Дисертації з теми "Explicit vs. implicit instruction"

A presente pesquisa tem como foco a análise dos efeitos produzidos pela instrução implícita e pela instrução explícita na aquisição-aprendizagem lexical por parte de aprendizes brasileiros de italiano, realizada comparando dados coletados em três momentos: antes, logo depois e um mês depois da intervenção didática. No primeiro tipo de instrução, a implícita, a atenção dos aprendizes não foi direcionada para o elemento lexical. Após a leitura dos textos input, foram realizadas atividades comunicativas, cujas características foram a interação e a negociação de sentido (SWAIN, 1985, 2005; LONG, 1996). Para a instrução explícita, após a leitura dos mesmos textos input, foram realizadas atividades com foco no léxico (LEWIS, 1993, 1997; PARIBAKHT; WESCHE, 1996; SÖKMEN, 1997). O experimento didático teve oito horas de duração, distribuídas em quatro encontros, para os quais foram selecionadas 10 palavras-alvo a partir dos textos input. Participaram desse experimento 27 aprendizes, dos quais 16 fizeram parte do grupo que realizou atividades com instrução implícita e 11 do grupo que teve atividades com instrução explícita. Antes das atividades didáticas, os aprendizes dos dois grupos realizaram um pré-teste receptivo, tendo como modelo a Vocabulary Knowledge Scale (VKS) de Paribakht e Wesche (1996), e um pré-teste produtivo de descrição de imagens. Após a intervenção didática e um mês depois da intervenção, a VKS foi aplicada novamente com mais dois pós-testes produtivos. Os resultados foram analisados à luz dos estudos de aquisição-aprendizagem de línguas estrangeiras e da Pragmática lexical e apontaram para uma vantagem da instrução explícita em relação ao conhecimento receptivo de curto prazo. Em relação aos efeitos a longo prazo, na instrução implícita foram obtidos resultados mais significativos, já que foram mantidos os mesmos níveis constatados nos pós-testes, enquanto na explícita houve uma diminuição de 21%. No que se refere ao aspecto produtivo e à variação lexical, nos dois tipos de instrução não foram constatadas diferenças significativas.
The present research focuses on the effects of implicit and explicit instruction in lexical acquisition-learning by Brazilian learners of Italian, comparing data collected in three moments: before, immediately after and one month after the didactic intervention. In the first type of instruction, the implicit, the attention of learners was not directed to the lexical element. After reading the input texts, communicative activities, whose characteristics were interaction and negotiation of meaning (SWAIN, 1985, 2005; LONG, 1996), were carried out. For the explicit instruction, after reading the same input texts, were made activities focusing on lexicon (LEWIS, 1993, 1997; PARIBAKHT; WESCHE, 1996; SÖKMEN, 1997). The didactic experiment lasted eight hours, distributed in four meetings, for which 10 target words were selected from the input texts. Twenty-seven learners participated in this experiment, of which 16 were part of the group that performed activities with implicit instruction, and 11 of the group that had activities with explicit instruction. Before the didactic activities, the learners of the two groups performed a receptive pre-test, taking as a model the Parabakht and Wesche Vocabulary Knowledge Scale (VKS) (1996), and a productive pre-test of image description. After the didactic intervention and one month after the intervention, the VKS was applied again with two more productive post-tests. The results were analyzed starting from the acquisition-learning studies of foreign languages and the lexical Pragmatics and pointed to an advantage of explicit instruction in relation to short-term receptive knowledge. Regarding the long-term effects, more significant results were obtained in the implicit instruction, since the same levels observed in the post-tests were maintained, while in the explicit one there was a decrease of 21%. Regarding the productive aspect and the lexical variation, in both types of instruction no significant differences were found.

Despite the pervasiveness of autism (1 in 54), implicit and explicit attitudes towards people with ASD are mainly adverse (Cage et al., 2019). Although in recent years, more research has been conducted to investigate implicit attitudes towards other mental illnesses (Teachman, Wilson, & Komorovskaya, 2006) and physical disabilities (Nosek et al. 2007), few studies have assessed implicit and explicit attitudes toward adults with autism. The main goal of the study was to investigate Non-ASD individuals’ implicit and explicit attitudes toward autistic individuals. We hypothesized that participants would have negative implicit attitudes but report positive explicit attitudes towards autistic individuals, participants would be more likely to hire Non-ASD individuals than ASD individuals, employers would prefer Non-ASD individuals for social positions, but there would not be a significant difference for the non-social position, and negative implicit attitudes would predict hiring decisions towards ASD individuals. A two-way mixed modeled ANOVA was used to analyze the data to determine if there were interactions between (ASD x Non-ASD) and (Social Job x Non-Social Job). Correlational analyses were conducted between the implicit and explicit measures and the ASD variables. The Implicit Association Test was also used in this study to examine implicit attitudes towards autistic individuals. We found participants’ had negative implicit attitudes but reported positive explicit attitudes towards autistic individuals, participants’ IAT scores were significantly different from 0, and contact with autistic individuals is a good indicator of one’s attitudes and stigma.

This study explored the main effects and interaction effects of implicit learning and explicit instructional approaches on the language acquisition of beginning adult and child learners of Chinese and analyzed the successful adult and child learners' learning styles in their information processing time, second language acquisition techniques, and cognitive strategies. Volunteers from Brigham Young University and Wasatch Elementary School were randomly assigned to either an Explicit Instruction Treatment (EIT) or an Implicit Learning Treatment (ILT). Following the treatment, the participants completed an online survey and a vocabulary application test. Results from a 2 x 2 factorial ANOVA indicated that adults performed significantly better than children on the listening and vocabulary tests scores (F (1, 135) =158.901, p<.001), and the EIT was significantly more effective than the ILT. There was no interaction between maturity and treatment factors. Results from a 3 x 2 factorial MANOVA indicated that in the Learning Phase, adults in the high and mid performance groups spent significantly longer processing information than those in the low performance group, and adults in the EIT also spent a longer time than those in the ILT. Results from the stepwise regression showed that for successful adult and child learners, Phonological Processing was the most frequently used second language strategy for both adults and children, which was strongly correlated with their vocabulary application test scores. Guessing was the most popular cognitive strategy. Successful children spent significantly less time than the low performing children in the Testing Phase.

