Добірка наукової літератури з теми "Forest protection Victoria Case studies"

Habitat loss and fragmentation are key biodiversity indicators of the Montreal Protocol for monitoring progress towards ecologically sustainable forest management. Over the last 15 years, an array of landscape metrics have been developed as spatial measures of habitat loss and fragmentation. However, most metrics require rigorous empirical testing if they are to provide scientifically credible information to managers and policy makers. We present a synthesis of three Australian case studies for developing Montreal Indicator 1.1e, fragmentation of forest type, each representing different levels of landscape modification: St Mary State Forest, south-east Queensland; Tumut, southern New South Wales; and the Central Highlands, Victoria. Collectively, the studies found that no single landscape metric captured the response of the target species and fauna assemblages, or served as a reliable ecological surrogate for the conservation of a large set of species. Rather, species demonstrated a diversity of responses to habitat loss and fragmentation. Fragmentation effects were more important for the Tumut study, but not important for the Central Highlands study. Stand-scale habitat variables and area of suitable habitat were dominant explanatory variables for the St Mary study. Differences in observed response are partly explained by: (i) differences in landscape structure, particularly the proportion of preferred forest habitat remaining; (ii) differences in the ecology of target species; and (iii) the insensitivity of the landscape measures. Based on the outcomes of the three case studies, we propose principles for developing landscape surrogates for conserving biodiversity in Australia's eucalypt forest landscapes.

Over the past decade environment protection policies have placed increasing emphasis on waste minimisation and cleaner production techniques. The Environment Protection Authority in Victoria, Australia, has sought to encourage waste minimisation by establishing a Clean Technology Incentive Scheme. This Scheme makes available secured interest-free loans of up to $100,000 to selected small and medium-sized companies proposing to install proven yet innovative waste reducing technology. Applications are evaluated by a Review Committee drawn from a diversity of backgrounds. The technical feasibility, innovativeness, environmental benefits and financial soundness of proposals are assessed and a short-list of potential loan recipients prepared. The managerial competence and financial status of short-listed applicants is checked before loans are made. The Scheme was established in 1988 and since then 35 offers of loans have been made. Whilst the newness of the Scheme makes evaluation of its long-term effectiveness premature, results to date are encouraging. Case studies of three especially successful projects are presented.

Although forest devolution has become a key strategy of forestry reforms to mobilise local resources for sustainable forest management, there is growing concern about the legitimacy of this strategy. There have been escalating disputes between forestry agencies and local people as to who receives the rights to forests. Examining the policy of forest land allocation in Vietnam helps us to understand this legitimacy issue. Research findings from three case studies show trade-offs between the two policies’ goals, environmental protection and livelihood improvement, due to locals’ low awareness of the intrinsic values of forests and their lack of knowledge regarding the policy.

Purpose: The main aim of the study is to analyze the costs of forest protection incurred by Poland's State Forests and to present the activities performed as part of forest protection. The specific objective is to present the method and place of disclosing and reporting information on actions to prevent damage to the forest and on the costs of forest protec-tion on a general level. Methodology/approach: The considerations in the study are presented against the views presented in the literature on the subject by selected authors. The methods of critical analysis and synthesis, inference, and a case study were used. The data for the analyses were taken from the financial and economic reports of the State Forests for the years 2016–2019, from the statistical studies „Forestry”, and reports obtained as part of the application submitted to the State Forests for the reuse of public sector information. Pearson's linear correlation analysis was used, as well as an agglomeration grouping method – Ward's method – which uses the analysis of variance approach in its procedures. Findings: The scale of forest protection measures varied between State Forests in the analyzed period. The highest costs for forest protection in total are borne by forest dis-tricts located in the area of State Forests in Wrocław, and the lowest costs for forest protection in total are borne by forest districts located in the area of State Forests in Kra-ków. The smallest area protected against insects covers forest districts located in the State Forests in Krakow. With the increase in the costs of forest protection, State Forest’s own costs also increase. The highest relationship was noted in 2017, with a correla-tion coefficient of 0.86. Research limitations: The research sample is limited to one country. Originality/value: The presented voice in the discussion fills the research gap in terms of information about State Forests’ activities to protect the forest and the subsequent costs incurred. The use of Ward’s method allowed similar regional directorates of State Forests to be grouped from the perspective of forest protection costs and protective measures (area approach), which is the basis for extended research in this area from the point of view of the natural diversity of these units (narrowing the research and conducting it in similar State Forests units).

Recent impacts from the Mountain Pine Beetle epidemic, the lack of available timber in areas of lower elevation, and the reduction in back-country timber has pushed forest operations into publicly significant and visible landscapes. When these become the stage for operations they can be a source of public backlash. These kinds of landscapes are carefully protected by governments, yet, this protection may reduce timber availability. We have developed a new GIS-based tool to aid planners in designing harvests in these areas. Our tool is applied to three case studies in British Columbia to showcase how it can reduce planning time, increase timber availability and limit the negative visible effects of operations.

Mangroves have been suggested as an eco-defense strategy to dissipate tsunamis, storm surges, and king tides. As such, efforts have increased to replant forests along coasts that are vulnerable to flooding. The leafy canopies, stems, and aboveground root structures of mangroves limit water exchange across a forest, reducing flood amplitudes. The attenuation of long waves in mangroves was measured using cross-shore transects of pressure sensors in two contrasting environments in New Zealand, both characterized by mono-specific cultures of grey mangroves (Avicennia marina) and approximate cross-shore widths of 1 km. The first site, in the Firth of Thames, was characterized by mangrove trees with heights between 0.5 and 3 m, and pneumatophore roots with an average height of 0.2 m, and no substantial tidal drainage channels. Attenuation was measured during storm surge conditions. In this environment, the tidal and surge currents had no alternative pathway than to be forced into the high-drag mangrove vegetation. Observations showed that much of the dissipation occurred at the seaward fringe of the forest, with an average attenuation rate of 0.24 m/km across the forest width. The second site, in Tauranga harbor, was characterized by shorter mangroves between 0.3 and 1.2 m in height and deeply incised drainage channels. No attenuation of the flood tidal wave across the mangrove forest was measurable. Instead, flow preferentially propagated along the unvegetated low-drag channels, reaching the back of the forest much more efficiently than in the Firth of Thames. Our observations from sites with the same vegetation type suggest that mangrove properties are important to long wave dissipation only if water transport through the vegetation is a dominant mechanism of fluid transport. Therefore, realistic predictions of potential coastal protection should be made prior to extensive replanting efforts.

