman (KU Leuven, Belgium). The Australian Chief Investigators on this grant were Dr Donell Holloway and Professor Lelia Green, Edith Cowan University. Much of this article was written by Research Officers who supported the grant’s Investigators, and all parties gratefully acknowledge the funding provided by the Australian Research Council for this project. References Barco, Alex, et al. “Robot Morphology and Children's Perception of Social Robots: An Exploratory Study.” International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction, 23-26 Mar. 2020, Cambridge. Beck, Aryel, et al. “Interpretation of Emotional Body Language Displayed by a Humanoid Robot: A Case Study with Children.” International Journal of Social Robotics 5.3 (2013). 27 Jan. 2023 <https://doi.org/10.1007/s12369-013-0193-z>. Berriman, Liam, and Giovanna Mascheroni. “Exploring the Affordances of Smart Toys and Connected Play in Practice.” New Media & Society 21.4 (2019). 27 Jan. 2023 <https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444818807119>. Brito, Rita, et al. “Young Children, Digital Media and Smart Toys: How Perceptions Shape Adoption and Domestication.” British Journal of Educational Technology 49.5 (2018). 27 Jan. 2023 <https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12655>. Epley, Nicholas, et al. "On Seeing Human: A Three-Factor Theory of Anthropomorphism". Psychological Review 114.4 (2007): 864-886. Healey, Aleeya, et al. “Selecting Appropriate Toys for Young Children in the Digital Era.” Pediatrics 143.1 (2019). 27 Jan. 2023 <https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2018-3348>. Holloway, Donell, and Lelia Green. "The Internet of Toys." Communication Research and Practice 2.4 (2016): 506-519. Hughes, Bob. A Playworker’s Taxonomy of Play Types. 2nd ed. Playlink, 2002. Heljakka, Katriina, and Pirita Ihamäki. “Preschoolers Learning with the Internet of Toys: From Toy-Based Edutainment to Transmedia Literacy.” Seminar.Net 14.1 (2018): 85–102. Kahn Jr., Peter, et al. "Robotic Pets in the Lives of Preschool Children." Interaction Studies 7.3 (2007): 405-436. Marsh, Jackie. “The Internet of Toys: A Posthuman and Multimodal Analysis of Connected Play.” Teachers College Record (2017): 30. ———. "The Uncanny Valley Revisited: Play with the Internet of Toys." Internet of Toys : Practices, Affordances and the Political Economy of Children's Smart Play. Eds. Giovanni Mascheroni and Donell Holloway. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019. 47-66. Marsh, Jackie, et al. “Digital Play: A New Classification.” Early Years 36.3 (2016): 242. Marsh, Jackie, et al. Children, Technology and Play: Key Findings of a Large-Scale Research Report. The LEGO Foundation, 2020. Mascheroni, Giovanni, and Donell Holloway, eds. Internet of Toys : Practices, Affordances and the Political Economy of Children’s Smart Play. Palgrave Macmillan, 2019. Nijssen, Sari, et al. "You, Robot? The Role of Anthropomorphic Emotion Attributions in Children’s Sharing with a Robot." International Journal of Child-Computer Interaction 30 (2021). 15 Apr. 2023 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijcci.2021.100319>. Severson, Rachel L., and Shailee R. Woodard. “Imagining Others? Minds: The Positive Relation between Children's Role Play and Anthropomorphism.” Frontiers in Psychology 9 (2018). 27 Jan. 2023 <https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02140>. Van den Berghe, Rianne, et al. "A Toy or a friend? Children's Anthropomorphic Beliefs about Robots and How These Relate to Second-Language Word Learning." Journal of Computer Assisted Learning 37.2 (2021): 396– 410. 15 Apr. 2023 <https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12497>. Appendix 1: Participants Country Name (Pseudonym) Sex Age Siblings 1 UK Eleanor F 8 2 younger brothers 2 UK Ebrahim M 7 2 older sisters 3 UK Oscar M 7 1 younger sister 4 UK Aryana F 9 2 younger brothers 5 AU Jacob M 10 1 younger brother 6 AU Dylan M 9 2 older brothers 7 Italy Martina F 8 2 younger sisters 8 Italy Anna F 8 1 younger sister 9 Italy Luca M 8 1 older brother 10 Italy Matteo M 9 1 younger sister 11 Belgium Louis M 9 2 younger sisters 12 Belgium Emma F 8 1 younger sister 13 Belgium Arthur M 8 1 younger sister Appendix 2: Play Types Play Type Play Types (Hughes) Digital Play Types (adapted by Marsh et al., "Digital Play") Symbolic play Occurs when an object stands for another object, e.g. a stick becomes a horse Occurs when a virtual object stands for another object, e.g. an avatar’s shoe becomes a wand Rough and tumble play Children are in physical contact during play, but there is no violence Occurs when avatars that represent users in a digital environment touch each other playfully, e.g. bumping each other Socio-dramatic play Enactment of real-life scenarios that are based on personal experiences, e.g. playing