This study emerges from an interest in the shortcomings in the production of grammatically accurate sentences by university students of English as a Foreign Language in Taiwan. Informed by second language acquisition theory, it is a quasi-experimental investigation of the effects of explicit grammatical instruction on university students ’ EFL learning. Following the application of a pre-test the experimental group experienced explicit form-focused instruction in a communicative language teaching classroom for two semesters, receiving enhanced written input and undertaking linguistic consciousness-raising task, while the control group received no explicit grammatical instruction. Data were collected from recognition and written production tasks and students were interviewed on their linguistic performance to provide methodological triangulation. The statistical tools of Paired and Independent T-test, Chi-square, and Pearson’s Correlation were used to determine whether there were significant inter- and intra-group differences based on the different classroom experience. The major findings of this study were that explicit grammatical instruction raised students’ level of awareness of targeted forms significantly as they processed linguistic input and that subsequently their accurate production of these forms was enhanced. Differences in significance levels were discussed in the light of current debate on Second Language Acquisition with particular reference to the accessibility of Universal Grammar and the iv Minimalist framework. The results of this research indicate that a combination of focus on form and meaning is to be recommended within the content-based curriculum in Taiwanese university classrooms and the thesis ends with pedagogical implications for the application of explicit form-focused instruction in EFL learning.

Previous studies of form-focused instruction (FFI) have examined the effect of various aspects of inputs, corrective feedbacks, and instructions on L2 learners' accuracy development. Although much research has suggested that L2 learners achieve high accuracy and communicative competence when they receive input enhancement, explicit instruction, and corrective feedback, limited work has been done on the effect of FFI in Chinese language. The thesis utilized qualitative and quantitative methods and tested the effect of two FFI models on two groups of learners' acquisition in Chinese adverbial phrases. Even though the quantitative results show that the group that received explicit treatment had significantly improved accuracy in the immediate and delayed post-tests, the interview results revealed that students have different learning styles. This further suggests that no one right instruction is the best, and teachers should implement various teaching approaches based on students' needs.

Speakers, native and non-native alike, frequently encounter difficulties expressing their intended meaning or attaining a desired communicative goal. To overcome such communication difficulties and achieve the desired communicative goal, speakers employ a variety of Communication Strategies (CSs). For example, circumlocution, clarification requests, gestures, conversation gambits and hesitation devices. Learners who successfully achieve their communication goals through the use of CSs are said to be strategically competent. Research has established that CSs can be effectively taught through explicit instruction. However, the impact of implicit instruction on the development of CSs has not been investigated to date. It is believed that implicit instruction may outperform explicit instruction in enabling learners to acquire the procedural knowledge which is the final step on the learning continuum. The acquired implicit knowledge can be accessed in time pressure situations, stored in mind, retained for longer periods and used more automatically. This study set out to assess the differential impact of explicit and implicit instruction on the use of CSs among pre-intermediate Arabic learners of English as a second language. The total number of learners was fifty-two learners enrolled in two English language centres in the United Kingdom. The learners in each centre were randomly assigned to one of three experimental conditions: implicit instruction (n=18), explicit instruction (n=18), and no instruction (n=16). Both implicit and explicit conditions received strategy instruction in a TBLT format. In the implicit condition, learners were exposed to video examples of two speakers doing similar tasks but no instruction focusing on CSs was provided. In explicit instruction, learners were exposed to the same video examples and instruction focusing on CSs was provided. The third condition served as a control group which was only exposed to pre- and post-tests. Development of CSs was measured through observation of task completion, followed by stimulated recall interviews and completion of a self-report questionnaire. The results suggest that both explicit and implicit strategy instruction has a positive impact on developing participants’ use of CSs and on supporting task completion. The results showed that explicit instruction was beneficial for developing meaning-negotiation, positive self-solving, non-verbal and time-gaining CSs, whereas implicit instruction showed to be effective for developing positive self-solving and time-gaining CSs. Further, learners who received implicit instruction made greater gains in the use of meaning-negotiation strategies from pre-test to delayed post-test than learners who received explicit instruction.

Grammar is an essential part of language learning. Thus, it is important that teachers know how to efficiently teach grammar to students, and with what approach - explicitly orimplicitly as well as through Focus on Forms (FoFs), Focus on Form (FoF) or Focus onMeaning (FoM). Furthermore, the common use of textbooks in English education in Sweden makes it essential to explore how these present grammar. Therefore, to make teachers aware of what grammar teaching approach a textbook has, this degree project intends to examine how and to what degree English textbooks used in Swedish upper secondary schools can be seen to exhibit an overall explicit or implicit approach to grammar teaching. The aim is to analyze three English 5 textbooks that are currently used in classrooms in Sweden, through the use of relevant research regarding grammar teaching as well as the steering documents for English 5 in Swedish upper secondary school. The analysis was carried out with the help of a framework developed by means of research on explicit and implicit grammar teaching as well as the three grammar teaching approaches FoFs, FoF and FoM. Thus, through the textbook analysis, we set out to investigate whether the textbooks present grammar instruction explicitly or implicitly and through FoFs, FoF or FoM. After having collected research on the topic of how to teach grammar, it became apparent that researchers on grammar teaching agree that FoF is the most beneficial out of the three above mentioned approaches, and thus, we decided to take a stand for this approach throughout the project. The results of this study showed that two out of three textbooks used overall implicit grammar teaching through FoM. Moreover, one out of the three textbooks used overall explicit grammar teaching through an FoF approach.