A major wildfire burned 228 400 ha of forest in East Gippsland (Victoria, Australia) in February and March 1983, including Cooaggalah forest block where flora and fauna studies had just commenced. Bird abundance was assessed on 13 sites immediately before and after the fire, and annually for three years to 1986. The sites represented a range of habitats including rainforest, heaths and eucalypt forest, all of which burned. Total bird abundance was reduced to 60% of initial levels by the fire, but recovered within three years. These changes differed significantly between habitats. Initial decreases were greatest and subsequent recovery least in heaths where most above-ground vegetation had been killed. Post-fire increases were greatest in rainforest and on granite ridges, and in each case bird abundance rose to levels substantially higher than before fire. Some changes may have involved recovery from drought as well as fire. Changes over time were highly significant for many groups of birds (e.g., honeyeaters), while others showed little change (e.g., bark-foragers and insectivores that inhabit dense understorey or damp ground below shrubs). Honeyeaters and seed-eaters suffered the greatest initial declines, and some species in these groups were slow to recover (e.g., New Holland and Crescent Honeyeaters and Beautiful Firetail). Some species that feed from open ground increased quickly to levels greater than before fire (Flame and Scarlet Robins, Buff-rumped Thornbill and Superb Fairy-wren), but all except the latter then declined as shrubs regenerated. The main loss of birds immediately after the fire was of highly mobile species, and the composition of the remaining bird fauna appeared to depend on resource availability rather than the capacity of species to survive the fire front. Initial responses of species to fire were poor predictors of their responses after three years. Hence, the effects of fire should be considered in terms of habitat changes over several years. Many forest types including rainforest can provide continuing habitat even when they burn, but populations of mobile birds such as honeyeaters depend on access to alternative habitats on a broad regional scale.

The native eucalypt forests of southeastern Australia are managed for wood production, water protection, human recreation and the conservation of plants and wildlife. One strategy to conserve forest wildlife within wood production areas involves the use of unlogged strips or corridors of habitat. Most corridors are situated in gullies within forest catchments. However, a review of recent studies undertaken in southeastern Australia shows that many species of forest mammals either require habitat outside of gullies to find food and shelter, or make regular movements between forest on different parts of the topographic sequence. These findings illustrate that strategies for the design and implementation of wildlife corridors need to become more sophisticated and ensure: (i) the conservation of forest on ridges and midslopes, and (ii) the linkage of uncut stands on ridges and midslopes with forest in gullies.

There are presently no clear rules for determining optimal rockfall protection forests, taking into account forest and site characteristics as well as the size and energy of the falling rock. To provide a tool that meets these requirements and quantifies the protective capacity, we have developed Rockfor.net (www.rockfor.net). This paper explains the underlying principles as well as the calculation methods used. Furthermore, it presents case studies which provide validation.

SummaryAttitudes and incentives of people living around protected areas are widely considered to constrain successful management of these areas. Two contrasting protected areas in Honduras, a Biosphere Reserve of high biodiversity rainforest, and a cloud forest providing essential environmental services to the capital city, are analyzed in terms of their management problems and the strategies used for their protection. The response at the national level to the issues raised in these case studies is then assessed, focusing on the impact of government policies, legal changes affecting land tenure and use, and the role of state institutions in protected area management. The case studies indicate that while the non-government organizations (NGOs) have tried to promote a more participatory approach to conservation (with mixed success), the Honduras Government has tried to follow a more regulatory approach but without the resources and political will to implement it effectively. Opportunities have been missed to provide positive incentives for protection, for example in the area of eco-tourism and community-based natural forest management in situations where this would appear to be a viable option. The participatory approach has also been complicated by policies and land legislation which have sent out negative or ambiguous signals to local communities. Above all the case studies show how critical local attitudes are to the achievement of conservation objectives, and demonstrate the need for positive economic incentives that link development with conservation in buffer zones and surrounding areas.

Bibliography: leaves 135-143. An anthropological analysis of an industrial dispute that occurred within the East Gippsland forest industry, 1997-1998 and how the workers strove to acheive better working conditions for themselves, and to share in the wealth they had created.

