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Статті в журналах з теми "Gestalt Psychology Principles"
1
Poulaki, Maria. "The ‘Good Form’ of Film." Gestalt Theory 40, no. 1 (April 1, 2018): 29–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/gth-2018-0004.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Summary This article questions certain assumptions concerning film form made by the recent (neuro)psychological film research and compares them to those of precursors of film psychology like Hugo Münsterberg and Rudolf Arnheim, as well as the principles of Gestalt psychology. It is argued that principles of Gestalt psychology such as those of ‘good form’ and good continuation are still underlying the psychological research of film, becoming particularly apparent in its approach to continuity editing. Following an alternative Gestalt genealogy that links Gestalt theory with more recent dynamic models of brain activity and with accounts of brain complexity and neuronal synchronisation, the article concludes that psychological research on film needs to shift the focus from form to transformation, both in conceiving the perceptual and cognitive processing of films and in approaching film aesthetics more broadly.
2
Quinn, Paul C., Ramesh S. Bhatt, Diana Brush, Autumn Grimes, and Heather Sharpnack. "Development of Form Similarity as a Gestalt Grouping Principle in Infancy." Psychological Science 13, no. 4 (July 2002): 320–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.00459.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Given evidence demonstrating that infants 3 months of age and younger can utilize the Gestalt principle of lightness similarity to group visually presented elements into organized percepts, four experiments using the familiarization/novelty-preference procedure were conducted to determine whether infants can also organize visual pattern information in accord with the Gestalt principle of form similarity. In Experiments 1 and 2, 6- to 7-month-olds, but not 3- to 4-month-olds, presented with generalization and discrimination tasks involving arrays of X and O elements responded as if they organized the elements into columns or rows based on form similarity. Experiments 3 and 4 demonstrated that the failure of the young infants to use form similarity was not due to insufficient processing time or the inability to discriminate between the individual X and O elements. The results suggest that different Gestalt principles may become functional over different time courses of development, and that not all principles are automatically deployed in the manner originally proposed by Gestalt theorists.
3
Greenwood, John D. "On Two Foundational Principles of the Berlin School of Gestalt Psychology." Review of General Psychology 24, no. 3 (January 13, 2020): 284–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1089268019893972.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
In this article, I consider what I have long taken to be the two foundational principles of the Berlin School of Gestalt psychology, namely, that perceptual configurations are “distinguishable from” or “other than” the elements from which they are configured and that the identity of such “elements” is determined by their relation to other elements within perceptual configurations. Yet, while it seems clear that Max Wertheimer (1880–1943), Kurt Koffka (1886–1941), and Wolfgang Köhler (1887–1967) were all committed to the first principle, it is less clear that they were committed (or were all committed) to the second principle. This is perhaps not surprising because commitment to the second principle would seem to undermine the first principle. I note that Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) appears to have been one of few psychologists clearly committed to the second principle, which is perhaps why, despite appearances to the contrary, he does not seem to have been committed to the first principle. Finally, I discuss some questions raised by this analysis and relate it to recent developments in theoretical psychology and a perennial question in social psychology.
4
Zhao, Dandan, and Bo Pan. "Psychological Cognition and Thinking Needs in Visual Communication Design." E3S Web of Conferences 236 (2021): 05070. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202123605070.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The visual information design refers to the communication and exchange with the real world through the graphic signification. The understanding of a graph is a visual recognition process of the graphic object. The audience can feel the intangibility of the design work behind the tangibility during the transmission, perception, communication and resonance processes. The unconscious mind of the audience is aroused under the visual impact, thus reaching the goal of transmitting the concept of information appeal. Influenced by the holistic view of the Gestalt Psychology, the modern cognitive psychology highlights the comprehensive analysis of human cognitive process, while Gestalt psychologists lay the emphasis on the integrity of experience and behavior. According to the principle of Gestalt Psychology, the form perceived is not the direct imitation of an objective thing, but instead, it is the perceptual construction activity when eyes capture the thing. As a manifestation system in the visual perception research field, the Gestalt Psychology teases the related perceptual organization principles for the human cognitive process and promotes the development of the visual perception researches. Based on the Gestalt Psychology, it is proposed in this research to study psychological phenomena from the holistic dynamic structure, explore the visual information design, and exploit the design field of view and creative thinking, in an effort to form a new design philosophy which will play an important role in improving the aesthetic effect and visual impact of the design work.
