Добірка наукової літератури з теми "FST-Induced transition"

Laminar-to-turbulent transition in a swept flat-plate boundary layer is caused by the breakdown of the crossflow vortex via high-frequency secondary instability and is promoted by the wall-surface roughness and the freestream turbulence (FST). Although the FST is characterized by its intensity and wavelength, it is not clear how the wavelength affects turbulent transitions and interacts with the roughness-induced transition. The wavelength of the FST depends on the wind tunnel or in-flight conditions, and its arbitrary control is practically difficult in experiments. By means of direct numerical simulation, we performed a parametric study on the interaction between the roughness-induced disturbance and FST in the Falkner–Skan–Cooke boundary layer. One of our aims is to determine the critical roughness height and its dependence on the turbulent intensity and peak wavelength of FST. We found a suppression and promotion in the transition process as a result of the interaction. In particular, the immediate transition behind the roughness was delayed by the long-wavelength FST, where the presence of FST suppressed the high-frequency disturbance emanating from the roughness edge. Even below the criticality, the short-wavelength FST promoted a secondary instability in the form of the hairpin vortex and triggered an early transition before the crossflow-vortex breakdown with the finger vortex. Thresholds for the FST wavelengths that promote or suppress the early transition were also discussed to provide a practically important indicator in the prediction and control of turbulent transitions due to FST and/or roughness on the swept wing.

AbstractDirect numerical simulations (DNS) are performed of a transient channel flow following a rapid increase of flow rate from an initially turbulent flow. It is shown that a low-Reynolds-number turbulent flow can undergo a process of transition that resembles the laminar–turbulent transition. In response to the rapid increase of flow rate, the flow does not progressively evolve from the initial turbulent structure to a new one, but undergoes a process involving three distinct phases (pre-transition, transition and fully turbulent) that are equivalent to the three regions of the boundary layer bypass transition, namely, the buffeted laminar flow, the intermittent flow and the fully turbulent flow regions. This transient channel flow represents an alternative bypass transition scenario to the free-stream-turbulence (FST) induced transition, whereby the initial flow serving as the disturbance is a low-Reynolds-number turbulent wall shear flow with pre-existing streaky structures. The flow nevertheless undergoes a ‘receptivity’ process during which the initial structures are modulated by a time-developing boundary layer, forming streaks of apparently specific favourable spacing (of about double the new boundary layer thickness) which are elongated streamwise during the pre-transitional period. The structures are stable and the flow is laminar-like initially; but later in the transitional phase, localized turbulent spots are generated which grow spatially, merge with each other and eventually occupy the entire wall surfaces when the flow becomes fully turbulent. It appears that the presence of the initial turbulent structures does not promote early transition when compared with boundary layer transition of similar FST intensity. New turbulent structures first appear at high wavenumbers extending into a lower-wavenumber spectrum later as turbulent spots grow and join together. In line with the transient energy growth theory, the maximum turbulent kinetic energy in the pre-transitional phase grows linearly but only in terms of ${u}^{\ensuremath{\prime} } $, whilst ${v}^{\ensuremath{\prime} } $ and ${w}^{\ensuremath{\prime} } $ remain essentially unchanged. The energy production and dissipation rates are very low at this stage despite the high level of ${u}^{\ensuremath{\prime} } $. The pressure–strain term remains unchanged at that time, but increases rapidly later during transition along with the generation of turbulent spots, hence providing an unambiguous measure for the onset of transition.

Streamwise streaks, their lift-up and streak instability are integral to the bypass transition process. An experimental study has been carried out to find the effect of a mesh placed normal to the flow and at different wall-normal locations in the late stages of two transitional flows induced by free-stream turbulence (FST) and an isolated roughness element. The mesh causes an approximately 30 % reduction in the free-stream velocity, and mild acceleration, irrespective of its wall-normal location. Interestingly, when located near the wall, the mesh suppresses several transitional events leading to transition delay over a large downstream distance. The transition delay is found to be mainly caused by suppression of the lift-up of the high-shear layer and its distortion, along with modification of the spanwise streaky structure to an orderly one. However, with the mesh well away from the wall, the lifted-up shear layer remains largely unaffected, and the downstream boundary layer velocity profile develops an overshoot which is found to follow a plane mixing layer type profile up to the free stream. Reynolds stresses, and the size and strength of vortices increase in this mixing layer region. This high-intensity disturbance can possibly enhance transition of the accelerated flow far downstream, although a reduction in streamwise turbulence intensity occurs over a short distance downstream of the mesh. However, the shape of the large-scale streamwise structure in the wall-normal plane is found to be more or less the same as that without the mesh.