Social Impact Assessment (SIA) is the process of analyzing, monitoring and managing the social effects of planned or implemented development interventions. The primary purpose of SIA is to bring about a sustainable and equitable biophysical and social environment. SIA is a prerequisite in FAO and World Bank aided projects which cover sectors of mining, agriculture, fishery, dams and transportation. In forestry it has the great potential of enhancing sustainable forest management, taking into account rural development objectives and local needs. SIA can be applied before and after the implementation of projects and programs. In the context of recent policy changes in China, the Natural Forest Protection Program (NFPP) has been implemented in a “top-down” process from 1998 to 2010. A large part of the forests on main river basins in Western regions are being conserved with severe restrictions for commercial use. The social effects of the NFPP are still debatable, indicating a need for conducting a SIA of the NFPP using a systematic conceptual approach. Objectives of the research are: (1) To understand how and to what extent the NFPP affected the local forest-dependent communities and their households; (2) To identify the local strategies currently used to cope up with the impacts; and (3) To develop the optimal strategies likely supported for a better harmonization between livelihood and the NFPP implementation in different regional contexts. The empirical research is approached through quantitative and qualitative social research methods for data collection and analysis. For the case studies, four villages with a total number of 175 respondents were selected for field surveys where questionnaires, interviews and group discussions were employed. The research findings indicate that, the NFPP has significant impacts on the population characteristics, institutional arrangements and infrastructure and public services at the community level and at household level, the income derivation, expenditure, labour time distribution, perceptions on public health/safety and changing values of forests perceived by individuals. The research reveals that, synthesizing de facto impacts of the NFPP makes potential negative social impacts predictable. The policy-makers and project teams implementing the NFPP should be aware that, the NFPP results in dynamic change processes which include the de facto and potential impacts as well as the influence factors; among these, contribution of strategies derived from local communities and households as the spontaneous reactions to cope with the NFPP impacts should be taken into consideration. Recommendations are given referring to a better implementation of the NFPP and the need for future researches concerning the SIA for sustainable forest management in different regional contexts
Social Impact Assessment (SIA) ist ein Prozess, der Analyse, Monitoring und Bewältigung der sozialen Effekte geplanter oder durchgeführter Entwicklungsinterventionen umfasst. Das Hauptanliegen von SIA ist, eine nachhaltige und gerechte biophysische und soziale Umwelt zu schaffen. SIA ist für Projekte der FAO und der Weltbank in den Sektoren Bergbau, Landwirtschaft, Fischerei, Talsperren und Transport eine Grundvoraussetzung. Für die Forstwirtschaft ergibt sich daraus das Potenzial, nachhaltige Waldbewirtschaftung zu stärken und dabei die Ziele ländlicher Entwicklung und lokale Erfordernisse zu berücksichtigen. SIA kann vor und nach der Durchführung von Projekten und Programmen angewendet werden. Im Zusammenhang mit den aktuellen politischen Veränderungen in China wird das Natural Forest Protection Program (NFPP) im Zeitraum von 1998-2010 nach dem top-down-Verfahren durchgeführt. Die sozialen Auswirkungen des NFPP sind noch immer umstritten. Das unterstreicht die Notwendigkeit der SIA unter Anwendung einer systematischen konzeptionellen Herangehensweise. Ein besonders kritischer Faktor dabei ist, dass ein erheblicher Anteil der Wälder in den Wassereinzugsgebieten wichtiger Flussläufe in den westlichen Regionen durch strikte Einschränkungen der kommerziellen Nutzung geschützt wurden. Die Ziele der Forschung sind: (1) Aufzeigen wie und in welchem Ausmaß das NFPP die örtlichen waldabhängigen Gemeinden und ihre Haushalte beeinflusst hat; (2) Identifizieren lokal entwickelter und angewandter Strategien, um die Auswirkungen des NFPP zu bewältigen; und (3) Entwickeln optimaler Strategien für eine bessere Harmonisierung der Lebensgrundlagen mit der Umsetzung des NFPP in unterschiedlichen regionalen Kontexten. Die empirische soziale Forschung bedient sich quantitativer und qualitativer Methoden zur Datensammlung und Datenanalyse. Für die Fallstudie wurden vier Dörfer mit insgesamt 175 Befragten ausgewählt. Bei der Primärdatenerhebung kamen Fragebögen, Interviews und Gruppendiskussionen zur Anwendung. Die Forschungsergebnisse zeigen, dass das NFPP signifikanten Einfluss ausübt auf Größe und Anteil armer Bevölkerung, auf institutionelle Rahmenbedingungen, die Infrastruktur und den öffentlichen Dienstleistungssektor auf Gemeindeebene. Auf Haushaltsebene wurde signifikanter einfluss nachgewiesen für die Generierung von Einkommen, die Ausgaben, die Arbeitszeitverteilung, die Vorstellungen über Gesundheitswesen und Sicherheit als auch auf die Wahrnehmung der sich verändernden Werte des Waldes. Es wird ersichtlich, dass durch Zusammenführen der de facto-Auswirkungen des NFPP potenzielle negative soziale Einflüsse vorhersagbar werden. Entscheidungsträger und Projektteams sollten sich darüber bewusst werden, dass das NFPP zu dynamischen Veränderungsprozessen führt, welche die de facto- und potentiellen Auswirkungen sowie die Einflussfaktoren betreffen. Dies schließt den Beitrag der lokal entwickelten Strategien ein. Empfehlungen betreffen die bessere Umsetzung des NFPP sowie die Notwendigkeit weiterer Forschung hinsichtlich der SIA im Zusammenhang nachhaltiger Waldbewirtschaftung in verschiedenen regionalen Kontexten

