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1
Veras, Dimitri, and Jim Fuller. "Tidal circularization of gaseous planets orbiting white dwarfs." Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 489, no. 2 (August 26, 2019): 2941–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/mnras/stz2339.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
ABSTRACT A gas giant planet which survives the giant branch stages of evolution at a distance of many au and then is subsequently perturbed sufficiently close to a white dwarf will experience orbital shrinkage and circularization due to star–planet tides. The circularization time-scale, when combined with a known white dwarf cooling age, can place coupled constraints on the scattering epoch as well as the active tidal mechanisms. Here, we explore this coupling across the entire plausible parameter phase space by computing orbit shrinkage and potential self-disruption due to chaotic f-mode excitation and heating in planets on orbits with eccentricities near unity, followed by weakly dissipative equilibrium tides. We find that chaotic f-mode evolution activates only for orbital pericentres which are within twice the white dwarf Roche radius, and easily restructures or destroys ice giants but not gas giants. This type of internal thermal destruction provides an additional potential source of white dwarf metal pollution. Subsequent tidal evolution for the surviving planets is dominated by non-chaotic equilibrium and dynamical tides which may be well-constrained by observations of giant planets around white dwarfs at early cooling ages.
2
Boss, Alan P. "Metallicity and Planet Formation: Models." Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union 5, S265 (August 2009): 391–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1743921310001067.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
AbstractPlanets typically are considerably more metal-rich than even the most metal-rich stars, one indication that planet formation must differ greatly from star formation. There is general agreement that terrestrial planets form by the collisional accumulation of solids composed of heavy elements in the inner regions of protoplanetary disks. Two competing mechanisms exist for the formation of giant planets, core accretion and disk instability, though hybrid combinations are possible as well. In core accretion, a higher metallicity in the protoplanetary disk leads directly to larger core masses and hence to more gas giant planets. Given the strong correlation of gas giant planets detected by Doppler spectroscopy with stellar metallicity, this has often been taken as proof that core accretion is the mechanism that forms giant planets. Recent work, however, implies that the formation of gas giants by disk instability can be enhanced by higher metallicities, though not as dramatically as for core accretion. In both scenarios, the ongoing accretion of planetesimals by gas giant protoplanets leads to strong enrichments of heavy elements in their gaseous envelopes. Both scenarios also imply that gas giant planets should have significant solid cores, raising questions for gas giant interior models without cores. Exoplanets with large inferred core masses seem likely to have formed by core accretion, while gas giants at distances beyond 20 AU seem more likely to have formed by disk instability. Given the wide variety of exoplanets found to date, it appears that both mechanisms are needed to explain the formation of the known population of giant planets.
3
Guenel, M., S. Mathis, and F. Remus. "Unravelling tidal dissipation in gaseous giant planets." Astronomy & Astrophysics 566 (June 2014): L9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/201424010.
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Carleo, Ilaria, Paolo Giacobbe, Gloria Guilluy, Patricio E. Cubillos, Aldo S. Bonomo, Alessandro Sozzetti, Matteo Brogi, et al. "The GAPS Programme at TNG XXXIX. Multiple Molecular Species in the Atmosphere of the Warm Giant Planet WASP-80 b Unveiled at High Resolution with GIANO-B ∗." Astronomical Journal 164, no. 3 (August 18, 2022): 101. http://dx.doi.org/10.3847/1538-3881/ac80bf.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Abstract Detections of molecules in the atmosphere of gas giant exoplanets allow us to investigate the physico-chemical properties of the atmospheres. Their inferred chemical composition is used as tracer of planet formation and evolution mechanisms. Currently, an increasing number of detections is showing a possible rich chemistry of the hotter gaseous planets, but whether this extends to cooler giants is still unknown. We observed four transits of WASP-80 b, a warm transiting giant planet orbiting a late-K dwarf star with the near-infrared GIANO-B spectrograph installed at the Telescopio Nazionale Galileo and performed high-resolution transmission spectroscopy analysis. We report the detection of several molecular species in its atmosphere. Combining the four nights and comparing our transmission spectrum to planetary atmosphere models containing the signature of individual molecules within the cross-correlation framework, we find the presence of H2O, CH4, NH3, and HCN with high significance, tentative detection of CO2, and inconclusive results for C2H2 and CO. A qualitative interpretation of these results, using physically motivated models, suggests an atmosphere consistent with solar composition and the presence of disequilibrium chemistry and we therefore recommend the inclusion of the latter in future modeling of sub-1000 K planets.
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Raymond, Sean N. "Terrestrial planet formation in extra-solar planetary systems." Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union 3, S249 (October 2007): 233–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1743921308016645.
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AbstractTerrestrial planets form in a series of dynamical steps from the solid component of circumstellar disks. First, km-sized planetesimals form likely via a combination of sticky collisions, turbulent concentration of solids, and gravitational collapse from micron-sized dust grains in the thin disk midplane. Second, planetesimals coalesce to form Moon- to Mars-sized protoplanets, also called “planetary embryos”. Finally, full-sized terrestrial planets accrete from protoplanets and planetesimals. This final stage of accretion lasts about 10-100 Myr and is strongly affected by gravitational perturbations from any gas giant planets, which are constrained to form more quickly, during the 1-10 Myr lifetime of the gaseous component of the disk. It is during this final stage that the bulk compositions and volatile (e.g., water) contents of terrestrial planets are set, depending on their feeding zones and the amount of radial mixing that occurs. The main factors that influence terrestrial planet formation are the mass and surface density profile of the disk, and the perturbations from giant planets and binary companions if they exist. Simple accretion models predicts that low-mass stars should form small, dry planets in their habitable zones. The migration of a giant planet through a disk of rocky bodies does not completely impede terrestrial planet growth. Rather, “hot Jupiter” systems are likely to also contain exterior, very water-rich Earth-like planets, and also “hot Earths”, very close-in rocky planets. Roughly one third of the known systems of extra-solar (giant) planets could allow a terrestrial planet to form in the habitable zone.
6
Boss, Alan P. "Modes of Gaseous Planet Formation." Symposium - International Astronomical Union 202 (2004): 141–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0074180900217725.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The discovery of gas giant planets around nearby stars has launched a new era in our understanding of the formation and evolution of planetary systems. However, none of the over four dozen companions detected to date strongly resembles Jupiter or Saturn: their inferred masses range from sub-Saturn-mass to 10 Jupiter-masses or more, while their orbits extend from periods of a few days to a few years. Given this situation, it seems prudent to re-examine mechanisms for gas giant planet formation. The two extreme cases are top-down or bottom-up. The latter is the core accretion mechanism, long favored for our Solar System, where a roughly 10 Earth-mass solid core forms by collisional accumulation of planetesimals, followed by hydrodynamic accretion of a gaseous envelope. The former is the long-discarded disk instability mechanism, where the protoplanetary disk forms self-gravitating, gaseous protoplanets through a gravitational instability of the gas, accompanied by settling and coagulation of dust grains to form solid cores. Both of these mechanisms have a number of advantages and disadvantages, making a purely theoretical choice between them difficult at present. Observations should be able to decide the dominant mechanism by dating the epoch of gas giant planet formation: core accretion requires more than a million years to form a Jupiter-mass planet, whereas disk instability is much more rapid.
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Mayor, M., D. Naef, F. Pepe, D. Queloz, N. C. Santos, S. Udry, and M. Burnet. "HD 83443: a system with two Saturns." Symposium - International Astronomical Union 202 (2004): 84–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0074180900217543.
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We report the discovery of an extrasolar planetary system with two Saturnian planets around the star HD 83443. The new planetary system is unusual by more than one aspect, as it contains two very low–mass gaseous giant planets, both on very tight orbits. Among the planets detected so far, the inner planet has the smallest semi–major axis (0.038 AU) and period (2.985 days) whereas the outer planet is the lightest one with m2 sin i = 0.53 MSat. A preliminary dynamical study confirms the stability of the system.