house Enactment of real-life scenarios in a digital environment that are based on personal experiences Social play Play during which rules for social interaction are constructed and employed Play in a digital context during which rules for social interaction are constructed and employed Creative play Play that enables children to explore, develop ideas, and make things Play that enables children to explore, develop ideas, and make things in a digital context Communication play Play using words, songs, rhymes, poetry, etc. Play using words, songs, rhymes, poetry, etc., in a digital context, e.g. text messages, multimodal communication Dramatic play Play that dramatises events in which children have not directly participated, e.g. TV shows Play in a digital context that dramatises events in which children have not directly participated, e.g. TV shows. Locomotor play Play which involves movement, e.g. chase, hide and seek Virtual locomotor play involves movement in a digital context, e.g. child may play hide and seek with others in a virtual world Deep play Play in which children encounter risky experiences, or feel as though they have to fight for survival Play in digital contexts in which children encounter risky experiences, or feel as though they have to fight for survival Exploratory play Play in which children explore objects, spaces, etc. through the senses in order to find out information, or explore possibilities Play in a digital context in which children explore objects, spaces, etc., through the senses in order to find out information, or explore possibilities Fantasy play Play in which children can take on roles that would not occur in real life, e.g. be a superhero Play in a digital context in which children can take on roles that would not occur in real life, e.g. be a superhero Imaginative play Play in which children pretend that things are otherwise Play in a digital context in which children pretend that things are otherwise Mastery play Play in which children attempt to gain control of environments, e.g. building dens Play in digital contexts in which children attempt to gain control of environments, e.g. creating a virtual world Object play Play in which children explore objects through touch and vision Play in which children explore virtual objects through vision and touch through the screen or mouse Role play Play in which children might take on a role beyond the personal or domestic roles associated with socio-dramatic play Play in a digital context in which children might take on a role beyond the personal or domestic roles associated with socio-dramatic play Recapitulative play Play in which children might explore history, rituals, and myths, and play in ways that resonate with the activities of our human ancestors (lighting fires, building shelters, and so on) Play in a digital context in which children might explore history, rituals, and myths, and play in ways that resonate with the activities of our human ancestors (lighting fires, building shelters, and so on) Transgressive play Play in which children contest, resist, and/or transgress expected norms, rules, and perceived restrictions in both digital and non-digital contexts.

L’anthropologie sociale et la sociologie sont des disciplines jumelles. Toutes deux s’intéressent à la diversité des formations sociales et à leurs transformations, plus particulièrement à l’articulation entre la subjectivité ou l’expérience individuelle et l’univers social. Elles partagent sensiblement les mêmes méthodes (observation, entrevues, recensements, analyse de textes, etc.), elles puisent toutes les deux dans les mêmes disciplines avoisinantes (histoire, philosophie, psychanalyse, études littéraires), et surtout, elles pratiquent entre elles de nombreux échanges (concepts, cadres théoriques, analyses). Nombreuses sont les personnes qui circulent entre les deux par l’enseignement, les colloques et les revues. L’anthropologie et la sociologie partagent également les mêmes doutes: elles sont promptes à se remettre en cause et à interroger leurs fondement en raison du rapport complexe qu’elles entretiennent avec leur «objet»; elles sont tiraillées entre une revendication de scientificité et d’objectivité, et un désir d’engagement dans les débats sociaux, entre un rattachement à la science et un rattachement aux humanités, entre l’usage d’un langage neutre et technique et un langage plus personnel et littéraire; elles demeurent également toutes les deux tentées par une forme d’impérialisme : le désir de rassembler sous son aile théorique les autres sciences sociales. Disciplines jumelles, elles ne sont pas pour autant identiques. Des différences importantes demeurent, qui ont cependant évolué ces dernières décennies. Il y a quarante ans encore, on pouvait distinguer l’anthropologie sociale et la