Gut dysbiosis is closely connected with the outbreak of psychiatric disorders with colitis. Bifidobacteria-fermented red ginseng (fRG) increases the absorption of ginsenoside Rd and protopanxatriol into the blood in volunteers and mice. fRG and Rd alleviates 2,4,6-trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid-induced colitis in mice. Therefore, to understand the gut microbiota-mediated mechanism of fRG against anxiety/depression, we examined the effects of red ginseng (RG), fRG, ginsenoside Rd, and protopanaxatriol on the occurrence of anxiety/depression, colitis, and gut dysbiosis in mice. Mice with anxiety/depression were prepared by being exposed to two stressors, immobilization stress (IS) or Escherichia coli (EC). Treatment with RG and fRG significantly mitigated the stress-induced anxiety/depression-like behaviors in elevated plus maze, light-dark transition, forced swimming (FST), and tail suspension tasks (TST) and reduced corticosterone levels in the blood. Their treatments also suppressed the stress-induced NF-κB activation and NF-κB+/Iba1+ cell population in the hippocampus, while the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression and BDNF+/NeuN+ cell population were increased. Furthermore, treatment with RG or fRG suppressed the stress-induced colitis: they suppressed myeloperoxidase activity, NF-κB activation, and NF-κB+/CD11c+ cell population in the colon. In particular, fRG suppressed the EC-induced depression-like behaviors in FST and TST and colitis more strongly than RG. fRG treatment also significantly alleviated the EC-induced NF-κB+/Iba1+ cell population and EC-suppressed BDNF+/NeuN+ cell population in the hippocampus more strongly than RG. RG and fRG alleviated EC-induced gut dysbiosis: they increased Bacteroidetes population and decreased Proteobacteria population. Rd and protopanaxatriol also alleviated EC-induced anxiety/depression and colitis. In conclusion, fRG and its constituents Rd and protopanaxatriol mitigated anxiety/depression and colitis by regulating NF-κB-mediated BDNF expression and gut dysbiosis.

The free shear layer that separates from the leading edge of a round-nosed plate has been studied under conditions of low (background) and elevated (grid-generated) free stream turbulence (FST) using high-fidelity particle image velocimetry. Transition occurs after separation in each case, followed by reattachment to the flat surface of the plate downstream. A bubble of reverse flow is thereby formed. First, we find that, under elevated (7 %) FST, the time-mean bubble is almost threefold shorter due to an accelerated transition of the shear layer. Quadrant analysis of the Reynolds stresses reveals the presence of slender, highly coherent fluctuations amid the laminar part of the shear layer that are reminiscent of the boundary-layer streaks seen in bypass transition. Instability and the roll-up of vortices then follow near the crest of the shear layer. These vortices are also present under low FST and in both cases are found to make significant contributions to the production of Reynolds stress over the rear of the bubble. But their role in reattachment, whilst important, is not yet fully clear. Instantaneous flow fields from the low-FST case reveal that the bubble of reverse flow often breaks up into two or more parts, thereby complicating the overall reattachment process. We therefore suggest that the downstream end of the ‘separation isoline’ (the locus of zero absolute streamwise velocity that extends unbroken from the leading edge) be used to define the instantaneous reattachment point. A histogram of this point is found to be bimodal: the upstream peak coincides with the location of roll-up, whereas the downstream mode may suggest a ‘flapping’ motion.