У статті подано особливості вживання модальних дієслів müssen / sollen у політичному дискурсі Німеччини. Демонструються варіанти контекстуальних семантичних зсувів, продиктовані характеристиками політичного дискурсу.
В статье даются особенности использования модальных глаголов müssen / sollen в политическом дискурсе Германии. Демонстрируются варианты контекстуальних семантических сдвигов, продиктованные характеристиками политического дискурса.
The article deals with the peculiarities of modal verbs “müssen / sollen” in political discourse of Germany. There are variants of contextual semantic shifts dictated by the very characteristics of the political discourse.

Duale Prozessmodelle unterscheiden implizite und explizite Formen der Informations-verarbeitung (Strack & Deutsch, 2004). Implizite Verarbeitung erfolgt schnell und un-bewusst und basiert auf affektiv-assoziativen Netzwerken. Explizite Verarbeitung geschieht überlegt und langsam und beinhaltet bewusste, kognitive Entscheidungsprozesse. In dualen Prozessmodellen der Motivation sagen implizite Motive langfristiges Verhalten und explizite Motive bewusste Entscheidungen vorher (McClelland, et al., 1989). Hoher positiver Affekt sowie geringer negativer Affekt aktivieren implizite kognitive Systeme während eine entgegen gesetzte Ausprägung explizite Informationsverarbeitung bahnt (J. Kuhl, 2000a). Drei Feldstudien untersuchen die diskriminante Validität impliziter vs. expliziter motivationaler Prozesse für das Verhalten in unbewussten vs. bewussten kritischen Situatio-nen im Hochleistungssport. In Studie 1 und 2 wird bei Tennis- (N = 60) und Basketballspielern (N = 56) die Fähigkeit erhoben, positiven und negativen Affekt zu regulieren (ACS-90; J. Kuhl, 1994). In Studie 3 (N = 86) werden zusätzlich implizite (OMT; J. Kuhl & Scheffer, 1999) und explizite Motive (PRF; D. N. Jackson, 1999) sowie die Fähigkeit zur bewussten Selbstregulation (VCQ; J. Kuhl & Fuhrmann, 1998) gemessen. In Studie 1 sagen explizite Formen der Verarbeitung (niedrige positive Affektregulation) die Tennisleistung in objektiv kritischen (wie Tie Breaks) aber nicht in bewusst kritischen Situationen vorher. In Studie 2 führt implizite Verarbeitung (hohe negative Af-fektregulation) zu besseren Basketballleistungen in objektiv kritischen Spielen. In Studie 3 unterstützt explizite Verarbeitung Leistungen in bewusst kritischen Situationen im Rückschlagsport. In unbewusst kritischen Situationen erzielen dagegen Sportler mit ausgeprägten impliziten Motiven bessere Ergebnisse. Die Befunde werden hinsichtlich der Sportartenspezifik, dem Grad der Bewusstheit sowie Persönlichkeitsunterschiede diskutiert.
Dual-process models distinguish implicit and explicit ways of information processing (Strack & Deutsch, 2004). Implicit processes are based on associative affective networks and operate fast and unconsciously. Explicit processing is a cognitive, usually slow, deliberate, and conscious way of decision-making. Dual-process models of motivation propose that implicit motives predict long-term behavior and explicit motives predict deliberate decisions (McClelland, Koestner, & Weinberger, 1989). Up-regulation of positive affect and down-regulation of negative affect activate implicit cognitive systems while regulation in the opposite direction triggers explicit information processing (J. Kuhl, 2000a). Within three field studies it is investigated whether implicit vs. explicit motivational processes are of discriminant validity for professional athletic behavior in unconsciously vs. consciously critical situations. In study one and two, tennis (N = 60) and basketball professionals’ (N = 56) abilities to regulate positive and negative affect (ACS-90; J. Kuhl, 1994) are assessed. In study three (N = 86) the additional measures of implicit (OMT; J. Kuhl & Scheffer, 1999) and explicit motives (PRF; D. N. Jackson, 1999) as well as conscious self-regulation (VCQ; J. Kuhl & Fuhrmann, 1998) are used. Study one proposes that explicit processing supports performance in objective critical situations (tie breaks) in tennis. However, in consciously critical situations no advantage for explicitly processing athletes could be found. In study two implicitly processing basketball players perform better in objectively critical games. In the final study racquet sportsmen who process explicitly perform better in consciously critical situations. In contrast, in unconsciously critical situations athletes with high implicit motives gain better results. Findings are discussed from the perspective of task specificity, degree of awareness, and individual differences.

Pragmatics is part of communicative competence. In order to communicate successfully, pragmatic competence is of vital importance. Although pragmatics has played a significant role in L2 learners' communicative competence, pragmatics still has not been commonly taught in the classroom. The present research investigates the efficacy of instruction in pragmatics in the advanced Chinese language class has on the production and appropriate use of apology strategies, and examines the correlation between exposure in a Chinese Speaking Community (CSC) and pragmatics development. The subjects include 55 students in their third-year of college-level Chinese, divided into four classes at Brigham Young University. The study uses an experimental design in which the participants are assigned either to an explicit instruction group or an implicit instruction group. Participants in both groups also report their experience in a CSC. Results of this study show which as a whole improved their apology performance over the 8-week instruction, as rated by Chinese native speakers. Results reveal no significant difference between the explicit and implicit instruction groups, suggesting that explicit and implicit approaches were both effective methods in facilitating pragmatic competence. In addition, we also found no statistically significant difference between the CSC and Non-Chinese Speaking Community (NCSC) group in their pragmatic development. The findings of the present study indicate that pragmatic knowledge may emerge from classroom instruction, regardless of explicit or implicit instructional approaches; and living in a Chinese speaking communities do not necessary aid or accelerate the development of pragmatic competence.