sociologie, en notant que la première (de l'anthropologie culturelle américaine au structuralisme français) s’intéresse aux sociétés les plus diverses, qu’elle compare entre elles, afin de dégager les constantes et les variations, alors que la seconde (de l'école durkheimienne à la sociologie urbaine de Chicago) s’intéresse uniquement aux sociétés modernes, qu’elle compare chacune avec son passé pour mesurer ce qui a changé et comprendre le sens de la modernité. La première fait une comparaison dans l’espace entre des sociétés très différentes, l’autre fait une comparaison dans le temps, entre deux moments d’une même société. La première s’emploie à réduire l’écart entre les cultures en montrant comment les conduites et les représentations des «autres», bien que différentes ne pas sont irrationnelles, barbares ou arriérées (Lévi-Strauss, 1962; Geertz, 1983), alors que la seconde s’interroge sur ce que «nous» sommes devenus, ce que nous avons gagné ou perdu avec les transformations de la société (Touraine, 1992; Freitag, 2002). Cette distinction n’est toutefois plus possible aujourd’hui, et cela pour plusieurs raisons. D’abord, les sociétés exotiques ou radicalement différentes de l’Occident ont disparu, et les cultures comme entités relativement homogènes et séparées ont fait place à des villes cosmopolites et aux échanges planétaires. Anthropologie et sociologie comparent les différentes formes et expériences de modernisation et de modernité à travers le monde (Dumont, 1983). Elles s’intéressent aux mêmes objets, des biotechnologies aux transformations de la famille en passant par l’État et les réseaux internet. Ensuite, les deux disciplines font face à des interprétations concurrentes de plus en plus nombreuses : elles voient leurs analyses critiquées et réfutées par ceux-là même qu’elles étudient. Elles s’insèrent dans des débats sociaux et politiques qui les précèdent et auxquels elles apportent un point de vue susceptible d’être contesté. Enfin, le caractère de plus en plus opérationnel, appliqué et pluridisciplinaire de la recherche, favorise au sein des deux disciplines l’uniformisation des méthodes et des approches théoriques, et surtout conduit à la fragmentation des objets. Elles étudient moins des sociétés ou des cultures que des secteurs d’activités (ex : la santé, la famille, la religion), et avec cette spécialisation, un anthropologue et un sociologue travaillant dans le même secteur ont souvent davantage en commun et à partager, que deux anthropologues travaillant dans des secteurs différents. Ces changements n’ont toutefois pas entièrement effacé les différences. L’anthropologie et la sociologie conservent chacune un style et une orientation qui lui sont propres, et qui tiennent à leur rapport différent à la modernité. Toutes deux entretiennent un rapport ambivalent aux idéaux de la modernité, mais l’ambivalence n’est pas la même. Les sociologues demeurent largement attachés aux idéaux d’autonomie, de rationalisation et d’égalité. L’émancipation des individus et des collectivités à l’égard des croyances et des idéologies, et de toutes les formes de domination politique et culturelle, ainsi que le développement d’une capacité du sujet de réfléchir sa situation et de s’orienter en fonction d’un projet politique, demeurent au centre de l’analyse et de l’imagination sociologique (Wright Mills, 1959). La critique porte largement sur la perversion de ces idéaux : perversion de l’autonomie dans l’individualisme, de la raison dans la rationalité instrumentale, de l’égalité dans les différences d’accès aux décisions, aux biens et aux savoirs. D’où cet effort constant des sociologues pour placer les sociétés modernes devant leurs contradictions, rappeler leurs promesses non tenues (persistance des inégalités, formes de domination) et montrer les effets pervers de leurs idéaux (bureaucratie, narcissisme); d’où leur intérêt pour ce qui favorise l’esprit critique : l’éducation, les espaces de discussion, de délibération et de participation politique. Plus distants à l’égard de l’Occident, les anthropologues n’en sont pas moins attachés à certaines valeurs de la modernité, l’autonomie et l’égalité, et tout particulièrement l’idéal politique de tolérance et de respect des différences. L’anthropologie continue de s’intéresser à tout ce qui s’écarte de la culture occidentale, aux façons de vivre, de faire et de dire qui se démarquent de celles que le marché et les médias imposent partout dans le monde, à toutes les identités, pratiques et savoirs à la marge, dissidentes ou exclues des courants dominants, à tout ce qui est considéré comme anormal, regardé avec mépris ou négligé. L’anthropologie demeure une critique de toute forme d’absolutisme dans la pensée, la morale et le jugement esthétique (Geertz, 2000) ; elle s’emploie à élargir notre expérience et notre