La conservation du couvert forestier tropical est essentielle pour assurer la fourniture durable de services écosystémiques. Dans les paysages anthropisés, la conservation des forêts doit également être conciliée avec la productivité agricole. Toutefois, l'accroissement de la démographie, la demande de produits agricoles et les changements dans l'utilisation des terres affectent la durabilité des forêts. Une première étape pour adapter la gestion efficace des forêts par les décideurs locaux consiste à identifier les forêts les plus vulnérables et à caractériser ce qui la génère. L'objectif de cette thèse est de développer une approche multidimensionnelle utilisant la télédétection pour évaluer la dégradation des forêts et les relations avec la dynamique de l'utilisation des terres afin d’estimer la vulnérabilité écologique des forêts. La thèse a été appliquée à Paragominas (Brésil) et Di Linh (Vietnam), où la déforestation à grande échelle due à l'agriculture commerciale a façonné le paysage en mosaïques d'utilisation des terres. A Paragominas, la dégradation est liée à l'accumulation de l’exploitation sélective du bois et au feu impliquant des changements dans la structure forestière. Nous avons estimé le potentiel de la télédétection multisource pour cartographier la biomasse forestière aérienne (AGB) à partir de données de stock de carbone. Nous avons amélioré la précision de la cartographie de l'AGB par rapport aux données pantropicales et révélé que 87 % des forêts étaient dégradées. À une plus petite échelle, nous avons étudié les conséquences de 33 ans de dégradation sur les structures forestières à l'aide de drone. Nous avons constaté que les textures de la canopée capturaient le grain, l'hétérogénéité et les gradients d'ouverture de la canopée, corrélés à la variabilité de la structure forestière et pouvaient être utilisés comme indicateurs pour caractériser les forêts dégradées. Nous avons également évalué le potentiel des images satellites à très haute résolution pour cartographier les structures des forêts dégradées à l'échelle de la municipalité. En nous basant sur des facteurs environnementaux, géographiques et de structure du paysage dérivés de la classification de l'utilisation des terres, nous avons démontré que 80 % de la dégradation des forêts était principalement due à l'accessibilité, la géomorphologie, la fréquence des incendies et à la fragmentation. Les facteurs de dégradation sont interconnectés et agissent en séquence au sein de différentes cascades d'effets. L'évolution de la structure du paysage a permis de reconstituer des trajectoires informant sur la dynamique des frontières agricoles. La combinaison de l'état actuel des forêts, de la dynamique du paysage et de la distribution des facteurs de dégradation permettra d’évaluation la vulnérabilité. A Di Linh, la dégradation concerne principalement les lisières forestières et est due à l'empiètement de l'agriculture (café). L'inventaire sur le terrain des différents types de forêts et d'autres éléments, combiné aux images Sentinel-2, a permis de cartographier avec une grande précision la couverture terrestre actuelle. Nous avons cartographié l'évolution de la couverture terrestre sur 45 ans à l'aide de séries chronologiques Landsat. Nous avons construit des trajectoires de dynamique paysagère afin de caractériser l'expansion de la frontière agricole et mis en évidence l'empiétement agricole sur les zones forestières. Nous avons également identifié des trajectoires de dégradation et de fragmentation qui affectent le couvert forestier à différentes intensités. Ensemble, ces indicateurs ont mis en évidence des points chauds de vulnérabilité. Grâce aux approches et aux indicateurs élaborés à multiples échelles, nous avons fourni un diagnostic holistique des forêts dans les paysages anthropisés, englobant l'état des forêts et des dynamiques à plus larges échelles. Cette thèse vise à orienter une gestion adaptée des forêts dégradées à l'échelle du paysage
The conservation of tropical forest cover is a key to ensuring sustainable provision of multiple ecosystem services. In human-modified landscapes, forest conservation must also be reconciled with agricultural productivity. However, increasing demography, demand for agricultural products and changes in land uses are affecting forest sustainability through degradation processes. A first step to tailor effective forest management by local decision makers is to identify most vulnerable forests and to characterize what is driving this vulnerability. The objective of this thesis is to develop a multidimensional approach using remote sensing to assess forest degradation and the relations with the broader dynamics of land use/cover towards the evaluation of forest ecological vulnerability. The thesis was applied in old-deforestation fronts of Paragominas (Brazil) and Di Linh (Vietnam) where large-scale deforestation driven by commercial agriculture shaped the landscape into land use mosaics with increasing degradation pressures. In Paragominas, degradation is linked with long-term accumulation of selective logging and fire implying changes in forest structure. We estimated the potential of multisource remote sensing to map forest aboveground biomass (AGB) from large-scale field assessment of carbon stock. We improved the accuracy of AGB mapping compared to pantropical datasets and revealed that 87% of forest was degraded. At a lower scale, we investigated the consequences of 33 years of degradation history from Landsat on forest structures using Unmanned Aerial Vehicle. We found that canopy textures captured canopy grain, heterogeneity and openness gradients, correlated with forest structure variability and could be used as proxies to characterize degraded forests. We also assessed the potential of very high resolution satellite images and derived canopy textures to upscale texture-structure relations at the municipality scale. Based on environmental, geographical factors and landscape structure metrics derived from land use/cover classification, we demonstrated that 80% of forest degradation was mainly driven by accessibility, geomorphology, fire occurrence and fragmentation. The drivers of degradation acted together and in sequence and clustering analysis disentangled different cascades of effects. Changes in landscape structure allowed reconstructing trajectories informing on agricultural frontier dynamics. The combination of current forest state, landscape dynamics and distribution of degradation drivers would be at the basis of ecological vulnerability assessment. In Di Linh, degradation mostly concerns forest edges and is driven by encroachment of coffee-based agriculture. Field inventory of the different forest types and other landscape elements combined with Sentinel-2 images allowed to map with high precision the current land cover. We then mapped land cover changes over 45 years using Landsat time series. We constructed trajectories of landscape structure dynamics from which we characterized the expansion of the agricultural frontier and highlighted heterogeneous agricultural encroachment on forested areas. We also identified degradation and fragmentation trajectories that affect forest cover at different rates and intensity. Combined, these indicators pinpointed hotspots of forest ecological vulnerability. Most vulnerable forest areas were experiencing rapid and recent forest cover loss associated with landscape fragmentation, land use competition due to coffee production and degradation. Through the developed remote sensing approaches and indicators at forest and landscape scales, we provided a holistic diagnosis of forests in human-modified landscapes encompassing forest state and broader dynamics and drivers. This thesis aims to pave the way for tailored and prioritized management of degraded forests at the landscape scale