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Masset, Frédéric S. "Planetary migration in gaseous protoplanetary disks." Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union 3, S249 (October 2007): 331–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1743921308016797.
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AbstractTides come from the fact that different parts of a system do not fall in exactly the same way in a non-uniform gravity field. In the case of a protoplanetary disk perturbed by an orbiting, prograde protoplanet, the protoplanet tides raise a wake in the disk which causes the orbital elements of the planet to change over time. The most spectacular result of this process is a change in the protoplanet's semi-major axis, which can decrease by orders of magnitude on timescales shorter than the disk lifetime. This drift in the semi-major axis is called planetary migration. In a first part, we describe how the planet and disk exchange angular momentum and energy at the Lindblad and corotation resonances. Next we review the various types of planetary migration that have so far been contemplated: type I migration, which corresponds to low-mass planets (less than a few Earth masses) triggering a linear disk response; type II migration, which corresponds to massive planets (typically at least one Jupiter mass) that open up a gap in the disk; “runaway” or type III migration, which corresponds to sub-giant planets that orbit in massive disks; and stochastic or diffusive migration, which is the migration mode of low- or intermediate-mass planets embedded in turbulent disks. Lastly, we present some recent results in the field of planetary migration.
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Bitsch, Bertram, Andre Izidoro, Anders Johansen, Sean N. Raymond, Alessandro Morbidelli, Michiel Lambrechts, and Seth A. Jacobson. "Formation of planetary systems by pebble accretion and migration: growth of gas giants." Astronomy & Astrophysics 623 (March 2019): A88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/201834489.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Giant planets migrate though the protoplanetary disc as they grow their solid core and attract their gaseous envelope. Previously, we have studied the growth and migration of an isolated planet in an evolving disc. Here, we generalise such models to include the mutual gravitational interaction between a high number of growing planetary bodies. We have investigated how the formation of planetary systems depends on the radial flux of pebbles through the protoplanetary disc and on the planet migration rate. Our N-body simulations confirm previous findings that Jupiter-like planets in orbits outside the water ice line originate from embryos starting out at 20–40 AU when using nominal type-I and type-II migration rates and a pebble flux of approximately 100–200 Earth masses per million years, enough to grow Jupiter within the lifetime of the solar nebula. The planetary embryos placed up to 30 AU migrate into the inner system (rP < 1AU). There they form super-Earths or hot and warm gas giants, producing systems that are inconsistent with the configuration of the solar system, but consistent with some exoplanetary systems. We also explored slower migration rates which allow the formation of gas giants from embryos originating from the 5–10 AU region, which are stranded exterior to 1 AU at the end of the gas-disc phase. These giant planets can also form in discs with lower pebbles fluxes (50–100 Earth masses per Myr). We identify a pebble flux threshold below which migration dominates and moves the planetary core to the inner disc, where the pebble isolation mass is too low for the planet to accrete gas efficiently. In our model, giant planet growth requires a sufficiently high pebble flux to enable growth to out-compete migration. An even higher pebble flux produces systems with multiple gas giants. We show that planetary embryos starting interior to 5 AU do not grow into gas giants, even if migration is slow and the pebble flux is large. These embryos instead grow to just a few Earth masses, the mass regime of super-Earths. This stunted growth is caused by the low pebble isolation mass in the inner disc and is therefore independent of the pebble flux. Additionally, we show that the long-term evolution of our formed planetary systems can naturally produce systems with inner super-Earths and outer gas giants as well as systems of giant planets on very eccentric orbits.
10
Hansen, Bradley M. S. "Formation of exoplanetary satellites by pull-down capture." Science Advances 5, no. 10 (October 2019): eaaw8665. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aaw8665.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The large size and wide orbit of the recently announced exomoon candidate Kepler-1625b-i are hard to explain within traditional theories of satellite formation. We show that these properties can be reproduced if the satellite began as a circumstellar co-orbital body with the original core of the giant planet Kepler-1625b. This body was then drawn down into a circumplanetary orbit during the rapid accretion of the giant planet gaseous envelope, a process termed “pull-down capture.” Our numerical integrations demonstrate the stability of the original configuration and the capture process. In this model, the exomoon Kepler-1625b-i is the protocore of a giant planet that never accreted a substantial gas envelope. Different initial conditions can give rise to capture into other co-orbital configurations, motivating the search for Trojan-like companions to this and other giant planets.
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Guilera, O. M., D. Swoboda, Y. Alibert, G. C. de Elía, P. J. Santamaría, and A. Brunini. "Planetesimal fragmentation and giant planet formation: the role of planet migration." Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union 9, S310 (July 2014): 204–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1743921314008266.
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AbstractIn the standard model of core accretion, the cores of the giant planets form by the accretion of planetesimals. In this scenario, the evolution of the planetesimal population plays an important role in the formation of massive cores. Recently, we studied the role of planetesimal fragmentation in the in situ formation of a giant planet. However, the exchange of angular momentum between the planet and the gaseous disk causes the migration of the planet in the disk. In this new work, we incorporate the migration of the planet and study the role of planet migration in the formation of a massive core when the population of planetesimals evolves by planet accretion, migration, and fragmentation.
12
Zain, P. S., G. C. de Elía, M. P. Ronco, and O. M. Guilera. "Planetary formation and water delivery in the habitable zone around solar-type stars in different dynamical environments." Astronomy & Astrophysics 609 (January 2018): A76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/201730848.
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Context. Observational and theoretical studies suggest that there are many and various planetary systems in the Universe. Aims. We study the formation and water delivery of planets in the habitable zone (HZ) around solar-type stars. In particular, we study different dynamical environments that are defined by the most massive body in the system. Methods. First of all, a semi-analytical model was used to define the mass of the protoplanetary disks that produce each of the five dynamical scenarios of our research. Then, we made use of the same semi-analytical model to describe the evolution of embryos and planetesimals during the gaseous phase. Finally, we carried out N-body simulations of planetary accretion in order to analyze the formation and water delivery of planets in the HZ in the different dynamical environments. Results. Water worlds are efficiently formed in the HZ in different dynamical scenarios. In systems with a giant planet analog to Jupiter or Saturn around the snow line, super-Earths tend to migrate into the HZ from outside the snow line as a result of interactions with other embryos and accrete water only during the gaseous phase. In systems without giant planets, Earths and super-Earths with high water by mass contents can either be formed in situ in the HZ or migrate into it from outer regions, and water can be accreted during the gaseous phase and in collisions with water-rich embryos and planetesimals. Conclusions. The formation of planets in the HZ with very high water by mass contents seems to be a common process around Sun-like stars. Our research suggests that such planets are still very efficiently produced in different dynamical environments. Moreover, our study indicates that the formation of planets in the HZ with masses and water contents similar to those of Earth seems to be a rare process around solar-type stars in the systems under consideration.
13
Raymond, Sean N., and Alessandro Morbidelli. "The Grand Tack model: a critical review." Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union 9, S310 (July 2014): 194–203. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1743921314008254.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
AbstractThe “Grand Tack” model proposes that the inner Solar System was sculpted by the giant planets' orbital migration in the gaseous protoplanetary disk. Jupiter first migrated inward then Jupiter and Saturn migrated back outward together. If Jupiter's turnaround or “tack” point was at ~ 1.5 AU the inner disk of terrestrial building blocks would have been truncated at ~ 1 AU, naturally producing the terrestrial planets' masses and spacing. During the gas giants' migration the asteroid belt is severely depleted but repopulated by distinct planetesimal reservoirs that can be associated with the present-day S and C types. The giant planets' orbits are consistent with the later evolution of the outer Solar System.Here we confront common criticisms of the Grand Tack model. We show that some uncertainties remain regarding the Tack mechanism itself; the most critical unknown is the timing and rate of gas accretion onto Saturn and Jupiter. Current isotopic and compositional measurements of Solar System bodies – including the D/H ratios of Saturn's satellites – do not refute the model. We discuss how alternate models for the formation of the terrestrial planets each suffer from an internal inconsistency and/or place a strong and very specific requirement on the properties of the protoplanetary disk.We conclude that the Grand Tack model remains viable and consistent with our current understanding of planet formation. Nonetheless, we encourage additional tests of the Grand Tack as well as the construction of alternate models.