compréhension du monde, à les ouvrir à tout ce qui étonne et dérange au premier abord; elle invite à ne pas demeurer prisonnier de son point de vue. Du relativisme culturel qu’elle a longtemps défendu, l’anthropologie conserve cet intérêt pour l’autre, jamais identique ni absolument différent de soi. D’où cette préoccupation constante chez les anthropologues pour la relation qu’ils entretiennent avec ceux qu’ils étudient et ce qui est en jeu dans cette relation; d’où leur attachement au terrain, à la description minutieuse des pratiques et des représentations, alors que les sociologues aiment élaborer de grandes typologies et périodisations. L’autonomie demeure ainsi la grande affaire de la sociologie, et l’altérité est le maitre mot de l’anthropologie. En sociologie, les travaux d’Ulrich Beck (2001) et d’Antony Giddens (1991), chacun à leur manière, illustrent la place centrale qu’occupe la question de l’autonomie. Le premier a défini la société contemporaine comme une société du risque, caractérisée par une crise de la planification et du progrès, une perte de confiance dans la rationalité scientifique et une perte de maitrise des sociétés et des individus sur leur destin; l’un des enjeux principaux auxquelles ces sociétés font face est la capacité des individus à exercer leur jugement critique. Le second s’est longuement intéressé à la manière dont les «acteurs» réfléchissent leur situation, se construisent une identité, font des choix; si la société exerce des contraintes sur les individus, elle leur fournit également des ressources pour penser leur situation et s’en émanciper. En anthropologie, les travaux de Philippe Descola (2005) et d’Ellen Corin (2010) donnent deux aperçus de la manière de traiter la question de l’altérité et des rapports que les individus et les groupes entretiennent avec elle. Le premier s’est attelé à comprendre la diversité des rapports que les sociétés ont entretenu avec la nature, des formes d’altérité que l’homme entretient avec les animaux notamment, brouillant ainsi les frontières entre nature et culture. La seconde s’est longuement intéressée à la capacité des individus et des sociétés à tolérer la différence et la marge, à nommer et symboliser ce qui est étrange et dérange, à composer avec l’altérité radicale, logée en eux-mêmes, leurs pulsions, ce qui les trouble. Ce ne sont là que quelques exemples qui illustrent les préoccupations au centre des deux disciplines. Comme toute distinction, celle-ci est bien sûr trop schématique : les oppositions sont rarement aussi nettes et les chevauchements souvent très nombreux. Sans doute faut-il éviter les cloisonnements, ne pas délimiter des territoires ou des champs de pratique réservés, tout comme il faut se garder de tout confondre et d’abolir les différences. Si un écart doit être maintenu, c’est pour préserver un espace où circuler et échanger.

Introduction The trope of food is often used in the humanities to discuss aspects of a culture that are customarily overlooked by a textualist approach, for food embodies a kind of knowledge that comes from the direct engagement with materials and processes, and involves taste as an aesthetics that exceeds the visual concept of the “beautiful.” Moreover, cooking is one of the most ancient cultural practices, and is considered the habit that defines us as humans in comparison to other animals—not only culturally, but also physiologically (Wrangham). Today we have entered a post-human age in which technological augmentations, while promoting the erasure of embodiment in favour of intelligence (Hayles), create new assemblages between the organic and the digital, thus redefining what it means to be human. In this context, a reassessment of the practice of cooking as the manipulation of what constitutes food—both for thought and for the body—may promote a more nuanced approach to contemporary culture, in which the agency of the non-human (from synthetic materials to the digital) affects our modes of being and reflects on our aesthetic sensibility. In the 1980s, Guy Debord observed that the food industry's standardisation and automation of methods of production and consumption have anaesthetised the consumer palate with broader political and cultural implications. Today the Internet has extended the intertwinement of food and technology to the social and aesthetic spheres, thus further impacting on taste. For instance, cultural trends such as “foodism” and “slow food” thrive on blogs and social networks and, while promoting an artisanal style in food preparation and presentation, they paradoxically may also homogenise cooking techniques and the experience of sharing a meal. This leads to questions regarding the extent to which the digitalisation of culture might be hindering our capacity to taste. Or, given the new possibilities for connectivity, can