This study explores the dynamics of bypass transition of a zero pressure gradient boundary layer transitioning under the combined influence of an isolated roughness element with pulses of free-stream turbulence (FST). We consider a hemispherical roughness element placed over a flat plate, while the pulses of FST are introduced at the inlet which is in contrast to continuous FST largely explored in the literature. For a fixed turbulence intensity and length scale, a series of eddy-resolving simulations are carried out to examine the effect of varying the pulsing frequency of FST. The flow behind the roughness element remains stable in the absence of FST for the subcritical Reynolds number $Re_k = 400$ considered in this study. We observe that with the pulses of FST, the transition is triggered due to the interaction of the FST-induced Klebanoff streaks with the roughness-induced streamwise vortices. With an increase in the frequency of FST pulses, the boundary layer has less time to relax to its unperturbed state resulting in an earlier onset of transition. The transition onset predicted is in favorable agreement with the correlations proposed in the literature. We analyze the growth of disturbance kinetic energy, the shape of secondary instabilities over the streaks, and their phase speeds in detail. The FST pulse convecting over the roughness element triggers the inner varicose modes in its near-wake region. The varicose modes decay rapidly further downstream and the well-known sinuous instabilities (or the outer modes) trigger transition via transient growth associated with convective instabilities.

The separation-induced transition on the suction surface of a T106A low pressure turbine blade is a complex phenomenon with implications for aerodynamic performance. In this numerical investigation, we explore an adverse pressure gradient-dominated flow subjected to varying levels of free stream excitation, as the underlying separation-induced transition is a critical factor in assessing blade profile loss. By comprehensively analyzing the effects of free stream turbulence (FST) on the transition process, we delve into the various mechanisms which govern the instabilities underlying bypass transition by studying the instantaneous enstrophy field. This involves solving the two-dimensional (2D) compressible Navier–Stokes equation through a series of numerical simulations, comparing a baseline flow to cases where FST with varying turbulent intensity (Tu=4% and 7%) is imposed at the inflow. Consistent with previous studies, the introduction of FST is observed to delay flow separation and trigger early transition. We explore the different stages of bypass transition, from the initial growth of disturbances (described by linear stability theory) to the emergence of unsteady separation bubbles that merge into turbulent spots (due to nonlinear interactions), by examining the vorticity dynamics. Utilizing the compressible enstrophy transport equation for the flow in a T106A blade passage, we highlight the various routes of bypass transition resulting from different levels of FST, emphasizing the relative contributions from baroclinicity, compressibility, and viscous terms.

To date, very few careful and direct comparisons between experiments and direct numerical simulations (DNS) have been published on free-stream turbulence (FST) induced boundary layer transition, whilst there exist numerous published works on the comparison of canonical turbulent boundary layers. The primary reason is that the former comparison is vastly more difficult to carry out simply because all known transition scenarios have large energy gradients and are extremely sensitive to surrounding conditions. This paper presents a detailed comparison between new experiments and available DNS data of the complex FST transition scenario in a flat plate boundary layer at turbulence intensity level about $Tu = 3\,\%$ and FST Reynolds number about $Re_{{fst}} = 67$ . The leading edge (LE) pressure gradient distribution and the full energy spectrum at the LE are identified as the two most important parameters for a satisfying comparison. Matching the LE characteristic FST parameters is not enough as previously thought, which is illustrated by setting up two experimental FST cases with about the same FST integral parameters at the LE but with different energy spectra. Finally, an FST boundary layer penetration depth (PD) measure is defined using DNS, which suggests that the PD grows with the downstream distance and stays around 20 % of the boundary layer thickness down to transition onset. With this result, one cannot rule out the significance of the continuous FST forcing along the boundary layer edge in this transition scenario, as indicated in previous studies.

Under the action of free-stream turbulence (FST), elongated streamwise streaky structures are generated inside the boundary layer, and their amplitude and wavelength are crucial for the transition onset. While turbulence intensity is strongly correlated with the transitional Reynolds number, characteristic length scales of the FST are often considered to have a slight impact on the transition location. However, a recent experiment by Fransson and Shahinfar [J. Fluid Mech. 899, A23 (2020)] shows significant effects of FST scales. They found that, for higher free-stream turbulence levels and larger integral length scales, an increase in the length scale postpones transition, contrary to established literature. Here, by performing well-resolved numerical simulations, we aim at understanding why the FST integral length scale affects the transition location differently at low- and high turbulence levels. We found that the integral length scales in Fransson and Shahinfar's experiment are so large that the introduced wide streaks have substantially lower growth in the laminar region, upstream of the transition to turbulence, than the streaks induced by smaller integral length scales. The energy in the boundary layer subsequently propagate to smaller spanwise scales as a result of the nonlinear interaction. When the energy has reached smaller spanwise scales, larger amplitude streaks results in regions where the streak growth are larger. It takes longer for the energy from wider streaks to propagate to the spanwise scales associated with the breakdown to turbulence, than for those with smaller spanwise scales. Thus, there is a faster transition for FST with lower integral length scales in this case.