5
Eden Ünlü, Seda, and Ahmet Serkan Ece. "Reading notation with Gestalt perception principles." Journal of Human Sciences 16, no. 4 (December 27, 2019): 1104–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.14687/jhs.v16i4.5822.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Based on the idea that Gestalt psychology is ‘more than all the components that make up it’, the emphasis is on the similarities of the brain's functioning during perception, as in reading text. Just as the brain perceives similar letters as holistic rather than one by one, it can be predicted that this happens during the musician's reading score.
Parallel to Gestalt auditory perception research, musicians are thought to benefit from Gestalt perception principles, without consciousness, in the first reading (sight-reading) of notes and later in practice. However, conscious perception of these principles by musicians may be considered to contribute positively during and after their sight-reading.
The aim of this study is to explain various Gestalt perception principles which are supposed to be related to music and to reveal examples of these principles on notation reading. The data obtained from the qualitative research methods through literature review were explained with six basic laws, “Figure–Ground”, “Proximity”, “Similarity”, “Symmetry”, “Simplicity” and “Continuity”. In the creation of the samples, the principles of visual perception and the motif, sentence period structures and analyzes, tonic - dominant sentence expressions, tempo and nuance terms that are also included in the auditory perception in music have been related, and it has been attached importance to its concretization with visual perception.
Extended English summary is in the end of Full Text PDF (TURKISH) file.
Özet
Gestalt psikolojinin, ‘bütün, kendisini oluşturan parçaların bir araya gelmesinden daha fazlasıdır’ düşüncesi ile yola çıkarak, tıpkı metin okumada olduğu gibi, nota okumada da beynin algılama esnasındaki işleyişlerinin benzerliklerine vurgu yapılmaktadır. Nasıl ki, beyin birbirine benzer harfleri tek tek okumak yerine bütüncül olarak algılamaktaysa, söz konusu bu durumun müzisyenlerin nota okuma sırasında da gerçekleşmekte olduğu öngörülebilir.
Gestalt işitsel algı araştırmalarına paralel olarak, müzisyenlerin nota ilk okuma (deşifre) ve daha sonraki pratiklerinde, Gestalt algı ilkelerinden, bilincinde olmaksızın, faydalandıkları düşünülmektedir. Bununla birlikte müzisyenler tarafından bu ilkelerin bilinçli olarak algılanması, onların deşifre yapmaları sırasında ve sonraki performanslarında, olumlu yönde katkı sağlayabileceği düşünülebilir.
Bu araştırma, müzik ile ilişkili olabileceği varsayılan çeşitli Gestalt algı ilkelerini açıklayarak, bu ilkelerin notasyon okuma üzerindeki örneklerini ortaya koyma amacını taşımaktadır. Nitel araştırma yöntemlerinden literatür taraması yoluyla elde edilen veriler Gestalt algı ilkelerinden “Şekil–Zemin”, “Yakınlık”, “Benzerlik”, “Simetri” “Basitlik” ve “Süreklilik” olmak üzere altı temel yasa ile açıklanmış, notasyon üzerinde örneklendirilmiştir. Örneklerin oluşturulmasında, görsel algı ilkeleri ile müzikteki işitsel algıda da yer alan motif, cümle dönem yapıları ve analizleri, tonik – dominant cümle ifadeleri, tempo ve nüans terimleri ilişkilendirilmiş, görsel algı ile somutlaştırılmasına önem verilmiştir.