This is an in-depth study of word knowledge where the researcher attempts to investigate the need to systematically teach vocabulary in the language classroom. It is motivated by findings within second language (L2) vocabulary testing research that state that the current communicative language learning environment is insufficient for L2 learners to acquire adequate vocabulary knowledge and L2 learners need help with vocabulary learning (Laufer, 2005). This semester-long study explores the need to provide explicit vocabulary instruction from within a meaningful environment. It also investigates the relevance of focus on forms and focus on form practices in helping second language (L2) learners increase the size and depth of word knowledge. The study involved 129 undergraduates from a writing program, and used a pretest and posttest design to measure gains in L2 learners vocabulary knowledge. .The results indicate that the vocabulary gains for both implicit (control) and explicit (treatment) instructional context were not very different though the subjects in the implicit instructional group learned slightly more words compared to the explicit instructional group. However, this has more to do with individual instructor effectiveness and learner proficiency. In terms of word use, L2 learners subjected to explicit focus on forms and focus on form tasks increased their word use while the first language (L1) learners and L2 learners from the control groups did not increase their academic words. Therefore, it is possible to suggest that L2 learners can be taught to increase the depth of their vocabulary knowledge through explicit instructional practices. In terms of L1 and L2 learners, the initial findings revealed that the L2 learners did not benefit from explicit instruction. However, additional analysis revealed that subjects with sufficient vocabulary knowledge at the 2000 word level can increase their word size much more rapidly than the proficient L2 learners in the control group. An additional test on L1 and L2 learners' word collocation skills indicated that while explicit instruction did not help increase L2 learners vocabulary size, it was able to help L2 learners increase their word collocation skills and also make word associations that are closer to L1 learners' associations.

This study investigated the effects of explicit and implicit instruction on the interlanguage pragmatic development of Japanese EFL learners. The interventions, which were taught in intact classes, focused on the semantic-pragmatic domain of epistemic stance. The main research questions guiding this study focused on the relative effects of explicit and implicit instruction on the short- and long-term acquisition of epistemic stance. This study also investigated the interaction between type of instruction and the following four variables: (l) mode of communication (writing/speaking); (2) proficiency; (3) difficulty of target forms; (4) individual differences. Eighty-one Japanese EFL learners at a national university took part in all parts of this study. They were divided into explicit and implicit instruction groups for the interventions (4 x 45 minutes), which covered the whole domain of epistemic stance (cognitive verbs, evidential verbs, modal verbs, modal adverbs and epistemic expressions). Free production data (spoken and written) was collected from the participants shortly before the intervention (pre-test), soon after the intervention (post-test) and approximately five months after the intervention (delayed post-test). For both the spoken and written data participants completed two tasks: a picture description and an opinion statement. The learners' data was analyzed using a combination of corpus linguistic techniques and manual analysis, which included the calculation of epistemic token and type scores to measure the frequency and variety of epistemic stance use, respectively. As regards immediate instructional effects, explicit instruction was found to be more effective than implicit instruction. The findings for long-term effects were similar, although a partial loss of immediate gains was observed. The main findings for the four variables were as follows: (1) both types of instruction had stronger effects on writing than speaking, and particularly in the long-term; (2) proficiency did not play a major role in determining the degree of instructional effectiveness, although typical patterns in the development of the means of expressing epistemic stance were observed; (3) some forms were acquired more easily than others, with the degree of contingency of form-function mappings apparently playing a key role; (4) a minority of learners did not follow the same developmental patterns as the majority. The findings suggest that explicit instruction is the most effective way of helping learners with difficult aspects of L2 pragmatics. However, the partial loss of gains in the long-term suggested that explicit instruction needs reinforcement through practice and/or further input. The degree of difference between learners' use of epistemic stance in writing and speaking demonstrated the role played by different processing conditions on learners' language production. The finding that learner readiness plays a role in the acquisition of epistemic . stance has clear implications for teaching. Instruction on epistemic stance also needs to take into account the extent to which contingency affects the learnability of epistemic forms. Finally, the degree of 'hidden' individual variation in the data does not diminish the main findings of this study but does need to be taken into consideration by both teachers and researchers.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Mississippi, 2008.
Typescript. Vita. "April 2008." Major professor: Esim Erdim-Payne Includes bibliographical references (leaves 34-37). Also available online via ProQuest to authorized users.