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Valletta, Claudio, and Ravit Helled. "An approximation for the capture radius of gaseous protoplanets." Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society: Letters 507, no. 1 (August 3, 2021): L62—L66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/mnrasl/slab089.
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ABSTRACT Determining the heavy-element accretion rate of growing giant planets is crucial for understanding their formation and bulk composition. The solid (heavy-element) accretion rate should be carefully modelled during the various stages of giant planet formation and therefore the planetary capture radius must be determined. In some simulations that model the heavy-element accretion rate, such as in N-body simulations, the presence of the gaseous envelope is either neglected or treated in an oversimplified manner. In this paper, we present an approximation for the capture radius that does not require the numerical solution of the stellar structure equations. Our approximation for the capture radius works extremely well for various planetesimal sizes and compositions. We show that the commonly assumed constant density assumption for inferring the capture radius leads to a large error in the calculated capture radius and we therefore suggest that our approximation should be implemented in future simulations.
15
Li, S. L., C. Agnor, and D. N. C. Lin. "Giant impact, planetary merger, and diversity of planetary-core mass." Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union 3, S249 (October 2007): 301–3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1743921308016736.
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AbstractTransit observations indicate a large dispersion in the internal structure among the known gas giants. This is a big challenge to the conventional sequential planetary formation scenario because the diversity is inconsistent with the expectation of some well defined critical condition for the onset of gas accretion in this scenario. We suggest that giant impacts may lead to the merger of planets or the accretion of planetary embryos and cause the diversity of the core mass. By using an SPH scheme, we show that direct parabolic collisions generally lead to the total coalescence of impinging gas giants whereas, during glancing collisions, the efficiency of core retention is much larger than that of the envelope. We also examine the adjustment of the gaseous envelope with a 1D Lagrangian hydrodynamic scheme. In the proximity of their host stars, the expansion of the planets' envelopes, shortly after sufficiently catastrophic impacts, can lead to a substantial loss of gas through Roche-lobe overflow. We are going to examine the possibility that the accretion of several Earth-mass objects can significantly enlarge the planets' photosphere and elevate the tidal dissipation rate over the time scale of 100 Myr.
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Cadman, James, Ken Rice, and Cassandra Hall. "AB Aurigae: possible evidence of planet formation through the gravitational instability." Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 504, no. 2 (April 6, 2021): 2877–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/mnras/stab905.
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ABSTRACT Recent observations of the protoplanetary disc surrounding AB Aurigae have revealed the possible presence of two giant planets in the process of forming. The young measured age of 1–4 Myr for this system allows us to place strict time constraints on the formation histories of the observed planets. Hence, we may be able to make a crucial distinction between formation through core accretion (CA) or the gravitational instability (GI), as CA formation time-scales are typically Myr whilst formation through GI will occur within the first ≈104–105 yr of disc evolution. We focus our analysis on the 4–13MJup planet observed at R ≈ 30 au. We find CA formation time-scales for such a massive planet typically exceed the system’s age. The planet’s high mass and wide orbit may instead be indicative of formation through GI. We use smoothed particle hydrodynamic simulations to determine the system’s critical disc mass for fragmentation, finding Md,crit = 0.3 M⊙. Viscous evolution models of the disc’s mass history indicate that it was likely massive enough to exceed Md,crit in the recent past; thus, it is possible that a young AB Aurigae disc may have fragmented to form multiple giant gaseous protoplanets. Calculations of the Jeans mass in an AB Aurigae-like disc find that fragments may initially form with masses 1.6–13.3MJup, consistent with the planets that have been observed. We therefore propose that the inferred planets in the disc surrounding AB Aurigae may be evidence of planet formation through GI.
17
Barge, P., and R. Pellat. "From Planetoids to Planets." Highlights of Astronomy 9 (1992): 367–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1539299600009205.
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A common origin of the sun and the planets from the collapse of interstellar gas is now widely accepted. Regardless of how stars form, which is considered as the previous step of the whole story, the starting point is a flattened rotating cloud containing a mixture of dusts and gas (the so called Kant-Laplace Nebula). On the other hand the observations of young solar-mass stars show with increasing evidence that the gas is dispersed away on a time scale less than 107 years and this provides us with a clear time constraint for model building since the formation of the giant gaseous planets have to take place on a shorter time scale.
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Izidoro, Andre, and Laurette Piani. "Origin of Water in the Terrestrial Planets: Insights from Meteorite Data and Planet Formation Models." Elements 18, no. 3 (June 1, 2022): 181–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.2138/gselements.18.3.181.
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Water condensed as ice beyond the water snowline, the location in the Sun’s natal gaseous disk where temperatures were below 170 K. As the disk evolved and cooled, the snowline moved inwards. A low temperature in the terrestrial planet-forming region is unlikely to be the origin of water on the planets, and the distinct isotopic compositions of planetary objects formed in the inner and outer disks suggest limited early mixing of inner and outer Solar System materials. Water in our terrestrial planets has rather been derived from H-bearing materials indigenous to the inner disk and delivered by water-rich planetesimals formed beyond the snowline and scattered inwards during the growth, migration, and dynamical evolution of the giant planets.
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Wang, Su, and D. N. C. Lin. "Dynamical Evolution of Closely Packed Multiple Planetary Systems Subject to Atmospheric Mass Loss." Astronomical Journal 165, no. 4 (March 24, 2023): 174. http://dx.doi.org/10.3847/1538-3881/acc070.
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Abstract A gap in exoplanets’ radius distribution has been widely attributed to the photoevaporation threshold of their progenitors’ gaseous envelope. Giant impacts can also lead to substantial mass loss. The outflowing gas endures tidal torque from the planets and their host stars. Alongside the planet–star tidal and magnetic interaction, this effect leads to planets’ orbital evolution. In multiple super-Earth systems, especially in those that are closely spaced and/or contain planets locked in mean motion resonances, modest mass loss can lead to dynamical instabilities. In order to place some constraints on the extent of planets’ mass loss, we study the evolution of a series of idealized systems of multiple planets with equal masses and a general scaled separation. We consider mass loss from one or more planets either in the conservative limit or with angular momentum loss from the system. We show that the stable preservation of idealized multiple planetary systems requires either a wide initial separation or a modest upper limit in the amount of mass loss. This constraint is stringent for the multiple planetary systems in compact and resonant chains. Perturbation due to either impulsive giant impacts between super-Earths or greater than a few percent mass loss can lead to dynamical instabilities.
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Brügger, N., R. Burn, G. A. L. Coleman, Y. Alibert, and W. Benz. "Pebbles versus planetesimals." Astronomy & Astrophysics 640 (August 2020): A21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/202038042.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Context. In the core accretion scenario of giant planet formation, a massive core forms first and then accretes a gaseous envelope. In the discussion of how this core forms, some divergences appear. The first scenarios of planet formation predict the accretion of kilometre-sized bodies called planetesimals, while more recent works suggest growth by the accretion of pebbles, which are centimetre-sized objects. Aims. These two accretion models are often discussed separately and our aim here is to compare the outcomes of the two models with identical initial conditions. Methods. The comparison is done using two distinct codes, one that computes the planetesimal accretion and the other the pebble accretion. All the other components of the simulated planet growth are computed identically in the two models: the disc, the accretion of gas, and the migration. Using a population synthesis approach, we compare planet simulations and study the impact of the two solid accretion models, focusing on the formation of single planets. Results. We find that the outcomes of the populations are strongly influenced by the accretion model. The planetesimal model predicts the formation of more giant planets, while the pebble accretion model forms more super-Earth-mass planets. This is due to the pebble isolation mass (Miso) concept, which prevents planets formed by pebble accretion to accrete gas efficiently before reaching Miso. This translates into a population of planets that are not heavy enough to accrete a consequent envelope, but that are in a mass range where type I migration is very efficient. We also find higher gas mass fractions for a given core mass for the pebble model compared to the planetesimal model, caused by luminosity differences. This also implies planets with lower densities, which could be confirmed observationally. Conclusions. We conclude that the two models produce different outputs. Focusing on giant planets, the sensitivity of their formation differs: for the pebble accretion model, the time at which the embryos are formed and the period over which solids are accreted strongly impact the results, while the population of giant planets formed by planetesimal accretion depends on the planetesimal size and on the splitting in the amount of solids available to form planetesimals.