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Riffert, Franz, Sandra Bröderbauer, and Michael Huemer. "Some Reflections on the Relation Between Whitehead’s Process Philosophy and Gestalt Psychology." Process Studies 44, no. 2 (October 1, 2015): 164–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/44798013.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Abstract Although it is beyond doubt that there were historical connections between Whitehead and some of the proponents of Gestalt psychology, it is difficult to determine on the available body of historical evidence whether they were substantive or just marginal. A detailed comparison of Whitehead’s process metaphysics and the theories of Gestalt psychology is a task yet to be undertaken. Whitehead’s process philosophy and (some forms of) Gestalt psychology share basic similarities in their major principles. This is substantiated by two of Ehrenfels’ well-known gestalt qualities: (1) superadditivity, and (2) figure-ground relation. Both approaches can profit from one another: while Whitehead’s concept of consciousness and its interrelatedness with unconscious processes seems to be more elaborate, the Gestalt psychological approach, on the other hand, shows how these topics can be investigated by using experimental research designs. This is illustrated by an experiment on complex problem solving which demonstrates that unreportable (functionally unconscious) hints can improve even such sophisticated processes as complex problem solving. Since this is what should be expected from a Whiteheadian point of view, the results empirically confirm the process position on perception and thinking. Finally, further interesting possibilities of undertaking future empirical process research are outlined.
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Read, Stephen J., Eric J. Vanman, and Lynn C. Miller. "Connectionism, Parallel Constraint Satisfaction Processes, and Gestalt Principles: (Re)Introducing Cognitive Dynamics to Social Psychology." Personality and Social Psychology Review 1, no. 1 (January 1997): 26–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0101_3.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
We argue that recent work in connectionist modeling, in particular the parallel constraint satisfaction processes that are central to many of these models, has great importance for understanding issues of both historical and current concern for social psychologists. We first provide a brief description of connectionist modeling, with particular emphasis on parallel constraint satisfaction processes. Second, we examine the tremendous similarities between parallel constraint satisfaction processes and the Gestalt principles that were the foundation for much of modern social psychology. We propose that parallel constraint satisfaction processes provide a computational implementation of the principles of Gestalt psychology that were central to the work of such seminal social psychologists as Asch, Festinger, Heider, and Lewin. Third, we then describe how parallel constraint satisfaction processes have been applied to three areas that were key to the beginnings of modern social psychology and remain central today: impression formation and causal reasoning, cognitive consistency (balance and cognitive dissonance), and goal-directed behavior. We conclude by discussing implications of parallel constraint satisfaction principles for a number of broader issues in social psychology, such as the dynamics of social thought and the integration of social information within the narrow time frame of social interaction.
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Чунтонов, Денис Алексеевич, and Татьяна Юрьевна Быстрова. "Applying Gestalt Principles to design using optical illusions." Академический вестник УралНИИпроект РААСН, no. 2(53) (June 30, 2022): 108–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.25628/uniip.2022.53.2.017.
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В статье анализируется феномен оптической иллюзии, его роль в дизайне. Проведен сравнительный анализ оп-арта и дизайна, применяющих оптические иллюзии. Представлен анализ соответствия дизайна с использованием оптических иллюзий принципам гештальтпсихологии. Прослежена зависимость удобочитаемости дизайн-продукта от соответствия наибольшему количеству гештальт-законов. Выведен набор правил по формообразованию в дизайне с использованием оптических иллюзий. This article reveals the essence of the phenomenon of optical illusion, its role in the design. A comparative analysis of op-art and design with the use of optical illusions has been carried out. An analysis of the compliance of design with the use of optical illusions with the principles of Gestalt psychology is presented. The dependence of readability of product design on compliance with the greatest number of gestalt laws is traced. The set of rules for design shaping using optical illusions is removed.
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Su, Chong. "The Aesthetic Actualization of Gestalt Image in English Translation of Chinese Poems." International Journal of English Linguistics 8, no. 2 (December 23, 2017): 233. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/ijel.v8n2p233.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
As significant schools in contemporary cognitive science, gestalt psychology and cognitive linguistics provide the conceptual model and theoretical framework for the multidimensional research on cognitive translation study. Their major theoretical perspective makes them as the methodological principles of gestalt image study in cognitive translation which could be viewed from both mental and linguistic perspectives. The paper focuses on making a tentative and exploratory study of the aesthetic actualization of gestalt image in English translation of Chinese poems and thus aims to discover the conceptual mental experience of actualizing aesthetic quality of image-G through cognitive processing in English translation of Chinese poems.