No decorrer dos últimos anos, um dos questionamentos da pesquisa em aquisição de segunda língua (doravante L2) diz respeito ao papel das instruções explícita e implícita de formas gramaticais. A maneira através da qual os conhecimentos implícito e explícito são construídos de modo mais eficiente é, ainda, fonte de discordância na literatura. Alguns pesquisadores afirmam que o conhecimento implícito não deriva do aprendizado explícito e, tampouco, pode ser adquirido através da instrução explícita; outros, por sua vez, argumentam que o conhecimento implícito da L2 pode ser adquirido ou facilitado pelo conhecimento explícito. O presente trabalho teve sua origem no interesse pela investigação do efeito das instruções explícita e implícita na aquisição de uma L2, e na observação das diferenças entre os aprendizados implícito e explícito. Acima de tudo, este estudo deriva da percepção de que a maioria de gramáticas e livros didáticos normalmente introduz estruturas gramaticais - em particular, o uso de locuções verbais, que são aqui analisadas - de maneira isolada, sem recorrerem a uma descrição de seu uso por falantes proficientes da L2, e dando prioridade à memorização de listas de verbos. Assim, seis grupos de alunos (três de nível de proficiência básico e três de nível de proficiência intermediário-avançado) do curso de Letras de uma universidade pública foram avaliados em seu conhecimento e capacidade de uso de locuções verbais em inglês, por meio de pré- e pós-testes, compostos de questões de múltipla escolha (tarefas de compreensão) e de exercícios de produção (tarefa de produção). Entre a aplicação do pré- e do pós-teste, foi feita instrução explícita a dois grupos experimentais (um básico e um intermediário-avançado) e implícita a outros dois grupos experimentais (um básico e um intermediário-avançado). Os grupos de controle (um básico e um intermediário-avançado) não receberam instrução. Os resultados dos testes serviram como fonte de análise dos papéis dos dois tipos de instrução mencionados, e mostraram que tanto a instrução explícita quanto a instrução implícita influenciaram positivamente no desempenho dos participantes nos Pós-testes, principalmente quanto aos verbos que podem ser combinados tanto com gerúndios e com infinitivos. Tal resultado pode ser atribuído ao fato de tais verbos representarem uma dificuldade maior para os aprendizes.
During the last years, one of the questions in second language (for this study, L2) acquisition research concerns the role of explicit and implicit grammar instruction in L2 acquisition. However, the way in which implicit and explicit knowledge is most effectively built up is still a source of disagreement in the specialized literature. Some claim that implicit knowledge does not derive from explicit learning nor can it be acquired through explicit instruction; others, in turn, argue that implicit L2 knowledge can be acquired through or facilitated by explicit knowledge. The present work originated in these studies and discussions about the effect of explicit and implicit instruction in the acquisition of a second language, and in the observation of the differences between implicit and explicit learning. Most importantly, this study derives from the perception that the majority of text and grammar books normally introduce grammar structures - in particular, the use of infinitive and gerund complements, which is analyzed here - in an isolated form, without recurring to an explanation of its descriptive use by proficient speakers of the language, giving priority to the memorization of lists of verbs. Therefore, six groups of students from the Languages course (three of basic level, and three of advanced level of proficiency) of a Federal University were assessed in terms of knowledge and skills - concerning the use of infinitives and gerunds through pre- and post-tests, composed of multiple-choice questions (a comprehension task) and production exercises (a production task). Between the applications of the pre- and post-tests, two groups (one basic and one upper-intermediate) were provided with implicit instruction; another two (also of basic and upper-intermediate level) were given explicit instruction. The two remaining groups constituted control groups (also basic and upper-intermediate), and were not given any kind of instruction. The results of the tests provided sources for analysis of the roles of implicit and explicit instruction, and showed that both kinds of instruction resulted in an improvement of most of students' performances, mainly concerning the group of verbs followed by infinitives and gerunds. The greater difficulty faced by the subjects in dealing with these verbs could possibly explain this fact.

This dissertation investigates the effects of instruction on the acquisition of pragmatic competence in the classroom setting, and specifically in the English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classroom. In particular, we examine the effects of instruction on learners' pragmatic development of a specific speech act, that of suggestions, with the goal of expanding the range of learning targets addressed in pragmatic interventional studies (Kasper and Rose, 2002). Apart from dealing with instructional effects, we also take into account the need to investigate various types of instruction in order to ascertain their effectiveness (Kasper and Rose, 2002). In this way, we analyse two different treatments (i.e. explicit and implicit) that have been operationalised on the basis of the principles underlying the paradigms of Focus on FormS and Focus on Form (Long, 1991, 1996, 1998; Doughty and Williams, 1998; Long and Robinson, 1998; Doughty, 2001). The aim of comparing both teaching approaches is to determine whether the two treatments are equally effective in developing learners' pragmatic competence regarding their production, awareness and confidence when judging the appropriateness of suggestions in different situations. Additionally, we are also concerned with issues related to research methodology and, bearing in mind findings from studies that observed task effects between oral and written production tasks (Houck and Gass, 1996; Sasaki, 1998; Safont, 2001), we have compared our learners' performance when making suggestions in two different tasks: an oral production task (i.e. phone messages) and a written production task (i.e. email).
The results of the investigation indicate that, in comparison to the control group, both the explicit and implicit groups improved their pragmatic competence regarding their production, awareness and confidence when judging the appropriateness of suggestions in different situations. Moreover, comparing the explicit and implicit groups' performance in the post-test no statistical differences were observed between the two instructional treatments, which illustrates the effects of both explicit and implicit instruction to develop learners' pragmatic competence in the EFL classroom. The findings also show that the production task in which learners are engaged influences their use of suggestions, since there were task effects between the two production tasks employed in our study (i.e. phone messages and emails). In conclusion, the results obtained in this dissertation expand the scope of enquiry in the field of interlanguage pragmatics as well as outline practical pedagogical implications and open several lines of investigation to be examined in future research.