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Fortney, Jonathan J. "Two Classes of Hot Jupiter Atmospheres." Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union 4, S253 (May 2008): 247–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s174392130802646x.
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AbstractWe highlight the potential importance of gaseous TiO and VO opacity on the highly irradiated close-in giant planets. The day-side atmospheres of these planets may naturally fall into two classes that are somewhat analogous to the M- and L-type dwarfs. Those that are warm enough to have appreciable opacity due to TiO and VO gases we term the “pM Class” planets, and those that are cooler, such that Ti and V are predominantly in solid condensates, we term “pL Class” planets. The optical spectra of pL Class planets are dominated by neutral atomic Na and K absorption. We discuss a connection between temperature inversions and large day/night temperature contrasts for the pM Class planets. Around a Sun-like primary, for solar composition, this boundary likely occurs at ~0.04-0.05 AU, but we discuss important uncertainties. The difference in the observed day/night contrast between υ And b (pM Class) and HD 189733b (pL Class) is naturally explained in this scenario.
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Poon, Sanson T. S., Richard P. Nelson, Seth A. Jacobson, and Alessandro Morbidelli. "Formation of compact systems of super-Earths via dynamical instabilities and giant impacts." Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 491, no. 4 (November 28, 2019): 5595–620. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/mnras/stz3296.
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ABSTRACT The NASA’s Kepler mission discovered ∼700 planets in multiplanet systems containing three or more transiting bodies, many of which are super-Earths and mini-Neptunes in compact configurations. Using N-body simulations, we examine the in situ, final stage assembly of multiplanet systems via the collisional accretion of protoplanets. Our initial conditions are constructed using a subset of the Kepler five-planet systems as templates. Two different prescriptions for treating planetary collisions are adopted. The simulations address numerous questions: Do the results depend on the accretion prescription?; do the resulting systems resemble the Kepler systems, and do they reproduce the observed distribution of planetary multiplicities when synthetically observed?; do collisions lead to significant modification of protoplanet compositions, or to stripping of gaseous envelopes?; do the eccentricity distributions agree with those inferred for the Kepler planets? We find that the accretion prescription is unimportant in determining the outcomes. The final planetary systems look broadly similar to the Kepler templates adopted, but the observed distributions of planetary multiplicities or eccentricities are not reproduced, because scattering does not excite the systems sufficiently. In addition, we find that ∼1 per cent of our final systems contain a co-orbital planet pair in horseshoe or tadpole orbits. Post-processing the collision outcomes suggests that they would not significantly change the ice fractions of initially ice-rich protoplanets, but significant stripping of gaseous envelopes appears likely. Hence, it may be difficult to reconcile the observation that many low-mass Kepler planets have H/He envelopes with an in situ formation scenario that involves giant impacts after dispersal of the gas disc.
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Lambrechts, M., E. Lega, R. P. Nelson, A. Crida, and A. Morbidelli. "Quasi-static contraction during runaway gas accretion onto giant planets." Astronomy & Astrophysics 630 (September 24, 2019): A82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/201834413.
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Gas-giant planets, like Jupiter and Saturn, acquire massive gaseous envelopes during the approximately 3 Myr-long lifetimes of protoplanetary discs. In the core accretion scenario, the formation of a solid core of around ten Earth masses triggers a phase of rapid gas accretion. Previous 3D grid-based hydrodynamical simulations found that runaway gas accretion rates correspond to approximately 10 to 100 Jupiter masses per Myr. Such high accretion rates would result in all planets with larger than ten Earth-mass cores to form Jupiter-like planets, which is in clear contrast to the ice giants in the Solar System and the observed exoplanet population. In this work, we used 3D hydrodynamical simulations, that include radiative transfer, to model the growth of the envelope on planets with different masses. We find that gas flows rapidly through the outer part of the envelope, but this flow does not drive accretion. Instead, gas accretion is the result of quasi-static contraction of the inner envelope, which can be orders of magnitude smaller than the mass flow through the outer atmosphere. For planets smaller than Saturn, we measured moderate gas accretion rates that are below one Jupiter mass per Myr. Higher mass planets, however, accrete up to ten times faster and do not reveal a self-driven mechanism that can halt gas accretion. Therefore, the reason for the final masses of Saturn and Jupiter remains difficult to understand, unless their completion coincided with the dissipation of the solar nebula.
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Zawadzki, Brianna, Daniel Carrera, and Eric B. Ford. "Rapid formation of super-Earths around low-mass stars." Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 503, no. 1 (March 4, 2021): 1390–406. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/mnras/stab603.
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ABSTRACT NASA’s TESS mission is expected to discover hundreds of M dwarf planets. However, few studies focus on how planets form around low-mass stars. We aim to better characterize the formation process of M dwarf planets to fill this gap and aid in the interpretation of TESS results. We use ten sets of N-body planet formation simulations that vary in whether a gas disc is present, initial range of embryo semimajor axes, and initial solid surface density profile. Each simulation begins with 147 equal-mass embryos around a 0.2 solar mass star and runs for 100 Myr. We find that planets form rapidly, with most collisions occurring within the first 1 Myr. The presence of a gas disc reduces the final number of planets relative to a gas-free environment and causes planets to migrate inward. We find that roughly a quarter of planetary systems experience their final giant impact inside the gas disc, suggesting that some super-Earths may be able to reaccrete an extended gaseous envelope after their final giant impact, though these may be affected by additional processes such as photoevaporation. In addition, we find that the final distribution of planets does not retain a memory of the slope of the initial surface density profile, regardless of whether or not a gas disc is present. Thus, our results suggest that present-day observations are unlikely to provide sufficient information to accurately reverse-engineer the initial distribution of solids.
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Podolak, Morris, and Nader Haghighipour. "Planetesimal Capture by an Evolving Giant Gaseous Protoplanet." Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union 8, S293 (August 2012): 263–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1743921313012957.
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AbstractBoth the core-accretion and disk-instability models suggest that at the last stage of the formation of a gas-giant, the core of this object is surrounded by an extended gaseous envelope. At this stage, while the envelope is contracting, planetesimals from the protoplanetary disk may be scattered into the protoplanets atmosphere and deposit some or all of their materials as they interact with the gas. We have carried out extensive simulations of approximately 104 planetesimals interacting with a envelope of a Jupiter-mass protoplanet including effects of gas drag, heating, and the effect of the protoplanets extended mass distribution. Simulations have been carried out for different radii and compositions of planetesimals so that all three processes occur to different degrees. We present the results of our simulations and discuss their implications for the enrichment of ices in giant planets. We also present statistics for the probability of capture (i.e. total mass-deposition) of planetesimals as a function of their size, composition, and closest approach to the center of the protoplanetary body.
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Cortés, C. C., D. Minniti, and S. Villanova. "Search for exoplanetary transits in the Galactic bulge." Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 485, no. 4 (March 27, 2019): 4502–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/mnras/sty3224.