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Pinna, Baingio, and Katia Deiana. "New conditions on the role of color in perceptual organization and an extension to how color influences reading." Psihologija 47, no. 3 (2014): 319–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/psi1403319p.
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Color is one among many attributes that are involved in the similarity principle. Grouping by color is believed to be less effective when compared with other attributes such as shape and luminance. The main purpose of this work is to explore the role played by color in determining visual grouping and wholeness, not only in relation to further similarity attributes but also to other principles such as proximity, good continuation and past experience. Conditions, different from those used by Gestalt psychologists, were chosen, and aimed to understand how color can influence visual organization and through it, other perceptual and complex processes such as reading and visual word recognition. In fact, involving cognitive and metacognitive domains, permits exploration of broader issues concerning perception, memory, knowledge, representation and learning, where color can express its biological advantages for humans more clearly. These processes can be assimilated to the Gestalt past experience considered as a principle of its own kind not fully explored in relation to the other principles. As a consequence, these conditions allow color to be pitted against past experience and against a number of principles at the same time. The results demonstrated that color can strongly influence grouping, shape and the process of segmentation of words involved in the reading task. Therefore, color not only is one among the many principles of grouping but an essential component for the foundation of the more complex organization aimed at creating wholeness, part-whole formation and fragmentation.
Дисертації з теми "Gestalt Psychology Principles"
1
Cicha, Cheryl R. "Effective communication in interactive media through application of Gestalt principles /." Online version of thesis, 1995. http://hdl.handle.net/1850/12260.
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McCollough, Andrew Willis 1974. "The Influence of Gestalt Grouping Principles on Active Visual Representations: Neurophysiological Evidence." Thesis, University of Oregon, 2011. http://hdl.handle.net/1794/11555.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
xiii, 143 p. : ill. (some col.)The cognitive ability to group information into chunks is a well known phenomenon, however, the effects of chunking on visual representations is not well understood. Here we investigate the effects of visual chunking using Gestalt grouping principles in two tasks: visual working memory change detection and multiple object tracking. Though both these tasks have been used to study cognitive functions in the past, including object-based attention, attentional control and working memory capacity, the effect of grouping on mental representations in these tasks has not been well characterized. That is, while researches have measured effects of grouping on behavioral output in similar tasks, there are few studies of the effects of grouping on neurophysiological indices of object representations. Indeed, these current studies are the first to use event-related potentials (ERPs) to elucidate the effect of grouping on active mental representations of visual stimuli. In the visual working memory task, observers remembered either the color or orientation of pacman stimuli across a delay. We manipulated the collinearity of these objects, whether or not they formed a Kanizsa triangle figure, and measured the behavioral and electrophysiological effects. In the multiple object tracking task, a subset of identical stimuli were briefly cued as targets and then their motion was tracked by participants. We manipulated whether and which Gestalt heuristics were used to bind targets together during their motion and measured the effects on behavior and electrophysiology. In both tasks we compared the grouped to ungrouped conditions. We found that across experiments and tasks behavioral performance was enhanced in grouping conditions compared to ungrouped conditions. Furthermore, the waveforms evoked by grouped stimuli were reduced compared to waveforms produced in response to locally identical but ungrouped stimuli. These data suggest that the mental representation of visual objects may be reshaped moment-by-moment by grouping cues or task demand, giving rise to a flexible, active and dynamic yet parsimonious representation of the visual world.
Committee in charge: Edward K. Vogel, Chair; Edward Awh, Member; Ulrich Mayr, Member; Paul van Donkelaar, Outside Member
3
McGregor, Michael Anthony. "Use of Gestalt principles in Kodály-based music teaching in lower secondary school : an evaluation study." Thesis, University of Oxford, 2013. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.669840.
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Von, Wielligh Belinda. "Die herskepping van lewensdrome na `n verlies: `n Gestalt perspektief." Diss., 2006. http://hdl.handle.net/10500/782.