Abstract In the present study, we investigate the unsteady boundary layer transition based on the direct numerical simulation database of a high-pressure turbine (HPT) stage (Zhao and Sandberg, GT2021-58995), focusing on the transition mechanisms on the rotor blade, affected by the incoming periodic wakes and the background free-stream turbulence (FST). Based on the fully-resolved flow fields, we provide detailed analysis of the flow structures responsible for the transition, and two distinctive transition paths have been identified. The first path is the typical bypass transition via the instability of Klebanoff streaks, which happens when the transition region is not directly affected by the wake. The suction-side boundary layer is disturbed at the leading edge, resulting in the formation of streamwise streaks. These streaky structures endure varicose instability in the region with adverse pressure-gradient (APG), then quickly break down into turbulent spots, which then evolve into fully turbulent flow. The other transition path is a consequence of the direct interaction between the wake structures and the blade boundary layer, when the wake apex starts to affect the transitional region. To be specific, the wake structures directly interact with the separation bubble in the APG region, causing sudden breakdown into turbulence. A calmed region is found to follow the wake-induced turbulent boundary layer. It is observed that the recovery to a calmed region can be impacted by the FST, as the calmed region in case with no FST is much longer compared to cases with stronger FST.

Les cycles de Rankine organique (ORC) apparaissent comme l'une des solutions pour répondre aux défis énergétiques et environnementaux actuels, en raison de leur important potentiel énergétique. L'un des composants clés des ORC est le détendeur, généralement une turbine. Pour les petits systèmes, cette dernière fonctionne dans les régimes transsoniques à supersoniques et peut être influencée par les propriétés de la vapeur organique utilisée, présentant ainsi des effets non idéaux. Dans cette étude, nous examinons les transitions de couche limite (CL) et le mécanisme des pertes au sein des turbines dans des conditions représentatives des ORC pour le fluide Novec649. Nous débutons par la présentation des premières simulations numériques directes (DNS) et des simulations à grandes échelles (LES) de CL transitionnant et turbulentes de Novec dans des conditions subsoniques élevées. Dans l'état turbulent, les profils des propriétés dynamiques de l'écoulement sont peu affectés par les propriétés du gaz et demeurent très proches de la DNS incompressible, malgré la vitesse élevée de l'écoulement subsonique, même si de véritables mais très faibles effets de compressibilité sont présents. Notre stratégie LES est validée par rapport à la DNS et est utilisée pour étudier l'influence de la fréquence et de l'amplitude du forçage sur l'état turbulent établi. Ensuite, pour la première fois, nous étudions, par LES, la transition induite par la turbulence extérieure (FST) de CL de gaz dense sur des plaques planes et autour du bord d'attaque d'une turbine. En raison du nombre de Reynolds élevé, les fines CL interagissent avec de larges structures turbulentes qui peuvent, pour des intensités relativement élevées, favoriser un mécanisme de transition non linéaire au lieu du mécanisme classique de transition par stries laminaires. Comparées au Novec, les CL d'air se révèlent légèrement plus instables mais conservent globalement des caractéristiques similaires, notamment en ce qui concerne les mécanismes de transition observés. Enfin, l'écoulement autour d'une configuration idéalisée d'aube est abordé au moyen de simulations DDES (Delayed Detached-Eddy Simulations), permettant une analyse fine des phénomènes instationnaires. À mesure que la non-idéalité de l'écoulement augmente, le rapport de pression diminue et les pertes augmentent. Comparativement à l'air, la capacité thermique élevée du Novec réduit les fluctuations de température, éliminant ainsi le phénomène dit de séparation d'énergie, tout en accentuant les fluctuations de pression dans le sillage. En comparaison avec les DDES, les simulations RANS conduisent à une sous-estimation des pertes d'environ 20%
Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) systems appear as one of the solutions to answer the current energy and environmental challenges, owing to their significant potential for generating power. A key component for ORC is the expander, most often a turbine. For small systems, the latter works in the transonic to supersonic regimes and can be affected by the properties of the organic vapor used and exhibit strong non-ideal effects. In the present study, we investigate boundary layer (BL) transitions and losses mechanism in turbines under conditions representative of ORC for the organic vapor Novec649. We begin by reporting the first direct numerical simulation (DNS) and large-eddy simulations (LES) of transitional and turbulent BL of Novec at high-subsonic conditions. In the turbulent state, the profiles of dynamic flow properties are little affected by the gas properties and remain very close to incompressible DNS, despite the high-subsonic flow speed and even if genuine but very small compressibility effects are present. Our LES strategy is validated against the reference DNS and is used to investigate the influence of forcing frequency and amplitude on the established turbulent state. Then, for the first time, we investigate freestream turbulence (FST)-induced transition of dense-gas BL on flat plates and around the leading-edge of a turbine by means of LES. Due to the high Reynolds number conditions, the thin BL experience large-scale incoming turbulent structures which can, for relatively high intensities, promote a non-linear transition mechanism instead of the classical laminar streak transition mechanism. Compared to Novec flows, air BL are found to be slightly more unstable but retains overall similar characteristics, in particular concerning the transition mechanisms observed. Finally, the flow around an idealized blade vane configuration is tackle by means of Delayed Detached-Eddy Simulations (DDES), allowing fine-detail analysis of unsteady flow phenomena. As the non-ideality of the flow increases, a lower pressure ratio is achieved and the losses increases. With regards to air, Novec's high heat capacity reduces temperature fluctuations, suppressing the so-called energy separation phenomena, while accentuating pressure fluctuations in the wake. Compared to DDES, RANS simulations leads to an underestimation of the losses by about 20%