Social Impact Assessment (SIA) is the process of analyzing, monitoring and managing the social effects of planned or implemented development interventions. The primary purpose of SIA is to bring about a sustainable and equitable biophysical and social environment. SIA is a prerequisite in FAO and World Bank aided projects which cover sectors of mining, agriculture, fishery, dams and transportation. In forestry it has the great potential of enhancing sustainable forest management, taking into account rural development objectives and local needs. SIA can be applied before and after the implementation of projects and programs. In the context of recent policy changes in China, the Natural Forest Protection Program (NFPP) has been implemented in a “top-down” process from 1998 to 2010. A large part of the forests on main river basins in Western regions are being conserved with severe restrictions for commercial use. The social effects of the NFPP are still debatable, indicating a need for conducting a SIA of the NFPP using a systematic conceptual approach. Objectives of the research are: (1) To understand how and to what extent the NFPP affected the local forest-dependent communities and their households; (2) To identify the local strategies currently used to cope up with the impacts; and (3) To develop the optimal strategies likely supported for a better harmonization between livelihood and the NFPP implementation in different regional contexts. The empirical research is approached through quantitative and qualitative social research methods for data collection and analysis. For the case studies, four villages with a total number of 175 respondents were selected for field surveys where questionnaires, interviews and group discussions were employed. The research findings indicate that, the NFPP has significant impacts on the population characteristics, institutional arrangements and infrastructure and public services at the community level and at household level, the income derivation, expenditure, labour time distribution, perceptions on public health/safety and changing values of forests perceived by individuals. The research reveals that, synthesizing de facto impacts of the NFPP makes potential negative social impacts predictable. The policy-makers and project teams implementing the NFPP should be aware that, the NFPP results in dynamic change processes which include the de facto and potential impacts as well as the influence factors; among these, contribution of strategies derived from local communities and households as the spontaneous reactions to cope with the NFPP impacts should be taken into consideration. Recommendations are given referring to a better implementation of the NFPP and the need for future researches concerning the SIA for sustainable forest management in different regional contexts.:TABLE OF CONTENT ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................................................................... i LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................ vi LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................ viii LIST OF BOXES .................................................................................................................... ix LIST OF ACRONYMS ............................................................................................................ x ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................... xii ZUSAMMENFASSUNG ..................................................................................................... xiii 1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ xiii 1.1 Background .................................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Problem statement and justification ............................................................................. 5 1.3 Research objectives ...................................................................................................... 6 1.3.1 General research objectives .................................................................................. 6 1.3.2 Specific research objectives .................................................................................. 7 1.4 Structure of the dissertation ......................................................................................... 8 2 CURRENT STATE OF KNOWLEDGE AND INFORMATION ............................... 10 2.1 General remark .......................................................................................................... 10 2.2 Forestry reforms in China .......................................................................................... 10 2.2.1 China‘s forestry sector since the economic reform in 1978 ................................ 10 2.2.2 Forest tenure and administration ......................................................................... 13 2.2.3 Chronology of sectional reforms in China and their consequences .................... 14 2.2.4 Policy reforms in the forestry sector ................................................................... 18 2.3 The Natural Forest Protection Program ..................................................................... 21 2.3.1 Background and objective .................................................................................. 21 2.3.2 Scale and main contents ...................................................................................... 21 2.3.3 Implementation process ...................................................................................... 22 2.3.4 Budget ................................................................................................................. 23 2.3.5 Legal basis .......................................................................................................... 23 2.3.6 Current implementation status and main achievements ..................................... 23 2.3.7 Various impacts of the NFPP derived from previous researches ........................ 23 2.4 Social Impact Assessment as a development tool ...................................................... 25 2.4.1 Concepts of Social Impact Assessment .............................................................. 25 2.4.2 A brief history of Social Impact Assessment ...................................................... 27 2.4.3 Principles and guidelines for Social Impact Assessment .................................... 29 2.4.4 Basic model of Social Impact Assessment ......................................................... 29 2.4.5 Process of Social Impact Assessment ................................................................. 31 2.4.6 SIA case study examples and matrix of common social indicators .................... 31 3 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ........... 38 3.1 General remark .......................................................................................................... 38 3.2 Basic settings in the ―Function evaluation‖ approach ............................................... 40 3.3 Integration framework: indirect and direct human impacts ....................................... 42 3.4 Conceptual framework of SIA: focusing on changes in social setting ...................... 46 3.5 Human ecosystem as an organizing concept for SIA ................................................ 47 3.5.1 Concept of human ecology and human ecosystem models ................................ 47 3.5.2 Systems model of human ecology ...................................................................... 48 3.5.3 Concept model of human ecosystems ................................................................. 50 3.5.4 Learning from the two conceptual models of human ecosystem ........................ 51 3.5.5 A local forest-dependent community as a small scale human ecosystem ........... 53 3.6 Framework conceptualizing social impacts in the empirical context ........................ 55 3.7 Research questions ..................................................................................................... 57 4 RESEARCH METHDOLOGY ..................................................................................... 60 4.1 Defining and operationalizing the research indicators .............................................. 60 4.1.1 Foundation of the definition ............................................................................... 60 4.1.2 Defining and operationalizing the selected research indicators .......................... 62 4.2 Selection of case study areas ..................................................................................... 68 4.3 Methods for quantitative and qualitative data collection ........................................... 71 4.3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 71 4.3.2 Field reconnaissance survey ............................................................................... 71 4.3.3 Secondary data collection ................................................................................... 71 4.3.4 Primary data collection ....................................................................................... 72 4.4 Data processing and analysis ..................................................................................... 75 4.5 Research procedure .................................................................................................... 76 4.6 Discussion on the attribution gap ............................................................................... 76 4.7 Reliability and validity of the field research process ................................................. 76 5 SCOPING AND OBSERVATION OF THE STUDY AREAS ..................................... 79 5.1 General remark .......................................................................................................... 79 5.2 Case study area 1: Gansu Xiaolongshan state-owned forest area .............................. 79 5.2.1 General information of Gansu Province ............................................................. 79 5.2.2 Profile of Xiaolongshan state-owned forest area ................................................ 81 5.2.3 Profiles of the villages investigated .................................................................... 84 5.2.4 Characteristics of household respondents in the two villages ............................ 86 5.3 Case Study Area 2: Chongqing collective-owned forest area .................................... 87 5.3.1 General information of Chongqing Municipality ............................................... 87 5.3.2 Information on Dazu County and its collective forest area ................................ 90 5.3.3 Profiles of the villages investigated .................................................................... 92 5.3.4 Characteristics of household respondents in the two villages ............................ 93 6 ASSESSMENT OF SOCIAL IMPACTS AND CAUSAL ANALYSIS ....................... 96 6.1 Social impacts on the local community level ............................................................ 96 6.1.1 Change in the community population characteristics ......................................... 96 6.1.2 Change in the community institutional arrangements ........................................ 99 6.1.3 Change in the community infrastructure and public services ........................... 111 6.2 Social impacts on the household level ..................................................................... 118 6.2.1 Impacts on households and families ................................................................. 118 6.2.2 Impacts on individuals ...................................................................................... 131 7 DIAGNOSIS: COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION .......................... 145 7.1 General remark ........................................................................................................ 145 7.2 The de facto impacts of the NFPP on local communities and households .............. 145 7.2.1 The social change processes in the local community ....................................... 145 7.2.2 Human impacts on the local households ........................................................... 149 7.3 External and internal factors influencing the extent of impact results..................... 152 7.3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 152 7.3.2 The external factors at community level ........................................................... 152 7.3.3 The internal factors at household and individual level ..................................... 154 7.4 Potential impacts of the NFPP on the local community and households................. 154 7.5 Dynamics of de facto and potential impacts, local strategies and influence factors 155 8 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................................ 157 8.1 General remarks ....................................................................................................... 157 8.2 Recapitulation of major findings and conclusions ................................................... 157 8.3 Scope and limitations of the empirical study ........................................................... 158 8.4 Recommendation for future policy implementation ................................................ 160 8.5 Relationship between theory and findings ............................................................... 163 8.6 A critical review of methodology and implications for SIA research ...................... 165 REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................... 168 APPENDICES ...................................................................................................................... 179 Appendix 1: Some data and background information available in literature ..................... 180 Appendix 2: Supplementary material and material information used in research ............. 195 Appendix 3: Questionnaires used in the field surveys ....................................................... 203 Appendix 4: Part of the data collected in the field ............................................................. 212 Appendix 5: Photos in the fields ........................................................................................ 234