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Summaries in English and AfrikaansAny loss in an adolescent's life may lead to shattered dreams. Therapists, who work with adolescents who have experienced a loss must support and guide them to develop an awareness of their needs, impulses and dreams. Therapists must furthermore be aware of the factors that contributed to a turning point for the adolescents who managed to recreate their dreams. Adolescents' dreams are influenced by the current circumstances in South Africa, as well as their parents' perceptions and parenting styles. The loss of what could have been, after a loss, must also be addressed. The gestalt therapist establishes the process of awareness in the here-and-now. Furthermore, the adolescent must be guided to accept responsibility for his own choices and to purposeful create a new life dream.
Enige verlies in adolessente se lewens kan lei tot verbrokkelde lewensdrome. Terapeute wat werk met adolessente wat 'n verlies ervaar het, moet hul ondersteun en begelei sodat hulle bewustheid kan ontwikkel van hul behoeftes, drange en drome. Terapeute moet verder bewus wees van die faktore wat 'n keerpunt meegebring het by die adolessente wat wei hul drome kon herskep. Adolessente se lewensdrome word beinvloed deur die huidige omstandighede in Suid-Afrika, sowel as deur hul ouers se persepsies en ouerskapstyl. Die verlies aan dit wat kon wees, na afloop van 'n verlies moet dus ook aangespreek word. Die gestaltterapeut bewerkstellig die bewusmakingsproses in die hier-en-nou. Verder moet die adolessent gelei word om verantwoordelikheid te neem vir sy eie keuses en om doelbewus 'n nuwe lewensdroom te skep.
Social Work
M. Diac. (Play Therapy)
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TSAI, FANG TZU, and 蔡芳姿. "The Study and Creation on Digital images - Applying the grouping principle of Gestalt psychology." Thesis, 2004. http://ndltd.ncl.edu.tw/handle/45872779623931647594.
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碩士國立臺灣師範大學
設計研究所在職進修碩士班
92
Abstract It is essential for a graphic designer to understand the people''s manner and ability in "seeing" a work, in order to design some comprehensive, prolific, diverse, and interesting graphics. It can help the viewers see and absorb the messages easier. Likewise, the study of Gestalt psychology and visual theory can provide the designers with the basic nutrients and facilitate them with powerful tools in design because the study of these theories enables the designers to better understand the operation of people''s visual capacities and their aesthetic preference. As a result, it allows the designers to grasp and represent the messages they want to transmit more accurately. First, the study aims to explore the people''s feelings and the corresponding sensual organs to understand the formation of the senses and related visual theory. Then, it further explores the "grouping principle", which is formed by applying Gestalt psychology in the studies of people''s senses, as the core theoretical framework. In addition, the researcher would like to investigate its impacts on graphic design. Eventually, targeting at various feelings and sensual interactions, the project intends to fathom the visual theories and factors that should be considered when designing a work, to grasp the people''s senses and responses effectively, so as to apply them in digital image creation and design. In recent years, it is the trend for designers to create something out of nothing with computer software. When creating digital images by using a digital camera, the designers process the images with the computer to preserve and create their works. Likewise, in this project the researcher employs a digital camera and computer graphic software as major tools. In the experimental process, the manner of applying digital media and the process of digital design and creation will be recorded to provide the designers with more effective methods and broader perspectives toward the creations. In the research, the project discovered： 1 Applying the "grouping principles" makes the creative works more powerful and sparkle with vitality. 2 In visual arrangement and the applications of graphics, the "grouping principle" is proved to be positive in inspiring designers. 3 The flexible application of the "grouping principle", a branch of Gestalt psychology, can help accomplish the goal of seeking "standardization within diversification, and diversification within standardization." 4 The designers'' manners and ideas are bound by the media they employed when designing with various kinds of media and methods. However, humanistic concern can move people more.
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Kang, Ciou-Yan, and 康楸燕. "Using the Closure Principle of Gestalt psychology to discuss Video Installation in window display." Thesis, 2009. http://ndltd.ncl.edu.tw/handle/982au9.