Abstract High-fidelity Large Eddy Simulations (LES) are used to investigate the influence of distributed surface roughness on the spatially developing laminar boundary layer under varying freestream turbulence (FST) levels of 0.07 to 6%. The inlet Reynolds number based on the momentum thickness and freestream velocity is 360. The square-shaped (SQ) riblets that are employed in the present study are homogeneous in the spanwise direction and distributed in a series along the streamwise length. The aspect ratio (s/k) considered here is 3, where k is the riblet height, and s is the longitudinal spacing between the consecutive rows of riblets. The instantaneous flow structures reveal a Λ vortex-induced breakdown for FST levels below 3.2%, attributed to the near wall streamwise vortices arising from embedded recirculation regions between riblets. On the contrary, at a high FST level of 6%, the flow is characterized by low- and high-speed streaks generated via shear sheltering, resulting in the turbulent flow downstream. Moreover, an exponential growth of velocity fluctuations is apparent for a lower FST, which becomes algebraic for a higher FST. The onset and end of transition shift progressively upstream with an increase in FST. Interestingly, the flow features exhibit self-similarity in the turbulent region irrespective of FST levels.

Abstract In the present study, we investigate the unsteady boundary layer transition based on the direct numerical simulation (DNS) database of a high-pressure turbine (HPT) stage (Zhao and Sandberg, GT2021-58995), focusing on the transition mechanisms on the rotor blade, which are affected by the incoming periodic wakes and also by the background free-stream turbulence (FST) introduced at the inlet. Based on the fully-resolved DNS flow fields, we are able to provide detailed analysis of the flow structures responsible for the transition, and two distinctive paths to laminar-turbulent transition have been identified. The first path is the typical bypass transition via the instability of Klebanoff streaks, which happens when the transition region is not directly affected by the wake. It is noted that the suction-side boundary layer is disturbed at the leading edge, resulting in the formation of streamwise streaks. These streaky structures endure varicose instability in the region with adverse pressure-gradient (APG), then quickly break down into turbulent spots, which then evolves into fully turbulence. The other transition path is a consequence of the direct interaction between the wake structures and the blade boundary layer, when the wake apex starts to affect the transitional region. To be specific, the wake structures seem to directly interact with the separation bubble in the APG region, causing sudden break down into turbulence. The turbulent boundary layer induced by the periodic wake are usually followed by a calmed region as the wake travels away from the passage. It is also observed that the recovery to a calmed region can be impacted by the FST, as the calmed region in case with no FST is much longer compared to cases with stronger FST.