this digitalisation also foster an aesthetic sensibility associated with different attitudes and approaches to food—one that transgresses both the grand narratives and the standardisation promoted by such gastronomic fashions? It also leads to the question of how such activities reflect on the collective sphere, considering the contagious character of networked communication. While foodism thrives online, the Internet has nevertheless prompted a renewed interest in DIY (do-it-yourself) cooking techniques. As a recent issue of M/C Journal testifies, today cookbooks are produced and consulted at an unprecedented rate—either in print or online (Brien and Wessell). Taking the example of the online diffusion of DIY cheese-making recipes, I will below trace the connections between cooking, computer culture, and taste with the support of Gilbert Simondon's metaphysics of technics. Although Simondon never extensively discussed food in relation to technology, the positioning of technicity at the heart of culture allows his work to be used to address the multifaceted nature of taste in the light of recent technological development, in particular of the Network. As a matter of fact, today cooking is not only a technical activity, in the sense that it requires a certain practical and theoretical skilfulness—it is also a technological matter, for the amount of networked machines that are increasingly used for food production and marketing. Specifically, this paper argues that by disentangling the human—albeit partially—from the capitalist cycle of production-marketing-consumption and by triggering an awareness of the increasingly dominant role technology plays in food processing and manufacturing, the online sharing of home-cooking advice may promote a reconfiguration of taste, which would translate into a more nuanced approach to contemporary techno-culture. In the first part of this discussion, I introduce Simondon’s philosophy and foreground the technical dimension of cooking by discussing cheese-making as a process of individuation. In the second, I focus on Simondon’s definition of technical objects and technical ensembles to position Internet culture in relation to cooking, and highlight how technicity folds back on taste as aesthetic impression. Ultimately, I conclude with some reflections on how such a culinary-aesthetic approach may find application in other techno-cultural fields by promoting an aesthetic sensibility that extends beyond the experience of the “social” to encompass an ethical component. Cooking as Individuation: The Networked Dimension of Taste Simondon is known as the thinker, and “tinkerer”, of technics. His project is concerned with ontogenesis—that is, the becoming of objects in relation to the terms that constitute them as individual. Simondon’s philosophy of individuation allows for a better understanding of how the Internet fosters certain attitudes to food, for it is grounded on a notion of “energetic materiality in movement” (Deleuze and Guattari 408) that explains how “immaterial” algorithms can affect individual experience and cultural production. For Simondon, individuation is the process that arises from objects being out-of-phase with themselves. Put differently, individuation allows for “the conservation of being through becoming” (Genesis 301). Likewise, individualisation is “the individuation of an individuated being, resulting from an individuation, [and creating] a new structuration within the individual” (L’Individuation 132). Individuation and individualisation are processes common to all kinds of being. Any individual operates an internal and an external resonance within the system in which it is enmeshed, and produces an “associated milieu” capable of entering into relation with other individuals within the system. Simondon maintains that nature consists of three regimes of individuation, that is, three possible phases of every being: the physical, the biological, and the psycho-social—that develop from a metastable pre-individual field. Technology traverses all three regimes and allows for further individualisation via transductive operations across such phases—that is, via operations of conversion of energy from one form to another. The recent online diffusion of DIY cheese-making recipes lends itself to be analysed with the support of Simondon’s philosophy. Today cheese dominates degustation menus beside the finest wines, and constitutes a common obsession among “foodies.” Although, as an object, cheese defies more traditional canons of beauty and pleasure—its usual pale yellow colour is not especially inviting and, generally speaking, the stinkier and mouldier it is, the more exclusive and expensive it usually is—it has played a sizeable role in the collective imagination since ancient times. Although the genesis of