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One of the main questions towards the second language acquisition theories by the late learners is about how the process of language is done. Some researchers say that in one hand, the L1 learning is implicit, as in automatic, and on the other hand, L2 learning is characterized for being explicit and the learner develops their own strategies in order to solve problems. This thesis does a systematic review of some original studies results which relates implicit and explicit knowledge during the process of a second language acquisition. The objectives of this study are to analyze classic theories as well as the literature of this area of thought and the implicit-explicit work. The methodology used for those studies are also analyzed. The review of classic theories and learning models also figures in this work in the last part of it, but this time within the implicit-explicit view by using the HipCort Model and the connectionist model
Uma das principais questões no que concerne às teorias de aquisição de uma segunda língua pelo adulto diz respeito à maneira pela qual se dá seu o processamento. Existem teóricos que propõem que enquanto o aprendizado de L1 é implícito, automático, a aprendizagem de L2 por adultos se caracteriza por ser explícita e pelo desenvolvimento de estratégias para a resolução de problemas. O presente trabalho aborda a relação entre os conhecimentos implícito e explícito durante a aprendizagem de uma segunda língua, em particular a língua inglesa. Para isso, os seguintes passos são seguidos: 1) são apresentados alguns temas clássicos nos estudos da aprendizagem da L2, como o papel do input, a interlíngua, o input e a fossilização; 2) a literatura e os principais estudos envolvendo a interação entre conhecimento, aprendizagem e instrução implícitos e explícitos são revisados; 3) questões metodológicas e modelos de bilingüismo são problematizados; e 4) os temas clássicos são revisitados à luz dos temas implícito e explícito. Por fim, algumas considerações finais são feitas

A partir da segunda metade do século XX, iniciaram-se os estudos sistemáticos sobre a aquisição/aprendizagem de segundas línguas assim como a observação e elaboração de métodos mais eficazes no ensino da L2. Este trabalho teve sua origem no interesse pela investigação da aquisição/aprendizagem dos verbos ditos do passado da língua italiana, passato prossimo e imperfetto por aprendizes brasileiros em contexto de instrução formal. Através da realização de uma pesquisa longitudinal, os alunos dos níveis II, III, IV e V dos cursos de Italiano no Campus, oferecidos pelo departamento de Letras Modernas da Universidade de São Paulo, foram submetidos a testes de dois tipos: produção de texto e de cloze. Os testes foram realizados em vários momentos do processo de aquisição da L2, tanto antes da aprendizagem explícita quanto depois. O primeiro objetivo era descobrir quais os efeitos das instruções explícitas e implícitas no aprendizado desses dois tempos verbais a curto e a longo prazo. O segundo objetivo consistia em investigar se no processo de aquisição/aprendizagem da L2 os aprendizes associavam os predicados télicos às marcas perfectivas e os predicados atélicos às marcas imperfectivas. Partindo dos pressupostos teóricos sobre aquisição/aprendizagem da L2 e ainda da análise do material didático utilizado pelos aprendizes, foram elaboradas hipóteses que pudessem explicar os resultados alcançados na pesquisa. Os verbos télicos foram associados primeiro à marca perfectiva, conforme algumas teorias já haviam pressuposto. Entretanto, através dos dados obtidos não foi possível verificar se, de fato, os verbos atélicos são associados diretamente à marca imperfectiva nos primeiros estágios da aquisição. Os dados fornecidos pela produção de 6 texto indicaram que os alunos não utilizam o passato prossimo em seguida à instrução formal, visto que as produções consistiram, principalmente, na utilização do tempo presente. Houve ocorrências consideráveis de verbos no presente nos níveis II e IV, o que não aconteceu no nível III, em que os alunos utilizaram mais o passato prossimo. Pode-se observar uma oscilação de uso da marca perfectiva dependendo do nível que os alunos cursavam, fato que pode ser explicado pelas atividades presentes/ausentes no livro didático. Em relação ao teste de cloze, verificou-se que os alunos em seguida ao aprendizado explícito do passato prossimo, nível II, já o utilizaram no exercício. Esse fato pode, talvez, ser associado ao tipo de atividade proposta no material didático em havia muitas atividades de cloze e transformação de frases, mas poucos que se relacionavam à produção de texto livre.
From the second half of the twentieth century, systematic studies on the acquisition / learning of second languages began, as well as the observation and development of more effective methods in teaching L2. This work had its origin in research interest in acquisition / learning of verbs in past tense of the Italian language, passato prossimo e imperfetto, by Brazilian learners in the context of formal education. By carrying out a longitudinal study offered by the Department of Modern Languages and Literature at the University of São Paulo, the students in levels II, III, IV and V of the Italian courses in the Campus performed two types of tests: production of text and Cloze. The tests were conducted at various times of the L2 acquisition process, both before and after explicit learning. The first goal was to find out the effects of explicit and implicit instructions in the learning of these two tenses, in short and long term. The second goal was to investigate whether, in the process of acquisition / learning of L2, the learners associate telic predicates to perfective marks and atelic predicates to imperfective marks. Based on theoretical assumptions about acquisition / learning of L2 and also on analysis of teaching material used by the learners, hypotheses that could explain the results achieved in the research were developed. Telic verbs were first associated to the perfective mark, as some theories had assumed. However, it could not be verified by the data obtained if, indeed, the atelic verbs are directly associated with the imperfective mark in the early stages of acquisition. Data provided by the production of text indicated that students do not use passato prossimo after the formal education, since the productions consisted mainly in using the present tense. There was considerable 8 occurrences of present tense verbs in levels II and IV, but not for level III, in which students used more often the passato prossimo. One can observe an oscillation of use of the perfective mark depending on the level that students were attending, which may be explained by the activities present / absent in the textbook. Regarding the Cloze test, it was found that students, after the explicit learning of the passato prossimo, in level II, already used passato prossimo in the exercise. This fact may perhaps be associated with the type of activity proposed in the teaching materials, containing many Cloze and sentence transformation activities, but few activities related to the production of free text.