Regions of three-dimensional separations are an inherent flow feature of the suction surface - endwall corner in axial compressors. These corner separations can cause a significant total pressure loss and reduce the compressor’s efficiency. This paper uses wall-resolved LES to investigate the loss sources in a corner separation, and examines the influence of the inflow turbulence on these sources. Different subgrid scale (SGS) models are tested and the choice of model is found to be important. The σ SGS model, which performed well, is then used to perform LES of a compressor endwall flow. The time-averaged data is in good agreement with measurements. The viscous and turbulent dissipation are used to highlight the sources of loss, with the latter being dominant. The key loss sources are seen to be the 2D laminar separation bubble and trailing edge wake, and the 3D flow region near the endwall. Increasing the free-stream turbulence intensity (FST) changes the suction surface boundary layer transition mode from separation induced to bypass. However, it doesn’t significantly alter the transition location and therefore the corner separation size. Additionally, the FST doesn’t noticeably interact with the corner separation itself, meaning that in this case the corner separation is relatively insensitive to the FST. The endwall boundary layer state is found to be significant. A laminar endwall boundary layer separates much earlier leading to a larger passage vortex. This significantly alters the endwall flow and loss. Hence, the need for accurate boundary measurements is clear.

Abstract The present study describes the potential of a passive technique involving the leading-edge modification using herringbone riblets with a triangular cross-section in mitigating the leading-edge separation at various angles of attack (α). Pressure and instantaneous flow measurements by hotwire were performed over a semicircular leading-edge aerofoil for α — 0°, 3° and 5° with and without leading-edge modification. The Reynolds number (Re), based on the chord length and the inlet freestream velocity, was 1.6 × 105, where freestream turbulence (fst) being 1.2%. A laminar separation bubble is witnessed on the hydrodynamically smooth leading-edge aerofoil at all α where the transition is governed by inviscid instability. Leading-edge modification with herringbone riblets induced higher turbulence in proximity to the wall, resulting in an earlier transition of the shear layer and a reduction in bubble length by 36–20% for α = 0–5° along with a change in the transition mechanism. In brief, herringbone riblets show promising results in reducing the leading-edge separation.

Modern ‘high-lift’ blade designs incorporated into the low pressure turbine (LPT) of aero-engines typically exhibit a separation bubble on the suction surface of the airfoil. The size of the bubble and the loss it generates is governed by the transition process in the separated shear layer. However, the wakes shed by the upstream blade rows, the turbulent fluctuations in the free-stream and the roughness over the blade complicates the transition process. The current paper numerically investigates the transition of a separated shear layer over a flat plate with an elliptic leading edge using large eddy simulations (LES). The upper wall of the test section is inviscid and specifically contoured to impose a streamwise pressure distribution over the flat plate to simulate the suction surface of a LPT blade. The influences of free-stream turbulence (FST), periodic wake passing and streamwise pressure distribution (blade loading) are considered. The simulations were carried out at a Reynolds number of 83,000 based on the length of the flat plate (S0 = 0.5m) and the velocity at the nominal trailing edge (UTE ∼ 2.55 m/s). A high turbulence intensity of 4% and a dimensionless wake passing frequency (fr = fwakeS0/UTE, where fwake is the dimensional wake frequency) of 0.84 is chosen for the study. Two different distributions representative of a ‘high-lift’ and an ‘ultra-high-lift’ turbine blade are examined. An in-house, high order, flow solver is used for the Large Eddy Simulations (LES). The Variational Multi-scale approach is used to account for the sub-grid scale stresses. Results obtained from the current LES compare favorably with the extensive experimental data previously obtained for the test cases considered. The LES results are then used to further explore the flow physics involved in the transition process, in particular the role of Klebanoff streaks and their influence on performance. The additional effect of surface roughness of the blade has also been studied for one of the blade loadings. The benefit that roughness can offer for highly loaded turbine blades is demonstrated.