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ABSTRACT A search for extrasolar planetary transits using extended Kepler mission (K2) campaigns 9 and 11 revealed five new candidates towards the Galactic bulge. The stars EPIC 224439122, 224560837, 227560005, 230778501 and 231635524 are found to have low-amplitude transits consistent with extrasolar planets, with periods P = 35.1695, 3.6390, 12.4224, 17.9856 and 5.8824 days, respectively. The K2 data and existing optical photometry are combined with multi-band near-IR photometry of the Vista Variables in the Via Lactea (VVV) survey and Two-Micron All-Sky Survey (2MASS) in order to measure accurate physical parameters for the host stars. We then measure the radii of the new planet candidates from the K2 transit light curves and also estimate their masses using mass–radius relations, concluding that two of these candidates could be low-mass planets and three could be giant gaseous planets.
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Veras, Dimitri, Pier-Emmanuel Tremblay, J. J. Hermes, Catriona H. McDonald, Grant M. Kennedy, Farzana Meru, and Boris T. Gänsicke. "Constraining planet formation around 6–8 M⊙ stars." Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 493, no. 1 (February 3, 2020): 765–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/mnras/staa241.
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ABSTRACT Identifying planets around O-type and B-type stars is inherently difficult; the most massive known planet host has a mass of only about $3\, \mathrm{M}_{\odot }$. However, planetary systems which survive the transformation of their host stars into white dwarfs can be detected via photospheric trace metals, circumstellar dusty and gaseous discs, and transits of planetary debris crossing our line of sight. These signatures offer the potential to explore the efficiency of planet formation for host stars with masses up to the core-collapse boundary at $\approx 8\, \mathrm{M}_{\odot }$, a mass regime rarely investigated in planet formation theory. Here, we establish limits on where both major and minor planets must reside around $\approx 6\rm {-}8\, \mathrm{M}_{\odot }$ stars in order to survive into the white dwarf phase. For this mass range, we find that intact terrestrial or giant planets need to leave the main sequence beyond approximate minimum star–planet separations of, respectively, about 3 and 6 au. In these systems, rubble pile minor planets of radii 10, 1.0, and 0.1 km would have been shorn apart by giant branch radiative YORP spin-up if they formed and remained within, respectively, tens, hundreds, and thousands of au. These boundary values would help distinguish the nature of the progenitor of metal pollution in white dwarf atmospheres. We find that planet formation around the highest mass white dwarf progenitors may be feasible, and hence encourage both dedicated planet formation investigations for these systems and spectroscopic analyses of the highest mass white dwarfs.
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Boley, Aaron C., and Richard H. Durisen. "On the possibility of enrichment and differentiation in gas giants during birth by disk instability." Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union 6, S276 (October 2010): 401–2. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1743921311020527.
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AbstractWe investigate the coupling between solids and gas during the formation of gas giant planets by disk fragmentation in the outer regions of massive disks. We find that fragments can become differentiated at birth. Even if an entire clump does not survive, differentiation could create solids cores that survive to accrete gaseous envelopes later.
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Chametla, Raúl O., Gennaro D’Angelo, Mauricio Reyes-Ruiz, and F. Javier Sánchez-Salcedo. "Capture and migration of Jupiter and Saturn in mean motion resonance in a gaseous protoplanetary disc." Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 492, no. 4 (January 29, 2020): 6007–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/mnras/staa260.
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ABSTRACT We study the dynamical evolution of Jupiter and Saturn embedded in a gaseous, solar nebula-type disc by means of hydrodynamics simulations with the fargo2d1d code. We study the evolution for different initial separations of the planets’ orbits, ΔaSJ, to investigate whether they become captured in mean motion resonance (MMR) and the direction of the subsequent migration of the planet (inwards or outwards). We also provide an assessment of the planet’s orbital dynamics at different epochs of Saturn’s growth. We find that the evolution of initially compact orbital configurations is dependent on the value of ΔaSJ. This implies that an evolution as that proposed in the Grand Tack model depends on the precise initial orbits of Jupiter and Saturn and on the time-scales for their formation. Capture in the 1:2 MMR and inward or (nearly) stalled migration are highly favoured. Within its limits, our work suggests that the reversed migration, associated with the resonance capture of Jupiter and Saturn, may be a low-probability evolutionary scenario, so that other planetary systems with giant planets are not expected to have experienced a Grand Tack-like evolutionary path.
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Kretke, Katherine A., D. N. C. Lin, and Neal J. Turner. "Planet formation around intermediate mass stars." Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union 3, S249 (October 2007): 293–300. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1743921308016724.
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AbstractWe present a mechanism by which gas giants form efficiently around intermediate mass stars. MRI-driven turbulence effectively drives angular momentum transport in regions of the disk with sufficiently high ionization fraction. In the inner regions of the disk, where the midplane temperature is above ∼1000K, thermal ionization effectively couples the disk to the magnetic field, providing a relatively large viscosity. A pressure maximum will develop outside of this region as the gaseous disk approaches a steady-state surface density profile, trapping migrating solid material. This rocky material will coagulate into planetesimals which grow rapidly until they reach isolation mass. Around intermediate mass stars, viscous heating will push the critical radius for thermal ionization of the midplane out to around 1 AU. This will increase the isolation mass for solid cores. Planets formed here may migrate inwards due to type II migration, but they will induce the formation of subsequent giant planets at the outer edge of the gap they have opened. In this manner, gas giants can form around intermediate mass stars at a few AU.
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Dutrey, Anne. "Millimetre/Sub-millimetre Observations of Circumstellar Disks." Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union 7, S280 (June 2011): 103–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1743921311024902.
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AbstractTTauri disks located in nearby star-forming regions (e.g. Taurus-Auriga at 140 pc) are thought to be the site of planet formation, since proto-planetary disks orbiting around active (still accreting) TTauri stars should contain, in many cases, enough gas to form giant gaseous planets. As such, circumstellar disks are ideal laboratories to study planet formation, provided the gas and dust observations have enough sensitivity and resolving power. I will focus in these proceedings, on recent results of molecular observations which unveil the physical conditions of gas disks and reveal the weakness of our current understanding and modeling.
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Brügger, N., Y. Alibert, S. Ataiee, and W. Benz. "Metallicity effect and planet mass function in pebble-based planet formation models." Astronomy & Astrophysics 619 (November 2018): A174. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/201833347.
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Context. One of the main scenarios of planet formation is the core accretion model where a massive core forms first and then accretes a gaseous envelope. This core forms by accreting solids, either planetesimals or pebbles. A key constraint in this model is that the accretion of gas must proceed before the dissipation of the gas disc. Classical planetesimal accretion scenarios predict that the time needed to form a giant planet’s core is much longer than the time needed to dissipate the disc. This difficulty led to the development of another accretion scenario, in which cores grow by accretion of pebbles, which are much smaller and thus more easily accreted, leading to more rapid formation. Aims. The aim of this paper is to compare our updated pebble-based planet formation model with observations, in particular the well-studied metallicity effect. Methods. We adopt the Bitsch et al. (2015a, A&A, 575, A28) disc model and the Bitsch et al. (2015b, A&A, 582, A112) pebble model and use a population synthesis approach to compare the formed planets with observations. Results. We find that keeping the same parameters as in Bitsch et al. (2015b, A&A, 582, A112) leads to no planet growth due to a computation mistake in the pebble flux (2018b). Indeed a large fraction of the heavy elements should be put into pebbles (Zpeb∕Ztot = 0.9) in order to form massive planets using this approach. The resulting mass functions show a huge amount of giants and a lack of Neptune-mass planets, which are abundant according to observations. To overcome this issue we include the computation of the internal structure for the planetary atmosphere in our model. This leads to the formation of Neptune-mass planets but no observable giants. Furthermore, reducing the opacity of the planetary envelope more closely matches observations. Conclusions. We conclude that modelling the internal structure for the planetary atmosphere is necessary to reproduce observations.
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Ronnet, T., and A. Johansen. "Formation of moon systems around giant planets." Astronomy & Astrophysics 633 (January 2020): A93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/201936804.
