Книги з теми "Growth increments"

Rural economic structure is witnessing incremental changes as a response to public policy interventions. One of the aspects of this change is the increasing importance of households who own land but do not cultivate the land constraining the long-term growth in the economy. The chapter, firstly, presents evidences (from secondary sources as well as primary survey in nine villages in erstwhile Andhra Pradesh) on the importance of noncultivating households owning land. Secondly, reasons for these households not to sell land are also presented. This chapter suggests two conditions, which encourage the growth of noncultivating households: increasing land prices and rental income earned by these households.

This book analyses the political economy of economic development using two stylized facts models of rent-driven growth. The models show that: (i) the resource curse is a variant of a wider rent curse that can be driven by geopolitical rent (foreign aid), labour rent (worker remittances), or regulatory rent (government manipulation of relative prices); (ii) the rent curse is caused by policy failure and is avoidable; (iii) the global incidence of the rent curse varies over time, which reflects development policy fashions; and (iv) the intensity of the rent curse also varies with rent linkages. Rent cycling theory posits that low rent incentivizes the elite to grow the economy to become wealthy, whereas high rent encourages siphoning rent for immediate enrichment at the expense of sustainable and diversified economic growth. The contrasting incentives trigger divergent policies and structural change. Low rent motivates the efficient allocation of inputs in line with the economy’s comparative advantage in labour-intensive exports, which drives: structural change; rapid egalitarian economic growth; and incremental democratization. High rent, however, elicits contests to capture rent for immediate enrichment so the economy absorbs rent too quickly. The economy experiences Dutch disease effects that expand a subsidized urban sector whose rent demands outstrip supply, resulting in a staple trap and a protracted growth collapse. The economy fails to diversify competitively and depends for growth on expanding rent rather than on competitive diversification that boosts productivity. The book uses the models to explain why many developing countries in Latin America, Sub-Saharan Africa, and the Gulf followed a staple trap trajectory and draws on East Asia and South Asia for reform.

This chapter shows that the Main Lemma implies the main theorem. It proves Theorem (10.1) by inductively applying the Main Lemma in order to construct a sequence of solutions of the Euler-Reynolds system. At each stage of the induction, an energy function is chosen along with a parameter whose choice determines the growth of the frequency parameter and the decay of the energy level. A base case lemma is then established, after which the proof of the Main Theorem (10.1) is presented so that the Main Lemma implies the Main Theorem. The Main Lemma is employed to approximately prescribe the energy increment of the correction. The solution obtained at the end of the process is nontrivial.