cheese predates archival memory, it is commonly assumed to be the fruit of the chemical reaction naturally occurring in the interaction of milk with the rennet inherently contained in the bladders made of ruminants’ stomachs in which milk was contained during the long transits undertaken by the nomadic cultures of Central Asia. Cheese is an invention that reportedly occurred without human intervention, and only the technical need to preserve milk in high temperature impelled humans to learn to produce it. Since World War II its production is most exclusively factory-based, even in the case of artisanal cheese (McGee), which makes the renewed concern for homemade cheese more significant from a techno-cultural perspective. Following Simondon, the individualisation of cheese—and of people in relation to cheese—depends on the different objects involved in its production, and whose associated milieu affects the outcome of the ontogenetic process via transductive operations. In the specific case of an industrial block of cheese, these may include: the more or less ethical breeding and milking of cows in a factory environment; the types of bacteria involved in the cheese-making process; the energy and costs inherent in the fabrication of the packaging material and the packaging process itself; the CO2 emissions caused by transportations; the physical and intellectual labour implied in marketing, retailing and selling; and, last but not least, the arguable nutritional value of the factory-produced cheese—all of which, in spite of their “invisibility” to the eyes of the consumer, affect physical conditions and moods when they enter into relation with the human body (Bennet). To these, we may add, with specific reference to the packaging: the RFID tags that electronically index food items into databases for a more efficient management of supplies, and the QR codes used for social media marketing purposes. In contrast, the direct engagement with the techno-material conditions at the basis of the home cookery process allows one to grasp how different operations may affect the outcome of the recipe. DIY cheese-making recipes are specifically addressed to laypeople and, because they hardly demand professional equipment, they entail a greater attunement with, and to, the objects and processes required by the recipe. For instance, one needs to “feel” when milk has reached the right temperature (specifically, 82 degrees centigrade, which means that the surface of the milk should be slightly bubbly but not fully boiling) and, with practice, one learns how the slightest movement of the hand can lead to different results, in terms of consistency and aspect. Ultimately, DIY cheese-making allows the cook to be creative with moulding, seasonings, and marinading. Indeed, by directly engaging with the undiscovered properties and potentials of ingredients, by understanding the role that energy (both in the sense of induction and “transduction”) plays on form and matter, and by developing—often via processes of trial and error—technics for stirring, draining, moulding, marinading, canning, and so forth, making cheese at home an exercise in speculative pragmatics. An experimental approach to cooking, as the negotiation between the rigid axioms that make up a recipe and the creative and experimental components inherent in the operations of mixing and blending, allows one to feel the ultimate outcome of the cooking process as an event. The taste of a homemade cheese is linked to a new kind of knowledge—that is, an epistemology based on continuous breakages that allow for the cooking process to carry on until the ultimate result. It is a knowledge that comes from a commitment to objects being out-of-phase, and from the acknowledgement of the network of technical operations that bring cheese to our tables. The following section discusses how another kind of object may affect the outcome of a recipe, with important implications for aesthetics, that is, technical objects. The Internet as Ingredient: Technical Objects, Aesthetics, and Invention The notion of technical objects complements Simondon’s theory of individuation to define the becoming of technology in relation to culture. To Simondon: “the technical object is not this or that thing, given hic et nunc, but that of which there is a genesis” (Du Mode 20). Technical objects, therefore, are not simply technological artifacts but are constituted by a series of events that determine their evolution (De Vries). Analogously to other kinds of individuals, they are constituted by transductive operations across the three aforementioned phases of being. The evolution of technical objects extends from the element to the individual, and ultimately to the technical ensemble. Elements are less than individualised technical objects, while individuals that