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The four major satellites of Jupiter, known as the Galilean moons, and Saturn’s most massive satellite, Titan, are believed to have formed in a predominantly gaseous circum-planetary disk during the last stages of formation of their parent planet. Pebbles from the protoplanetary disk are blocked from flowing into the circumplanetary disk by the positive pressure gradient at the outer edge of the planetary gap, so the gas drag assisted capture of planetesimals should be the main contributor to the delivery of solids onto circum-planetary disks. However, a consistent framework for the subsequent accretion of the moons remains to be built. Here, we use numerical integrations to show that most planetesimals that are captured within a circum-planetary disk are strongly ablated due to the frictional heating they experience, thus supplying the disk with small dust grains, whereas only a small fraction “survives” their capture. We then constructed a simple model of a circum-planetary disk supplied by ablation, where the flux of solids through the disk is at equilibrium with the ablation supply rate, and we investigate the formation of moons in such disks. We show that the growth of satellites is mainly driven by accretion of the pebbles that coagulate from the ablated material. The pebble-accreting protosatellites rapidly migrate inward and pile up in resonant chains at the inner edge of the circum-planetary disk. We propose that dynamical instabilities in these resonant chains are at the origin of the different architectures of Jupiter’s and Saturn’s moon systems. The assembly of moon systems through pebble accretion can therefore be seen as a down-scaled manifestation of the same process that forms systems of super-Earths and terrestrial-mass planets around solar-type stars and M-dwarfs.
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Nayakshin, S. "The paradox of youth for ALMA planet candidates." Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 493, no. 2 (February 3, 2020): 2910–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/mnras/staa246.
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ABSTRACT Recent ALMA observations indicate that the majority of bright protoplanetary discs show signatures of young moderately massive planets. I show that this result is paradoxical. The planets should evolve away from their observed states by radial migration and gas accretion in about 1 per cent of the system age. These systems should then hatch tens of giant planets in their lifetime, and there should exist a very large population of bright planet-less discs; none of this is observationally supported. An alternative scenario, in which the population of bright ALMA discs is dominated by secondary discs recently rejuvenated by deposition of new gas, is proposed. The data are well explained if the gaseous mass of the discs is comparable to a Jovian planet mass, and they last a small fraction of a Million years. Self-disruptions of dusty gas giant protoplanets, previously predicted in the context of the Tidal Downsizing theory of planet formation, provide a suitable mechanism for such injections of new fuel, and yield disc and planet properties commensurate with ALMA observations. If this scenario is correct, then the secondary discs have gas-to-dust ratios considerably smaller than 100, and long look ALMA and NIR/optical observations of dimmer targets should uncover dusty, not yet disrupted, gas clumps with sizes of order an au. Alternatively, secondary discs could originate from late external deposition of gas into the system, in which case we expect widespread signatures of warped outer discs that have not yet come into alignment with the planets.
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Pontin, C. M., A. J. Barker, R. Hollerbach, Q. André, and S. Mathis. "Wave propagation in semiconvective regions of giant planets." Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 493, no. 4 (March 13, 2020): 5788–806. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/mnras/staa664.
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ABSTRACT Recent observations of Jupiter and Saturn suggest that heavy elements may be diluted in the gaseous envelope, providing a compositional gradient that could stabilize ordinary convection and produce a stably stratified layer near the core of these planets. This region could consist of semiconvective layers with a staircase-like density profile, which have multiple convective zones separated by thin stably stratified interfaces, as a result of double-diffusive convection. These layers could have important effects on wave propagation and tidal dissipation that have not been fully explored. We analyse the effects of these layers on the propagation and transmission of internal waves within giant planets, extending prior work in a local Cartesian model. We adopt a simplified global Boussinesq planetary model in which we explore the internal waves in a non-rotating spherical body. We begin by studying the free modes of a region containing semiconvective layers. We then analyse the transmission of internal waves through such a region. The free modes depend strongly on the staircase properties, and consist of modes with both internal and interfacial gravity wave-like behaviour. We determine the frequency shifts of these waves as a function of the number of steps to explore their potential to probe planetary internal structures. We also find that wave transmission is strongly affected by the presence of a staircase. Very large wavelength waves are transmitted efficiently, but small-scale waves are only transmitted if they are resonant with one of the free modes. The effective size of the core is therefore larger for non-resonant modes.
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Guenel, M., S. Mathis, and F. Remus. "Understanding tidal dissipation in gaseous giant planets from their core to their surface." EPJ Web of Conferences 101 (2015): 06029. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/epjconf/201510106029.
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Humphries, J., and S. Nayakshin. "On the origin of wide-orbit ALMA planets: giant protoplanets disrupted by their cores." Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 489, no. 4 (September 7, 2019): 5187–201. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/mnras/stz2497.
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ABSTRACT Recent ALMA observations may indicate a surprising abundance of sub-Jovian planets on very wide orbits in protoplanetary discs that are only a few million years old. These planets are too young and distant to have been formed via the core accretion (CA) scenario, and are much less massive than the gas clumps born in the classical gravitational instability (GI) theory. It was recently suggested that such planets may form by the partial destruction of GI protoplanets: energy output due to the growth of a massive core may unbind all or most of the surrounding pre-collapse protoplanet. Here we present the first 3D global disc simulations that simultaneously resolve grain dynamics in the disc and within the protoplanet. We confirm that massive GI protoplanets may self-destruct at arbitrarily large separations from the host star provided that solid cores of mass ∼10–20 M⊕ are able to grow inside them during their pre-collapse phase. In addition, we find that the heating force recently analysed by Masset & Velasco Romero (2017) perturbs these cores away from the centre of their gaseous protoplanets. This leads to very complicated dust dynamics in the protoplanet centre, potentially resulting in the formation of multiple cores, planetary satellites, and other debris such as planetesimals within the same protoplanet. A unique prediction of this planet formation scenario is the presence of sub-Jovian planets at wide orbits in Class 0/I protoplanetary discs.
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Pirani, S., A. Johansen, B. Bitsch, A. J. Mustill, and D. Turrini. "Consequences of planetary migration on the minor bodies of the early solar system." Astronomy & Astrophysics 623 (March 2019): A169. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/201833713.
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Pebble accretion is an efficient mechanism that is able to build up the core of the giant planets within the lifetime of the protoplanetary disc gas-phase. The core grows via this process until the protoplanet reaches its pebble isolation mass and starts to accrete gas. During the growth, the protoplanet undergoes a rapid, large-scale, inward migration due to the interactions with the gaseous protoplanetary disc. In this work, we have investigated how this early migration would have affected the minor body populations in our solar system. In particular, we focus on the Jupiter Trojan asteroids (bodies in the coorbital resonance 1:1 with Jupiter, librating around the L4 and L5 Lagrangian points called, respectively, the leading and the trailing swarm) and the Hilda asteroids. We characterised their orbital parameter distributions after the disc dispersal and their formation location and compare them to the same populations produced in a classical in situ growth model. We find that a massive and eccentric Hilda group is captured during the migration from a region between 5 and 8 au and subsequently depleted during the late instability of the giant planets. Our simulations also show that inward migration of the giant planets always produces a Jupiter Trojans’ leading swarm more populated than the trailing one, with a ratio comparable to the current observed Trojan asymmetry ratio. The in situ formation of Jupiter, on the other hand, produces symmetric swarms. The reason for the asymmetry is the relative drift between the migrating planet and the particles in the coorbital resonance. The capture happens during the growth of Jupiter’s core and Trojan asteroids are afterwards carried along during the giant planet’s migration to their final orbits. The asymmetry and eccentricity of the captured Trojans correspond well to observations, but their inclinations are near zero and their total mass is three to four orders of magnitude higher than the current population. Future modelling will be needed to understand whether the dynamical evolution of the Trojans over billions of years will raise the inclinations and deplete the masses to observed values.
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Luque, A., D. Dubrovin, F. J. Gordillo-Vázquez, U. Ebert, F. C. Parra-Rojas, Y. Yair, and C. Price. "Coupling between atmospheric layers in gaseous giant planets due to lightning-generated electromagnetic pulses." Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics 119, no. 10 (October 2014): 8705–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/2014ja020457.