The aim of the study was to determine the influence of different disturbances (both natural and anthropogenic) on species composition and stand structure of old-growth mixed mountain forests in the Western Carpathians. These stands are usually dominated by beech, fir and spruce, mixed in different proportions. The tree main species represent different growth strategies, and they compete against each other. The longevity of trees makes the factors influencing the stand structure difficult to identify, even during longitudinal studies conducted on permanent research plots. That is why dendroecological techniques, based upon the annual variability of tree rings, are commonly used to analyze the disturbance histories of old-growth stands. Dendroecological methods make it possible to reconstruct the stand history over several centuries in the past by analyzing the frequency, intensity, duration and spatial scale of disturbances causing the death of trees. Combining the dendroecological techniques with the detailed measurements of stand structure, snag volume, CWD volume, and the analyses of regeneration species composition and structure allows us to identify the factors responsible for the changes in dynamics of mixed mountain forests. Various disturbance agents affect some species selectively, while some disturbances promote the establishment of tree seedlings of specific species by modifying environmental conditions. Describing the disturbance regime requires a broad scope of data on stand structure, on dead wood and tree regeneration, while various factors affecting all the stages of tree growth should be taken into consideration. On the basis of the already published data from permanent sample plots, combined with the available disturbance history analyses from the Western Carpathians, three research hypotheses were formulated. 1. The species composition of mixed mountain forests has been changing for at least several decades. These directional changes are the consequence of simultaneous conifer species decline and expansion of beech. 2. The observed changes in species composition of mixed mountain forests are the effect of indirect anthropogenic influences, significantly changing tree growth conditions also in the forests that are usually considered natural or near-natural. Cumulative impact of these indirect influences leads to the decrease of fir share in the tree layer (spruce decline has also been observed recently),and it limits the representation of this species among seedlings and saplings. The final effect is the decrease of fir and spruce share in the forest stands. 3. Small disturbances, killing single trees or small groups of trees, and infrequent disturbances of medium size and intensity dominate the disturbance regime in mixed mountain forests. The present structure of beech-fir-spruce forests is shaped both by complex disturbance regime and indirect anthropogenic influences. The data were gathered in permanent sample plots in strictly protected areas of Babia Góra, Gorce, and Tatra National Parks, situated in the Western Carpathians. All plots were located in the old-growth forest stands representing Carpathian beech forest community. The results of the measurements of trees, snags, coarse woody debris (CWD) and tree regeneration were used for detailed description of changes in the species composition and structure of tree stands. Tree ring widths derived from increment cores were used to reconstruct the historical changes in tree growth trends of all main tree species, as well as the stand disturbance history within the past two to three hundred years. The analyses revealed complex disturbance history in all of the three forest stands. Intermediate disturbances of variable intensity occurred, frequently separated by the periods of low tree mortality lasting from several decades up to over one hundred years. The intervals between the disturbances were significantly shorter than the expected length of forest developmental cycle, in commonly used theories describing the dynamics of old-growth stands. During intermediate disturbances up to several dozen percent of canopy trees were killed. There were no signs of stand-replacing disturbances, killing all or nearly all of canopy trees. The periods of intense tree mortality were followed by subsequent periods of increased sapling recruitment. Variability in disturbance intensity is one of the mechanisms promoting the coexistence of beech and conifer species in mixed forests. The recruitment of conifer saplings depended on the presence of larger gaps, resulting from intermediate disturbances, while beech was more successful in the periods of low mortality. However, in the last few decades, beech seems to benefit from the period of intense fir mortality. This change results from the influence of long-term anthropogenic disturbances, affecting natural mechanisms that maintain the coexistence of different tree species and change natural disturbance regimes. Indirect anthropogenic influence on tree growth was clearly visible in the gradual decrease of fir increments in the twentieth century, resulting from the high level of air pollution in Europe. Synchronous decreases of fir tree rings’ widths were observed in all three of the sample plots, but the final outcomes depended on the fir age. In most cases, the damage to the foliage limited the competitive abilities of fir, but it did not cause a widespread increase in tree mortality, except for the oldest firs in the BGNP (Babia Góra National Park) plot. BGNP is located in the proximity of industrial agglomeration of Upper Silesia, and it could be exposed to higher level of air pollution than the other two plots. High level of fir regeneration browsing due to the deer overabundance and insufficient number of predators is the second clear indication of the indirect anthropogenic influence on mixed mountain forests. Game impact on fir regeneration is the most pronounced in Babia Góra forests, where fir was almost completely eliminated from the saplings. Deer browsing seems to be the main factor responsible for limiting the number of fir saplings and young fir trees, while the representation of fir among seedlings is high. The experiments conducted in fenced plots located in the mixed forests in BGNP proved that fir and sycamore were the most preferred by deer species among seedlings and saplings. In GNP (Gorce National Park) and TNP (Tatra National Park), the changes in species composition of tree regeneration are similar, but single firs or even small groups of firs are present among saplings. It seems that all of the analysed mixed beech-fir-spruce forests undergo directional changes, causing a systematic decrease in fir representation, and the expansion of beech. This tendency results from the indirect anthropogenic impact, past and present. Fir regeneration decline, alongside with the high level of spruce trees’ mortality in recent years, may lead to a significant decrease in conifers representation in the near future, and to the expansion of beech forests at the cost of mixed ones.

This chapter explores innovation in the informal economy of small-town ‘mofussil’ India. Two-thirds of the urban population lives outside metropolitan cities in towns noted for their infrastructural backwardness. Ninety per cent of livelihoods and two-thirds of the economy, disproportionately in small-town India, are unregistered or unregulated and termed ‘informal’. It is the informal economy that drives growth and livelihoods. After reviewing innovation theories, a case study of the innovation activity of a small-town is developed through evidence from the presidents of the town’s many business associations. They supply an account of five types of innovation: invention, adaptive and adoptive innovation, incremental and disruptive innovation; innovation in products, process, services, contracts and information; and innovation by labour as well as capital. The chapter concludes that although innovations flourish, the intertwined and hybrid formal and informal institutions do not behave coherently enough to constitute an informal innovation system.