Estudos na área de Sociolinguística têm mostrado a complexidade da arquitetura do italiano contemporâneo, composta tanto de variedades linguísticas comuns a todas as línguas naturais, relacionadas às dimensões diamésica, diastrática, diafásica e diatópica, quanto de dialetos e interlínguas. Essa intricada realidade, no entanto, parece não chegar até os aprendizes de italiano, sobretudo, fora da Itália, que, frequentemente, têm a impressão de que essa língua é monolítica e estável. Isso, em geral, se reflete em seu desempenho enquanto falantes, pois, uma vez que acreditam que a língua italiana é imutável e única, não serão capazes de reconhecer as variedades e registros linguísticos produzidos por falantes nativos. Tendo em vista a importância do livro didático como fonte de input linguístico em sala de aula e como norteador da atividade docente e discente, selecionamos os dois livros didáticos mais usados no estado de São Paulo para o ensino do italiano no momento em que se iniciou a pesquisa, e analisamos como e em que medida tais obras expõem o aprendiz às variedades linguísticas do italiano para que desenvolvam competência sociolinguística e, portanto, sensibilidade sobretudo receptiva quanto à realidade linguística italiana. Para isso, analisamos os diálogos, os livros do aluno e os guias do professor das coleções didáticas Linea Diretta e Rete! com base em 67 critérios escolhidos por poderem identificar diferentes variedades do italiano. Os resultados relacionados ao livro Linea diretta permitem dizer que essa coleção aborda implicitamente alguns dos fenômenos considerados, mas que não os explora explicitamente. Por outro lado, Rete! praticamente não insere fenômenos marcados sociolinguisticamente em seus diálogos, mas trata as questões fonológicas das variedades regionais. Desse modo, foi possível constatar que o tratamento das variedades sociolinguísticas mostrou-se insuficiente e, em alguns casos, inexistente em ambos os livros didáticos, fazendo-nos concluir que o aprendiz, cujo input linguístico derive de seus conteúdos, dificilmente desenvolverá uma competência sociolinguística que lhe propicie reconhecer e compreender adequadamente enunciados produzidos em diferentes contextos comunicativos.
Studies in Sociolinguistics have shown the complexity of contemporary Italian arquitecture, composed of both linguistic varieties, common to all natural languages and related to diamesic, diastratic, diaphasic and diatopic dimension, and the dialects and interlanguages. Nonetheless, this intricate reality doesn\'t seem to reach learners of Italian, especially outside Italy, which often have the impression that this language is monolithic and that it doesn\'t change. In general, this reflect on their performance as speakers of the language they learn, therefore, since they believe that the Italian language is unique and unchangeable, they will not be able to recognize linguistic varieties produced by native speakers. Considering the importance of the textbook as a source of linguistic input in the classroom and as a guide for teacher\'s and learner\'s activity, we selected, in the period in which our research began, the two most used textbooks for Italian teaching in the State of São Paulo, and analyzed how and to what extent these works expose the learner to linguistic varieties of Italian, in order to develop sociolinguistic competence and mainly receptive sensibility to Italian linguistic reality. We analyzed the dialogues, the student books and teacher\'s guides of the teaching collections Linea Diretta and Rete! based on 67 criteria chosen by selecting phenomena that could identify different varieties of Italian. The results related to the textbook Linea diretta let say that this collection implicitly addresses some of the considered phenomena, but doesn\'t explore them explicitly. On the other side, Rete! practically doesn\'t insert in its dialogues sociolinguistically marked phenomena, but treats phonological issues of regional varieties. So, it was found that the treatment of sociolinguistic varieties proved to be scanty and, in some cases, not existent in both textbooks. This caused the conclusion that learners, whose linguistic input derives from its content, can hardly develop a sociolinguistic competence that can allow them to recognize and understand properly utterances produced in different communicative contexts.

Esta investigación se enmarca dentro del campo de la enseñanza-aprendizaje de segundas lenguas, concretamente, dentro del ámbito de la enseñanza del español como segunda lengua. El marco teórico en el que se inscribe es el que aporta la teoría sociocultural y la metodología de investigación utilizada proviene del paradigma interpretativo (cualitativo). En síntesis, este trabajo ha consistido en el estudio de los procesos de construcción y gestión del conocimiento explícito durante la instrucción formal de la lengua objeto de estudio, en dos grupos multilingües de nivel principiante de una escuela oficial de idiomas, sin lengua vehicular común a todos los aprendientes. Hemos analizado y hemos descrito el tipo de comunicación que se genera entre profesor y aprendiente en la clase de español/ L2, entendiendo por comunicación tanto la verbal como la no verbal (kinésica y proxémica), y hemos comparado las percepciones que tanto profesores como aprendientes tienen de todo este proceso
This research is framed in the second language acquisition field, specifically, in the studies of Spanish as a second language. The theoretical framework in which this research is included is the one that provides with the sociocultural tradition and the methodology used for comes from the interpretative (qualitative) paradigm. In summary, this research work consisted in the study of how is constructed and negotiated explicit knowledge during the formal instruction of the language studied in class, in two multilingual groups of beginners without a common vehicular language to all the learners. We studied and we described the way of communication that is generated among teacher and students during Spanish formal instruction, understanding the communication concept both verbal and non-verbal communication, and we compared the perceptions that teachers and students have about all this process