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Clement, Matthew S., Sean N. Raymond, and John E. Chambers. "Mercury as the Relic of Earth and Venus Outward Migration." Astrophysical Journal Letters 923, no. 1 (December 1, 2021): L16. http://dx.doi.org/10.3847/2041-8213/ac3e6d.
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Abstract In spite of substantial advancements in simulating planet formation, the planet Mercury’s diminutive mass and isolated orbit and the absence of planets with shorter orbital periods in the solar system continue to befuddle numerical accretion models. Recent studies have shown that if massive embryos (or even giant planet cores) formed early in the innermost parts of the Sun’s gaseous disk, they would have migrated outward. This migration may have reshaped the surface density profile of terrestrial planet-forming material and generated conditions favorable to the formation of Mercury-like planets. Here we continue to develop this model with an updated suite of numerical simulations. We favor a scenario where Earth’s and Venus’s progenitor nuclei form closer to the Sun and subsequently sculpt the Mercury-forming region by migrating toward their modern orbits. This rapid formation of ∼0.5 M ⊕ cores at ∼0.1–0.5 au is consistent with modern high-resolution simulations of planetesimal accretion. In successful realizations, Earth and Venus accrete mostly dry, enstatite chondrite–like material as they migrate, thus providing a simple explanation for the masses of all four terrestrial planets, the inferred isotopic differences between Earth and Mars, and Mercury’s isolated orbit. Furthermore, our models predict that Venus’s composition should be similar to the Earth’s and possibly derived from a larger fraction of dry material. Conversely, Mercury analogs in our simulations attain a range of final compositions.
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Dobbs-Dixon, Ian, ShuLin Li, and Douglas N. C. Lin. "Tidal barrier and the asymptotic mass of proto gas-giant planets." Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union 3, S249 (October 2007): 263–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1743921308016670.
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AbstractAlthough late stage gap formation reduces the surface density in the vicinity of protoplanets, simulations suggest gas may continue to leak through the protoplanets tidal barrier, replenishing the gas supply and allowing protoplanets to acquire masses comparable to or larger than that of Jupiter. Global gas depletion is a possible explanation for gaseous planets with lower masses in weak-line T-Tauri disks and ice giants in our own solar system, but it is unlikely to have stalled the growth of multiple systems around nearby stars that contain relatively low-mass, close-in planets along with more massive and longer period companions. Here, we suggest a potential solution. We show that supersonic infall of surrounding gas onto a protoplanet is only possible interior to both its Bondi and Roche radii. Although the initial Bondi radius is much smaller than its Roche radius, the former overtakes the latter during its growth. Thereafter, a positive pressure gradient is required to induce the gas to enter the Roche lobe of the protoplanet and flow is significantly reduced. We present the results of analysis and numerical simulations to show that the accretion rate increases rapidly with the ratio of the protoplanets Roche to Bondi radii. Based on these results we suggest that in regions with low geometric aspect ratios gas accretion is quenched, resulting in relatively low protoplanetary masses.
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Vines, Jose I., James S. Jenkins, Jack S. Acton, Joshua Briegal, Daniel Bayliss, François Bouchy, Claudia Belardi, et al. "NGTS-6b: an ultrashort period hot-Jupiter orbiting an old K dwarf." Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 489, no. 3 (August 27, 2019): 4125–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/mnras/stz2349.
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ABSTRACT We report the discovery of a new ultrashort period hot Jupiter from the Next Generation Transit Survey. NGTS-6b orbits its star with a period of 21.17 h, and has a mass and radius of $1.330^{+0.024}_{-0.028}$MJ and $1.271^{+0.197}_{-0.188}$RJ, respectively, returning a planetary bulk density of $0.711^{+0.214}_{-0.136}$ g cm−3. Conforming to the currently known small population of ultrashort period hot Jupiters, the planet appears to orbit a metal-rich star ([Fe/H] = +0.11 ± 0.09 dex). Photoevaporation models suggest the planet should have lost 5 per cent of its gaseous atmosphere over the course of the 9.6 Gyr of evolution of the system. NGTS-6b adds to the small, but growing list of ultrashort period gas giant planets, and will help us to understand the dominant formation and evolutionary mechanisms that govern this population.
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Tinetti, Giovanna, Jonathan Tennyson, Caitlin A. Griffith, and Ingo Waldmann. "Water in exoplanets." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 370, no. 1968 (June 13, 2012): 2749–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2011.0338.
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Exoplanets—planets orbiting around stars other than our own Sun—appear to be common. Significant research effort is now focused on the observation and characterization of exoplanet atmospheres. Species such as water vapour, methane, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide have been observed in a handful of hot, giant, gaseous planets, but cooler, smaller planets such as Gliese 1214b are now analysable with current telescopes. Water is the key chemical dictating habitability. The current observations of water in exoplanets from both space and the ground are reviewed. Controversies surrounding the interpretation of these observations are discussed. Detailed consideration of available radiative transfer models and linelists are used to analyse these differences in interpretation. Models suggest that there is a clear need for data on the pressure broadening of water transitions by H 2 at high temperatures. The reported detections of water appear to be robust, although final confirmation will have to await the better quality observational data provided by currently planned dedicated space missions.
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Alam, Munazza K., James Kirk, Courtney D. Dressing, Mercedes López-Morales, Kazumasa Ohno, Peter Gao, Babatunde Akinsanmi, et al. "The First Near-infrared Transmission Spectrum of HIP 41378 f, A Low-mass Temperate Jovian World in a Multiplanet System." Astrophysical Journal Letters 927, no. 1 (March 1, 2022): L5. http://dx.doi.org/10.3847/2041-8213/ac559d.
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Abstract We present a near-infrared transmission spectrum of the long-period (P = 542 days), temperate (T eq = 294 K) giant planet HIP 41378 f obtained with the Wide-Field Camera 3 instrument aboard the Hubble Space Telescope (HST). With a measured mass of 12 ± 3 M ⊕ and a radius of 9.2 ± 0.1 R ⊕, HIP 41378 f has an extremely low bulk density (0.09 ± 0.02 g cm−3). We measure the transit depth with a median precision of 84 ppm in 30 spectrophotometric channels with uniformly sized widths of 0.018 μm. Within this level of precision, the spectrum shows no evidence of absorption from gaseous molecular features between 1.1 and 1.7 μm. Comparing the observed transmission spectrum to a suite of 1D radiative-convective-thermochemical-equilibrium forward models, we rule out clear, low-metallicity atmospheres and find that the data prefer high-metallicity atmospheres or models with an additional opacity source, such as high-altitude hazes and/or circumplanetary rings. We explore the ringed scenario for HIP 41378 f further by jointly fitting the K2 and HST light curves to constrain the properties of putative rings. We also assess the possibility of distinguishing between hazy, ringed, and high-metallicity scenarios at longer wavelengths with the James Webb Space Telescope. HIP 41378 f provides a rare opportunity to probe the atmospheric composition of a cool giant planet spanning the gap in temperature, orbital separation, and stellar irradiation between the solar system giants, directly imaged planets, and the highly irradiated hot Jupiters traditionally studied via transit spectroscopy.
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D’Angelo, Gennaro, and Francesco Marzari. "Second-generation dust in planetary systems: the case of HD 163296." Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 509, no. 3 (November 10, 2021): 3181–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/mnras/stab3220.