Social Impact Assessment (SIA) ist ein Prozess, der Analyse, Monitoring und Bewältigung der sozialen Effekte geplanter oder durchgeführter Entwicklungsinterventionen umfasst. Das Hauptanliegen von SIA ist, eine nachhaltige und gerechte biophysische und soziale Umwelt zu schaffen. SIA ist für Projekte der FAO und der Weltbank in den Sektoren Bergbau, Landwirtschaft, Fischerei, Talsperren und Transport eine Grundvoraussetzung. Für die Forstwirtschaft ergibt sich daraus das Potenzial, nachhaltige Waldbewirtschaftung zu stärken und dabei die Ziele ländlicher Entwicklung und lokale Erfordernisse zu berücksichtigen. SIA kann vor und nach der Durchführung von Projekten und Programmen angewendet werden. Im Zusammenhang mit den aktuellen politischen Veränderungen in China wird das Natural Forest Protection Program (NFPP) im Zeitraum von 1998-2010 nach dem top-down-Verfahren durchgeführt. Die sozialen Auswirkungen des NFPP sind noch immer umstritten. Das unterstreicht die Notwendigkeit der SIA unter Anwendung einer systematischen konzeptionellen Herangehensweise. Ein besonders kritischer Faktor dabei ist, dass ein erheblicher Anteil der Wälder in den Wassereinzugsgebieten wichtiger Flussläufe in den westlichen Regionen durch strikte Einschränkungen der kommerziellen Nutzung geschützt wurden. Die Ziele der Forschung sind: (1) Aufzeigen wie und in welchem Ausmaß das NFPP die örtlichen waldabhängigen Gemeinden und ihre Haushalte beeinflusst hat; (2) Identifizieren lokal entwickelter und angewandter Strategien, um die Auswirkungen des NFPP zu bewältigen; und (3) Entwickeln optimaler Strategien für eine bessere Harmonisierung der Lebensgrundlagen mit der Umsetzung des NFPP in unterschiedlichen regionalen Kontexten. Die empirische soziale Forschung bedient sich quantitativer und qualitativer Methoden zur Datensammlung und Datenanalyse. Für die Fallstudie wurden vier Dörfer mit insgesamt 175 Befragten ausgewählt. Bei der Primärdatenerhebung kamen Fragebögen, Interviews und Gruppendiskussionen zur Anwendung. Die Forschungsergebnisse zeigen, dass das NFPP signifikanten Einfluss ausübt auf Größe und Anteil armer Bevölkerung, auf institutionelle Rahmenbedingungen, die Infrastruktur und den öffentlichen Dienstleistungssektor auf Gemeindeebene. Auf Haushaltsebene wurde signifikanter einfluss nachgewiesen für die Generierung von Einkommen, die Ausgaben, die Arbeitszeitverteilung, die Vorstellungen über Gesundheitswesen und Sicherheit als auch auf die Wahrnehmung der sich verändernden Werte des Waldes. Es wird ersichtlich, dass durch Zusammenführen der de facto-Auswirkungen des NFPP potenzielle negative soziale Einflüsse vorhersagbar werden. Entscheidungsträger und Projektteams sollten sich darüber bewusst werden, dass das NFPP zu dynamischen Veränderungsprozessen führt, welche die de facto- und potentiellen Auswirkungen sowie die Einflussfaktoren betreffen. Dies schließt den Beitrag der lokal entwickelten Strategien ein. Empfehlungen betreffen die bessere Umsetzung des NFPP sowie die Notwendigkeit weiterer Forschung hinsichtlich der SIA im Zusammenhang nachhaltiger Waldbewirtschaftung in verschiedenen regionalen Kontexten.:TABLE OF CONTENT ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................................................................... i LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................ vi LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................ viii LIST OF BOXES .................................................................................................................... ix LIST OF ACRONYMS ............................................................................................................ x ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................... xii ZUSAMMENFASSUNG ..................................................................................................... xiii 1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ xiii 1.1 Background .................................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Problem statement and justification ............................................................................. 5 1.3 Research objectives ...................................................................................................... 6 1.3.1 General research objectives .................................................................................. 6 1.3.2 Specific research objectives .................................................................................. 7 1.4 Structure of the dissertation ......................................................................................... 8 2 CURRENT STATE OF KNOWLEDGE AND INFORMATION ............................... 10 2.1 General remark .......................................................................................................... 10 2.2 Forestry reforms in China .......................................................................................... 10 2.2.1 China‘s forestry sector since the economic reform in 1978 ................................ 10 2.2.2 Forest tenure and administration ......................................................................... 13 2.2.3 Chronology of sectional reforms in China and their consequences .................... 14 2.2.4 Policy reforms in the forestry sector ................................................................... 18 2.3 The Natural Forest Protection Program ..................................................................... 21 2.3.1 Background and objective .................................................................................. 21 2.3.2 Scale and main contents ...................................................................................... 21 2.3.3 Implementation process ...................................................................................... 22 2.3.4 Budget ................................................................................................................. 23 2.3.5 Legal basis .......................................................................................................... 23 2.3.6 Current implementation status and main achievements ..................................... 23 2.3.7 Various impacts of the NFPP derived from previous researches ........................ 23 2.4 Social Impact Assessment as a development tool ...................................................... 25 2.4.1 Concepts of Social Impact Assessment .............................................................. 25 2.4.2 A brief history of Social Impact Assessment ...................................................... 27 2.4.3 Principles and guidelines for Social Impact Assessment .................................... 29 2.4.4 Basic model of Social Impact Assessment ......................................................... 29 2.4.5 Process of Social Impact Assessment ................................................................. 31 2.4.6 SIA case study examples and matrix of common social indicators .................... 31 3 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ........... 38 3.1 General remark .......................................................................................................... 38 3.2 Basic settings in the ―Function evaluation‖ approach ............................................... 40 3.3 Integration framework: indirect and direct human impacts ....................................... 42 3.4 Conceptual framework of SIA: focusing on changes in social setting ...................... 46 3.5 Human ecosystem as an organizing concept for SIA ................................................ 47 3.5.1 Concept of human ecology and human ecosystem models ................................ 47 3.5.2 Systems model of human ecology ...................................................................... 48 3.5.3 Concept model of human ecosystems ................................................................. 50 3.5.4 Learning from the two conceptual models of human ecosystem ........................ 51 3.5.5 A local forest-dependent community as a small scale human ecosystem ........... 53 3.6 Framework conceptualizing social impacts in the empirical context ........................ 55 3.7 Research questions ..................................................................................................... 57 4 RESEARCH METHDOLOGY ..................................................................................... 60 4.1 Defining and operationalizing the research indicators .............................................. 60 4.1.1 Foundation of the definition ............................................................................... 60 4.1.2 Defining and operationalizing the selected research indicators .......................... 62 4.2 Selection of case study areas ..................................................................................... 68 4.3 Methods for quantitative and qualitative data collection ........................................... 71 4.3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 71 4.3.2 Field reconnaissance survey ............................................................................... 71 4.3.3 Secondary data collection ................................................................................... 71 4.3.4 Primary data collection ....................................................................................... 72 4.4 Data processing and analysis ..................................................................................... 75 4.5 Research procedure .................................................................................................... 76 4.6 Discussion on the attribution gap ............................................................................... 76 4.7 Reliability and validity of the field research process ................................................. 76 5 SCOPING AND OBSERVATION OF THE STUDY AREAS ..................................... 79 5.1 General remark .......................................................................................................... 79 5.2 Case study area 1: Gansu Xiaolongshan state-owned forest area .............................. 79 5.2.1 General information of Gansu Province ............................................................. 79 5.2.2 Profile of Xiaolongshan state-owned forest area ................................................ 81 5.2.3 Profiles of the villages investigated .................................................................... 84 5.2.4 Characteristics of household respondents in the two villages ............................ 86 5.3 Case Study Area 2: Chongqing collective-owned forest area .................................... 87 5.3.1 General information of Chongqing Municipality ............................................... 87 5.3.2 Information on Dazu County and its collective forest area ................................ 90 5.3.3 Profiles of the villages investigated .................................................................... 92 5.3.4 Characteristics of household respondents in the two villages ............................ 93 6 ASSESSMENT OF SOCIAL IMPACTS AND CAUSAL ANALYSIS ....................... 96 6.1 Social impacts on the local community level ............................................................ 96 6.1.1 Change in the community population characteristics ......................................... 96 6.1.2 Change in the community institutional arrangements ........................................ 99 6.1.3 Change in the community infrastructure and public services ........................... 111 6.2 Social impacts on the household level ..................................................................... 118 6.2.1 Impacts on households and families ................................................................. 118 6.2.2 Impacts on individuals ...................................................................................... 131 7 DIAGNOSIS: COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION .......................... 145 7.1 General remark ........................................................................................................ 145 7.2 The de facto impacts of the NFPP on local communities and households .............. 145 7.2.1 The social change processes in the local community ....................................... 145 7.2.2 Human impacts on the local households ........................................................... 149 7.3 External and internal factors influencing the extent of impact results..................... 152 7.3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 152 7.3.2 The external factors at community level ........................................................... 152 7.3.3 The internal factors at household and individual level ..................................... 154 7.4 Potential impacts of the NFPP on the local community and households................. 154 7.5 Dynamics of de facto and potential impacts, local strategies and influence factors 155 8 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................................ 157 8.1 General remarks ....................................................................................................... 157 8.2 Recapitulation of major findings and conclusions ................................................... 157 8.3 Scope and limitations of the empirical study ........................................................... 158 8.4 Recommendation for future policy implementation ................................................ 160 8.5 Relationship between theory and findings ............................................................... 163 8.6 A critical review of methodology and implications for SIA research ...................... 165 REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................... 168 APPENDICES ...................................................................................................................... 179 Appendix 1: Some data and background information available in literature ..................... 180 Appendix 2: Supplementary material and material information used in research ............. 195 Appendix 3: Questionnaires used in the field surveys ....................................................... 203 Appendix 4: Part of the data collected in the field ............................................................. 212 Appendix 5: Photos in the fields ........................................................................................ 234