are in a relation of interconnection are called ensembles. According to Simondon, technical ensembles fully individualise with the realisation of the cybernetic project. Simondon observes that: “there is something eternal in a technical ensemble [...] and it is that which is always present, and can be conserved in a thing” (Les Cahiers 87). The Internet, as a thing-network, could be regarded as an instance of such technical ensembles, however, a clarification needs to be made. Simondon explains that “true technical ensembles are not those that use technical individuals, but those that are a network of technical individuals in a relation of interconnection” (Du mode 126). To Simondon, humankind has ceased to be a technical individual with the industrialisation and automation of methods of production, and has consigned this function to machines (128). Expanding this line of thought, examples such as the viral spreading of memes, and the hypnotic power of online marketing campaigns, demonstrate how digital technology seems to have intensified this process of alienation of people from the functioning of the machine. In short, no one seems to know how or why things happen on the Internet, but we cannot help but use it. In order to constitute “real” technical ensembles, we need to incorporate technics again into culture, in a relation of reciprocity and complementarity with machines, under the aegis of a technical culture. Simondon specifies that such a reconfiguration of the relation between man and machines can only be achieved by means of an invention. An invention entails the individualisation of the technical ensemble as a departure from the mind of the inventor or designer that conceived it, in order to acquire its own autonomous existence (“Technical Mentality”). It refers to the origin of an operative solidarity between individual agents in a network, which provides the support for a human relation based on the “model of transidividuality” (Du Mode 247). A “transindividual relation” is a relation of relations that puts the individual in direct contact with a real collective. The notion of real collective is opposed to that of an interindividual community or social sphere, which is poisoned by the anxieties that stem from a defected relation with the technical ensemble culture is embedded in. In the specific context of the online sharing of DIY cheese-making recipes, rather than a fully individualised technical ensemble per se, the Internet can be regarded as one of the ingredients that make up the final recipe—together with human and the food—for the invention of a true technical ensemble. In such a framework, praxis, as linked to the kind of non-verbal knowledge associated with “making,” defines individuation together with the types of objects that make up the Network. While in the case of foodism, the practice of online marketing and communication homogenises culture by creating “social phenomena,” in the case of DIY cooking advice, it fosters a diversification of tastes, experiences, and flavours linked to individual modes of doing and cooking, that put the cook in a new relation with the culinary process, with food, and with the guests who have the pleasure to taste her meal. This is a qualitative change in the network that constitutes culture, rather than a mere quantitative shift in energy induction. The term “conviviality” (from the Latin con-vivere) specifically means this: a “living together,” rather than a mere dinner party. For Simondon, a real technical ensemble is an assemblage of humans, machines, tools, resources and milieus, which can only be éprouve—i.e., experienced, also in the sense of “experimented with”—rather than represented. A technical ensemble is first and foremost an aesthetic affair—it can only be perceived by experimenting with the different agents involved in the networked operations that constitute it. For Simondon “aesthetics comes after technicity [and] it also returns to us in the heart of technicity” (Michaud in De Boever et al. 122). Therefore, any object bears an aesthetic potential—even something as trivial as a homemade block of cheese. Simondon rejects the idea of an aesthetic object, but affirms the power of technicity to foreground an aesthetic impression, which operates a convergence between the diverging forces that constitute the mediation between man and world, in terms of an ethical treatment of technics. For Simondon, the beautiful is a process: “it is never, properly speaking, the object that is beautiful: it is the encounter operating a propos of the object between a real aspect of the world and a human gesture” (Du Mode 191 emphasis added). If an analysis of cooking as individuation already foregrounds an aesthetics that is both networked and technical, the relational capabilities afforded by networked media