The topic of the book is the incremental growth of linguistic knowledge from lexical to structural-cum-textual during the so-called later language development. Language mastery does not presuppose any acquaintance with prescriptive grammar but, instead, concerns the core of language which the so-called consensus principle applies to: the most frequent words and structures are mastered with certainty by everybody, but uncertainty increases as less frequent and more variable phenomena are taken into consideration. It is the goal of the study to make explicit the knowledge that is common to school children of different age groups, and to show how it develops both in its core and in its fringe areas. The mastery of less common aspects exhibits considerable statistical variation. The research embodies methodological pluralism insofar as it has been carried out by means both of the corpus method and the experimental method. Here experimental subsumes writing tasks, paper-and-pencil tests, and behavior under experimental conditions. The amount of participants native in Finnish varies from 300–2000. The book has a bipartite structure: mastery of meanings (Part I), and mastery of forms (Part II).

Facilitated by the National Rural Health Mission, the last decade has witnessed a number of innovations in the delivery of public health services in India. The pathways by which innovations happened are categorised into three groups: (a) identifying ‘best practices’ which are then scaled up; (b) the effort to build viable business models; and (c) driven by policy-level prioritization. Seventeen brief case studies are presented illustrating the variety of innovations and innovation pathways that exist, and an attempt is made to elucidate the general features of successful innovation. Innovations driven by critical problem-solving, dedicated innovators, and developments in technology with ability to manage its social interface do better. We also note that, despite much attention to transformational or disruptive innovations, it is home grown incremental innovations that have held sway.

Phenomenological models mathematically describe relationships among empirically observed phenomena without attempting to explain underlying mechanisms. Within the context of NLTS, phenomenological modeling goes beyond phase space reconstruction to extract equations governing real-world system dynamics from a single or multiple observed time series. Phenomenological models provide several benefits. They can be used to characterize the dynamics of variable interactions; for example, whether an incremental increase in one variable drives a marginal increase/decrease in the growth rate of another, and whether these dynamic interactions follow systematic patterns over time. They provide an analytical framework for data driven science still searching for credible theoretical explanation. They set a descriptive standard for how the real world operates so that theory is not misdirected in explaining fanciful behavior. The success of phenomenological modeling depends critically on selection of governing parameters. Model dimensionality, and the time delays used to synthesize dynamic variables, are guided by statistical tests run for phase space reconstruction. Other regression and numerical integration parameters can be set on a trial and error basis within ranges providing numerical stability and successful reproduction of empirically-detected dynamics. We illustrate phenomenological modeling with solutions of the Lorenz model so that we can recognize the dynamics that need to be reproduced.

Trade governance rests upon certain economic assumptions and the ensuing political compromises made possible by the growth of an incremental legal consensus. The main economic assumptions are that trade will deliver upon the objectives of socio-economic development, stable, long-term employment opportunities and poverty reduction. These assumptions are theoretically sound, but are increasingly challenged by the complex political realities of global trade. The study of trade in the field of international political economy (IPE) has deep roots in the postwar disciplines of economics and political science. The literature on the history of trade regulation places the current system, with its emphasis on the legitimizing imprimatur of political power and the significance of binding treaty, into a more nuanced context in which present practices, while sometimes novel, are frequently older than most policy makers realize. In the two decades since the finalization of the Uruguay Round and the creation of the World Trade Organization (WTO), a host of significant issues have arisen as scholars and policy makers attempt to implement the WTO’s mandate and navigate the political waters of trade regulation as it relates to domestic law and policy. These include the set of issues raised by the broadening of trade regulation post-Uruguay Round to include trade related intellectual property rights and trade in services, the contentious issue of trade and economic development, and the issue of WTO reform.

The magnitude, nature, causes, and consequences of population movements between rural and urban sectors of developing countries are examined. The prior literature is reviewed and is found to be limited in key dimensions. Evidence presented from a new database encompasses nationally representative data on seventy-five developing countries. Several measures of migration propensities are derived for the separate countries. The situation in each country is documented, both in historical context and following the time of enumeration. Rural-urban migrants enjoy major gains; those who do not move forego substantial, potential gains. Barriers to migrating are very real for disadvantaged groups. Migration among ethnolinguistic communities is a pervasive theme; the context in which each group lives is detailed. Upward mobility in incomes in towns is affirmed, and the departure of adults from rural homes raises the living standards of the family left behind, but consequent separation of married couples is endemic to particular societies. Reclassification of rural areas as urban is shown to be more important than net rural-urban moves in incremental urbanization and rural-urban moves are less permanent than normally portrayed. A contention of symmetry between rural-urban and urban-rural migration propensities is rejected, and indications that these twin movements result in sorting of labor by skills are not supported. Moreover, step and onward migration are not as common as popularly claimed. Previously neglected topics studied include autonomous migration by women, child migration, and networks at origin. Policies to limit rural-urban migration are questioned, and as climate change continues, planning for managed urban growth is vital.