The conservation of Earth's forest ecosystems is one of the great environmental challenges facing humanity in the 21st century. All of Earth's ecosystems now face the spectre of the accelerated greenhouse effect and rates of change in climatic regimes that have hitherto been unknown. In addition, multiple use forestry – where forests are managed to provide for both a supply of wood and the conservation of biodiversity – can change the floristic composition and vegetation structure of forests with significant implications for wildlife habitat. Wildlife, fire and future climate: a forest ecosystem analysis explores these themes through a landscape-wide study of refugia and future climate in the tall, wet forests of the Central Highlands of Victoria. It represents a model case study for the kind of integrated investigation needed throughout the world in order to deal with the potential response of terrestrial ecological systems to global change. The analyses presented in this book represent one of the few ecosystem studies ever undertaken that has attempted such a complex synthesis of fire, wildlife, vegetation, and climate. Wildlife, fire and future climate: a forest ecosystem analysis is written by an experienced team of leading world experts in fire ecology, modelling, terrain and climate analysis, vegetation and wildlife habitat. Their collaboration on this book represents a unique and exemplary, multi-disciplinary venture.

Both desertification and forest policies address environmental issues related to land. However, the types of land covered and the ways the issues associated with that land are conceptualized represent opposite ends of a spectrum, with the former policy area focusing on land degradation in areas with limited biodiversity and the latter relating to protection of lands comprising some of the most biologically diverse areas in the world. Moreover, despite their common denominator as issues related to land, the international studies literatures on desertification and forests, like the international policy responses to them, have taken different paths. A number of United Nations (UN)-backed research efforts have sought to define the concept, assess the impacts, and identify possible actions to address the desertification phenomenon. International studies scholarship has also focused on transformations in international policy approaches to deserts, such as the implementation of certain plans of action. Forests, meanwhile, have received renewed attention at the international policy-making level, due to the fact that even though forests themselves fall within the jurisdiction of sovereign states. Historically, deforestation the world over has been associated with conversion of land for agriculture and human settlement. In recent decades, this has been particularly the case in developing countries, though recent deforestation trends have also been traced back to the current global economic system that encourages privatization of forestland.