have the power to amplify the aesthetic potential of the human gesture implied in a block of homemade cheese—which today extends from searching for (or writing) a recipe online, to pouring the milk and seasoning the cheese, and which entails less environmental waste due to the less intensive processing and the lack of, or certainly a reduction in, packaging materials (Rastogi). The praise of technical creativity resounds throughout Simondon’s thought. By using the Internet in order to create (or indeed cook) something new, the online sharing of DIY cooking techniques like cheese-making, which partially disengages the human (and food itself) from the cycle of production-marketing-consumption that characterises the food industry in capitalist society by fostering an awareness of the networked operations that constitute her as individual, is an invention in its own right. Although the impact of these DIY activities on the global food industry is still very limited, such a hands-on approach, imbued with a dose of technical creativity, partially overcomes the alienation of the individual from the production process, by providing the conditions to “feel” how the individualisation of cheese (and the human) is inscribed in a larger metabolism. This does not stop within the economy of the body but encompasses the techno-cultural ensemble that forms capitalist society as a whole, and in which humans play only a small part. This may be considered a first step towards the reconciliation between humans and technical culture—a true technical ensemble. Indeed, eating involves “experiments in art and technology”—as the name of the infamous 1960s art collective (E.A.T.) evokes. Home-cooking in this sense is a technical-aesthetic experiment in its own right, in which aesthetics acquires an ethical nuance. Simondon’s philosophy highlights how the aesthetics involved in the home cooking process entails a political component, aimed at the disentanglement of the human from the “false” technical ensemble constituted by capitalist society, which is founded on the alienation from the production process and is driven by economic interests. Surely, an ethical approach to food would entail considering the biopolitics of the guts from the perspective of sourcing materials, and perhaps even building one’s own tools. These days, however, keeping a cow or goat in the backyard is unconceivable and/or impossible for most of us. The point is that the Internet can foster inventiveness and creativity among the participants to the Network, in spite of the fixity of the frame in which culture is increasingly inscribed (for instance, the standardised format of a Wordpress blog), and in this way, can trigger an aesthetic impression that comprises an ethical component, which translates into a political stand against the syncopated, schizophrenic rhythms of the market. Conclusion In this discussion, I have demonstrated that cooking can be considered a process of individuation inscribed in a techno-cultural network in which different transductive operations have the power to affect the final taste of a recipe. Simondon’s theory of individuation allows us to account for the impact of ubiquitous networked media on traditionally considered “human” practices, thus suggesting a new kind of humanism—a sort of technological humanism—on the basis of a new model of perception, which acknowledges the non-human actants involved in the process of individuation. I have shown that, in the case of the online sharing of cheese-making recipes, Simondon’s philosophy allows us to uncover a concept of taste that extends beyond the mere gustatory experience provided by foodism, and in this sense it may indeed affirm a reconfiguration of human culture based on an ethical approach towards the technical ensemble that envelops individuals of any kind—be they physical, living, or technical. Analogously, a “culinary” approach to techno-culture in terms of a commitment to the ontogenetic character of objects’ behaviours could be transposed to the digital realm in order to enlighten new perspectives for the speculative design of occasions of interaction among different beings—including humans—in ethico-aesthetic terms, based on a creative, experimental engagement with techniques and technologies. As a result, this can foreground a taste for life and culture that exceeds human-centred egotistic pleasure to encompass both technology and nature. Considering that a worryingly high percentage of digital natives both in Australia and the UK today believe that cheese and yogurt grow on trees (Howden; Wylie), perhaps cooking should indeed be taught in school alongside (rather than separate to, or instead of) programming. References Bennet, Jane. Vibrant Matter: a Political Ecology of Things. 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