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ABSTRACT Observations indicate that large, dust-laden protoplanetary discs are common. Some features, like gaps, rings, and spirals, suggest they may host young planets, which can excite the orbits of nearby leftover planetesimals. Energetic collisions among these bodies can lead to the production of second-generation dust. Grains produced by collisions may have a dynamical behaviour different from that of first-generation, primordial dust out of which planetesimals and planets formed. We aim to study these differences for the HD 163296 system and determine whether dynamical signatures in the mixture of the two dust populations can help separate their contributions. We use three-dimensional (3D) hydrodynamic models to describe the gaseous disc with three, Saturn- to Jupiter-mass, embedded planets. Dust grains, of sizes $1\, \mu \mathrm{m}$–$1\, \mathrm{mm}$, are treated as Lagrangian particles with resolved thermodynamics and mass-loss. Initial disc and planet configurations are derived from observation-based work, which indicates low gas viscosity. The 3D approach also allows us to detect the formation of vortices induced by Rossby waves, where dust becomes concentrated and may contribute to planetesimal formation. We find that the main differences in the dynamical behaviour of first- and second-generation dust occur in the vertical distribution. The two populations have similar distributions around the disc mid-plane, although second-generation dust shows longer residence times close to the radial locations of the planets’ gas gaps. Sedimentation rates of $\mu$m-sized grains are comparable to or lower than the production rates by planetesimals’ collisions, making this population potentially observable. These outcomes can be extended to similar systems harbouring giant planets.
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Mathis, S. "Tidal dissipation in stars and giant planets: Jean-Paul Zahn's pioneering work and legacy." EAS Publications Series 82 (2019): 5–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/eas/1982002.
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In this lecture opening the session focused on tides in stellar and planetary systems, I will review the Jean-Paul Zahn's key contributions to the theory of tidal dissipation in stars and fluid planetary layers. I will first recall the general principles of tidal friction in celestial bodies. Then, I will focus on the theories of the stellar equilibrium and dynamical tides founded by Jean-Paul and their predictions for the evolution of binary stars. I will underline their essential legacy for ongoing studies of tidal dissipation in stars hosting planets and in fluid planetary regions. I will also discuss his pioneering work on the turbulent friction applied on tidal flows by stellar convection and the corresponding still unsolved challenging problems. Next, I will present the results we obtained on tidal dissipation in the potential dense rocky/icy core of gaseous giant planets such as Jupiter and Saturn within the Encelade international team. This mechanism provides important keys to interpret the high-precision astrometric measurements of the rates of tidal orbital migration of the moons of these planets, which are found to be larger than expected. This corresponds to a Jovian and Saturnian tidal frictions which are higher by one order of magnitude than the usually used values calibrated on formation scenarios. Finally, I will review the work done by Jean-Paul and Michel Rieutord on potential Ekman boundary layers associated to tidal flows. As a consequence, a coherent physical modeling of tides is now mandatory to understand the properties and the evolution of stellar and planetary systems. To progress on this forefront research subject, we are walking on the path first drawn by Jean-Paul.
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Webb, John K., and Imma Wormleaton. "Could We Detect O2 in the Atmosphere of a Transiting Extra-solar Earth-like Planet?" Publications of the Astronomical Society of Australia 18, no. 3 (2001): 252–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/as01037.
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AbstractAlthough the extra-solar planets discovered so far are of the giant, gaseous type, the increased sensitivity of future surveys will result in the discovery of lower mass planets. The detection of O2 in the atmosphere of a rocky extra-solar planet would be a potential indicator of life. In this paper we address the specific issue of whether we would be able to detect the O2 A-band absorption feature in the atmosphere of a planet similar to the Earth, if it were in orbit around a nearby star. Our method is empirical, in that we use observations of the Earth's O2 A-band, with a simple geometric modification for a transiting extra-solar planet, allowing for limb-darkening of the host star. We simulate the spectrum of the host star with the superposed O2 A-band absorption of the transiting planet, assuming a spectral resolution of ~8 kms−1(typical of current echelle spectrographs), for a range of spectral signal-to-noise ratios. The main result is that in principle we may be able to detect the O2 A-band of the transiting planet for host stars with radii R≤ 0.3Rʘ. However, using existing instrumentation and 8m telescopes, this requires target M-stars with m(V) ≈ 10 or brighter for integration times of ~10 hours or less. The number of such stars over the sky is small. Larger aperture telescopes and/or improved instrumentation efficiency would enable surveys of M-stars down to m(V) ≈ 13 and greatly improve the chances of discovering life elsewhere.
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Mosqueira, Ignacio, and Paul R. Estrada. "Formation of the regular satellites of giant planets in an extended gaseous nebula II: satellite migration and survival." Icarus 163, no. 1 (May 2003): 232–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0019-1035(03)00077-0.
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Bergez-Casalou, C., B. Bitsch, A. Pierens, A. Crida, and S. N. Raymond. "Influence of planetary gas accretion on the shape and depth of gaps in protoplanetary discs." Astronomy & Astrophysics 643 (November 2020): A133. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/202038304.
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It is widely known that giant planets have the capacity to open deep gaps in their natal gaseous protoplanetary discs. It is unclear, however, how gas accretion onto growing planets influences the shape and depth of their growing gaps. We performed isothermal hydrodynamical simulations with the Fargo-2D1D code, which assumes planets accreting gas within full discs that range from 0.1 to 260 AU. The gas accretion routine uses a sink cell approach, in which different accretion rates are used to cope with the broad range of gas accretion rates cited in the literature. We find that the planetary gas accretion rate increases for larger disc aspect ratios and greater viscosities. Our main results show that gas accretion has an important impact on the gap-opening mass: we find that when the disc responds slowly to a change in planetary mass (i.e., at low viscosity), the gap-opening mass scales with the planetary accretion rate, with a higher gas accretion rate resulting in a larger gap-opening mass. On the other hand, if the disc response time is short (i.e., at high viscosity), then gas accretion helps the planet carve a deep gap. As a consequence, higher planetary gas accretion rates result in smaller gap-opening masses. Our results have important implications for the derivation of planet masses from disc observations: depending on the planetary gas accretion rate, the derived masses from ALMA observations might be off by up to a factor of two. We discuss the consequences of the change in the gap-opening mass on the evolution of planetary systems based on the example of the grand tack scenario. Planetary gas accretion also impacts stellar gas accretion, where the influence is minimal due to the presence of a gas-accreting planet.
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André, Q., S. Mathis, and A. J. Barker. "Layered semi-convection and tides in giant planet interiors." Astronomy & Astrophysics 626 (June 2019): A82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/201833674.
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Context. Recent Juno observations have suggested that the heavy elements in Jupiter could be diluted throughout a large fraction of its gaseous envelope, providing a stabilising compositional gradient over an extended region of the planet. This could trigger layered semi-convection, which, in the context of giant planets more generally, may explain Saturn’s luminosity excess and play a role in causing the abnormally large radii of some hot Jupiters. In giant planet interiors, it could take the form of density staircases, which are convective layers separated by thin stably stratified interfaces. In addition, the efficiency of tidal dissipation is known to depend strongly on the planetary internal structure. Aims. We aim to study the resulting tidal dissipation when internal waves are excited in a region of layered semi-convection by tidal gravitational forcing due to other bodies (such as moons in giant planet systems, or stars in hot Jupiter systems). Methods. We adopt a local Cartesian model with a background layered density profile subjected to an imposed tidal forcing, and we compute the viscous and thermal dissipation rates numerically. We consider two sets of boundary conditions in the vertical direction: periodic boundaries and impenetrable, stress-free boundaries, with periodic conditions in the horizontal directions in each case. These models are appropriate for studying the forcing of short-wavelength tidal waves in part of a region of layered semi-convection, and in an extended envelope containing layered semi-convection, respectively. Results. We find that the rates of tidal dissipation can be enhanced in a region of layered semi-convection compared to a uniformly convective medium, where the latter corresponds with the usual assumption adopted in giant planet interior models. In particular, a region of layered semi-convection possesses a richer set of resonances, allowing enhanced dissipation for a wider range of tidal frequencies. The details of these results significantly depend on the structural properties of the layered semi-convective regions. Conclusions. Layered semi-convection could contribute towards explaining the high tidal dissipation rates observed in Jupiter and Saturn, which have not yet been fully explained by theory. Further work is required to explore the efficiency of this mechanism in global models.