This chapter highlights the influence of mountain forests on runoff patterns in alpine catchments. We discuss the forest impact at different spatial scales and bridge to the requirements for an integrated natural hazard risk management, which considers forest as an efficient protection measure against floods and other water-related natural hazards. We present results from a wide range of research studies from Austria, which all reveal the runoff-reducing effect of forest vegetation in small and medium-size catchments (< 100 km2). Forests also contribute to runoff reduction in heavy rainfall events in macro-scale catchments (> 100 km2), e.g., by reducing surface runoff and delaying interflow, but above all by stabilising slopes and therefore reducing bedload transport during major runoff events. To avoid that forests become a hazard due to enhanced driftwood release, managing of steep riparian slopes for a permanent forest cover (“Dauerbestockung”) is a basic prerequisite. Often protective effects of forests are impaired by man-made impacts like dense forest road networks, insensitive use (e.g., false design of skid roads, compacting machinery, forest operations during adverse weather on wet and saturated soils), and delayed or omitted reforestation and regeneration. Flood risk management in mountain regions should include Ecosystem-based Disaster Risk Reduction measures, with particular emphasis on sustainable and climate change-adapted management of protective forests. This will require integral and catchment-based approaches such as comprehensive management concepts coordinated with spatial planning, and verifiable, practicable and correspondingly adapted legal guidelines as well as appropriate funding of protective forest research to close the existing knowledge gaps.

Academics and University Extension personnel have experience with soil mapping and providing soil suitability interpretations; however, a more efficient information conveyance to land custodians is desired to support informative land management applications. In the USA each state, in concert with the United States Department of Agriculture, has embarked on developing an online format linking soil survey with ecological site descriptions to provide information for forest and rangeland management to encourage soil protection - health and optimizing ecological services on individual land parcels. In this Missouri-based manuscript, we discuss three cases where soils and their associated ecological site descriptions provide land custodians information concerning their logical reference state vegetation community and detail land management decisions that transform the reference vegetation community to a different vegetation community. With each case, landscapes and their associated vegetations communities are potentially partitioned by soil, physiography, hydrology, and other attributes.

Protection forests can be severely affected by natural disturbances, whose consequences could greatly alter the fundamental ecosystem services they are providing. Assessing and monitoring the status of the protective effects, particularly within disturbed stands, is therefore of vital importance, with timing being a critical issue. Remote sensing technologies (e.g., satellite imagery, LiDAR, UAV) are widely available nowadays and can be effectively applied to quantify and monitor the protective effects of Alpine forests. This is especially important after abrupt changes in forest cover and structure following the occurrence of a disturbance event. In this contribution, we present a brief introduction on remote sensing technologies and their potential contribution to protection forest management, followed by two case studies. In particular, we focus on research areas within protection forests against rockfall affected by windthrow (i.e., the 2018 storm Vaia in the Eastern Italian Alps, where LiDAR and UAV data were used), and forest fires (i.e., the 2017 fall fires in the Western Italian Alps, involving Sentinel-2 image analyses).

Shishigaki (wild boar defense walls), as a part of cultural landscapes in Japan, currently faces serious deterioration. The research aims to identify the characteristics of Shishigaki walls in eight villages located at the foot of Mt. Hira and propose conservation strategies. Interpretation of historical documents and cadastral maps, interviews, and measurement surveys were conducted. As a result, about 4,3 km of Shish-igaki relics are confirmed, of a total length up to12,7 km built in the 18th to 19th century. Shishigaki walls were built by local households collaboratively with different drystone masonry techniques. Based on the field surveys, it was found that although up to 91% of Shishigaki walls located within the village territories were demolished, only half of Shishigaki walls in the forest were deconstructed. Loss of functionality as protection fences with the change of land use is considered as the main reason for the demolition of Shish-igaki walls. It is suggested that Shishigaki relics in the forest could be integrated into existing hiking routes and promoted through collaborative map-making with local residents. The authors contest that heritage interpretation rooted in local historical studies and conservation with community involvement could be adopted in the promotion of cultural landscapes worldwide.

The international community agrees on the urgent need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from deforestation and forest degradation. With 13 million hectares of forest cleared every year, such efforts are critical to curbing climate change before it reaches a dangerous tipping point. But we are missing a vital opportunity to combat climate change—strengthening the land and resource rights of Indigenous Peoples and local communities whose well-being is tied to their forests. This publication analyzes the growing body of evidence linking community forest rights with healthier forests and lower carbon dioxide emissions from deforestation and forest degradation. It presents a compelling case for expanding and strengthening community forest rights based on evidence drawn from comparative studies, advanced quantitative research, case studies, and original deforestation and carbon analyses by the World Resources Institute. The findings center on examples from 14 forest-rich countries in Latin America, Africa, and Asia. Together, these countries contain about 323 million hectares of government-recognized community forest —68 percent of the estimated total in all low- and middle-income countries—as well as large areas of community forests without legal or official recognition. Our analysis focuses on the links between legal community forest rights (or lack thereof), the extent of government protection of those rights, and forest outcomes.