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碩士崑山科技大學
視覺傳達設計研究所
97
How to attract the consumers’ attention and do the business is quite wisdom in commercial behavior. It involves many theories. To professional visual designers, it is one of the most important issues to study how to create attractive window display. Via the process of plane, three-dimensional and spatial information collecting, this study discusses whether the closure principle in Gestalt psychology can not only be applied to graphic design, but also the three-dimensional works and space management, in order to generate more multi innovative ideas. This study will address the technique of video installation media applied to the combination of window display and token display. The use value of video installation media to window display will be revaluated. The study purpose is to present the formation of perceptional field between the screen and the device, in order to achieve the time and space visual blocked effect. After we attach the important points to the window display with video installation devices, the original video installation will be combined with the novel visual concept, and thus we can see whether visual block in gestalt psychology works. If it does work, the window display can not only promote merchandise, but also be an artistic performative space itself.
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CHI-TIEH-LANG and 紀鐵郎. "A Study of Landscape Architecture Research on the Grouping Principle of Gestalt Psychology -Using American Society of Landscape Architects Firm Award Cases." Thesis, 2007. http://ndltd.ncl.edu.tw/handle/38738738204962978410.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
碩士大葉大學
設計研究所碩士在職專班
95
The study was to explore a Gestalt psychology in the landscape aesthetic perception application of space research, and to try to direct most of the human visual perception associated with the theory of Gestalt psychology "grouping principle" explore the beauty of the landscape, and based on analysis and interpretation of a good space created by the main factor. In the overall study was an analysis of the United States Association of Landscape Architecture (ASLA) winner of the actual landscape designs, Grouping principles to meet the actual case for professional practitioners questionnaire surveys and analysis are summarized in the research results, for the landscape design profession, as the future design and planning of reference. This study purpose of the study was to : Objective 1 : Analysis and finishing Gestalt psychology and the theory of visual perception component factors. Objective 2 : To explore the professional landscape designers of space Gestalt principle of personal preference whether basic background differences. Objective 3 : To explore the different professional landscape designer for the space grouping principle perceptions and preferences circumstances. Objective 4 : To evaluate the impact on the landscape of professional designers space preferences of the key principles of grouping, and its importance, Accordingly for the design sector as a design reference. Key Words : Gestalt psychology, grouping, the garden landscape, the United States Association of Landscape Architects (ASLA)
Книги з теми "Gestalt Psychology Principles"
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K, Koffka K. Principles of Gestalt Psychology. Taylor & Francis Group, 2013.
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2
Koffka, K. Principles Of Gestalt Psychology. Routledge, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315009292.
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3
K, Koffka K. Principles of Gestalt Psychology. Taylor & Francis Group, 2013.
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4
Koffka, Kurt. Principles Of Gestalt Psychology. Mimesis International, 2014.
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5
Principles of Gestalt Psychology. Routledge, 2013.
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6
KOFFKA, K. Principles of Gestalt Psychology. Routledge, 1999.
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Principles of Gestalt Psychology. Taylor & Francis Group, 2013.
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8
Principles Of Topological Psychology. Munshi Press, 2007.
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Hartmann, George Wilfried. Gestalt Psychology: A Survey of Facts and Principles. Kessinger Publishing, 2006.
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10
Hartmann, George W. Gestalt Psychology: A Survey Of Facts And Principles. Kessinger Publishing, LLC, 2007.
Знайти повний текст джерелаЧастини книг з теми "Gestalt Psychology Principles"
1
Gurwitsch*, Aron. "Some Principles of Gestalt Psychology." In The Collected Works of Aron Gurwitsch (1901-1973), 85–148. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-3346-8_5.
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Schlimm, Dirk. "Tables as Powerful Representational Tools." In Diagrammatic Representation and Inference, 185–201. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-15146-0_15.
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AbstractTables are widely used for storing, retrieving, communicating, and processing information, but in the literature on the study of representations they are still somewhat neglected. The strong structural constraints on tables allow for a clear identification of their characteristic features and the roles these play in the use of tables as representational and cognitive tools. After introducing syntactic, spatial, and semantic features of tables, we give an account of how these affect our perception and cognition on the basis of fundamental principles of Gestalt psychology. Next are discussed the ways in which these features of tables support their uses in providing a global access to information, retrieving information, and visualizing relational structure and patterns. The latter is particularly important, because it shows how tables can contribute to the generation of new knowledge. In addition, tables also provide efficient means for manipulating information in general and in structured notations. In sum, tables are powerful and efficient representational tools.