Досадашања истраживања указују на позитиван допринос примене ЛЕМ, односно сваке врсте експеримената (ученичких – УЕ и демонстрационих - ДЕ) знању ученика разредне наставе из интегрисаних природних наука. УЕ подразумевају примену имплицитне инструкције, док демонстрациони експерименти подразумевају примену експлицитне инструкције при њиховом извођењу. Међутим, није довољно истражено када при обрађивању одговарајућег садржаја интегрисаних природних наука, у одређеној старосној доби ученика, треба дати приоритет одређеној врсти екперимената, односно којој врсти инструкција за њихову реализацију. Ово је нарочито значајно када се одређени садржаји, које су ученици учили у претходним разредима (вертикално повезани) усложњавају по квалитету, квантитету и обиму. Једни од таквих садржаја су и садржаји о кретању и особинама материјала у трећем разреду.Основни циљ истраживања у овој докторској дисертацији јесте да се испита: допринос примене ЛЕМ, односно УЕ и ДЕ квалитету и трајности знања ученика трећег разреда о кретању и особинама материјала у односу на традиционалну методу (ТМ), као и разлика у доприносу између примене УЕ и ДЕ на истој варијабли (когнитивни домен); мишљење ученика о доприносу примене ЛЕМ (УЕ и ДЕ) стицању тих знања (афективни домен) као и; корелација између квалитета и трајности знања ученика о одабраним садржајима са њиховим мишљењем о доприносу примене ЛЕМ (УЕ и ДЕ) стицању тих знања (когнитивно-афективни домен). У истраживању је учествовао N = 141 ученик трећег разреда из три основне школе са територије Општине Темерин, који су били подељени у три групе: Е1 (која је одабране садржаје учила уз примену УЕ – имплицитна инструкција), Е2 (која је одабране садржаје учила уз примену ДЕ – експлицитна инструкција) и К (која је исте садржаје учила уз примену ТМ – експлицитна инструкција). Методе итраживања су: метода теоријске анализе, експериментална метода, дескриптивна метода и статистичка метода. Примењене технике су тестирање и анкетирање. Тестирање знања ученика о кретању и особинама материјала спроведено је помоћу теста (пре-теста, пост-теста и ре- теста). Анкетирње је реализовано помоћу анкете (пре-анкете и пост-анкете). Питања у обе анкете су креирана према петостепеној скали Ликертовог типа. Пре-анкетом испитано је мишљење ученика Е1 и Е2 групе пре реализације садржаја о кретању и особинама материјала, како би се стекао увид у њихово мишљење о значају примене ЛЕМ у стицању њихових знања у претходним разредима. Пост-анкетом је испитано мишљење ученика Е1 и Е2 групе после реализације ових садржаја, како би се утврдило да ли је дошло до промене у њиховом мишљењу о значају примене ЛЕМ у стицању њихових знања. Резултати пост- анкете су коришћени и за анализу корелације између знања ученика Е1 и Е2 групе на пост-тесту и ре-тесту са њиховим мишљења о доприносу примене ЛЕМ.ЛЕМ више (у већој мери УЕ, него ДЕ) у односу на ТМ доприноси укупном квалитету и трајности знања ученика о кретању и особинама материјала. Ученици Е1 групе остварили су квалитетнија знања (на нивоу евалуације) у односу на ученике Е2 групе, као и квалитетнија знања (на нивоу анализе, евалуације и синтезе) у односу на ученике К групе. Ученици Е2 групе остварили су квалитетнија знања (на нивоу примене евалуације и синетезе) у односу на ученике К групе. Трајност знања ученика Е1 групе о приближна је трајности знања ученика Е2 групе на свим когнитивним нивоима. Међутим, ученици Е1 групе показали су знатно боље задржавање наученог о одабраним садржајима у односу на ученике К групе на нивоу разумевања, примене и евалуације. Ученици Е2 групе остварили су приближна знања ученицима К групе по трајности на свим когнитивним нивоима.Када се упореде резултати пре-анкете и пост-анкете закључује се да су после реализације садржаја о кретању и особинама материјала помоћу ЛЕМ ученици обе групе показали позитивније мишљење (на пост- анкети) о доприносу примене ЛЕМ стицању њихових знања. Поред наведеног уочено је и то да су ученици Е1 групе показали и знатно позитивније мишљење од ученика Е2 групе о доприносу примене ЛЕМ разумевању одабраних садржаја, њиховој заинтересованости на часовима и развоју социјалне интеракције.Постоји позитивна корелација између квалитета (на нивоу знања, разумевања, примене, анализе и евалуације) и трајности знања (на нивоу знања, разумевања и примене) ученика Е1 групе о одабраним садржајима и њиховог мишљења о доприносу примене ЛЕМ стицању тих знања. Позитивна корелација уочена је и између квалитета (на свим нивоима) и трајности знања (на нивоу знања, разумевања, примене, анализе и евалуације) ученика Е2 групе о одабраним садржајима и њиховог мишљења о доприносу примене ЛЕМ тим знањима. Јача корелација између испитиваних варијабли код ученика Е2 групе у односу на ученике Е1 групе само је производ тога колико су остварене вредности у оквиру сваке варијабле приближне. С обзиром на то да су ученици Е2 групе остварили слабији успех у односу на ученике Е1 групе у оквиру свих испитиваних варијабли (квалитет и трајност знања о одабраним садржајима и мишљење ученика о доприносу примене ЛЕМ тим знањима), важно је нагласити да су остварене вредности (резултати) између њиховог знања и мишљења приближније (што је проузроковало и јачу корелацију), него код ученика Е1 групе (што је проузроковало нешто слабију корелацију).Сугерише се да би садржаје о кретању и особинама материјала у трећем разреду требало реализовати уз примену једноставних експеримената (УЕ и ДЕ), при чему би предност требало дати УЕ, који се реализују уз примену имплицитне инструкције. Већом применом УЕ, у односу на ДЕ; утицало би се не само на квалитет и трајност знања ученика разредне наставе о природи, природним процесима и појавама, него и на њихово позитивно мишљење (ставове) о значају примене ЛЕМ у стицању тих знања, али и на сам развој експерименталних вештина и навика, које су ученицима касније неопходне за што самосталнију примену комплекснијих лабораторијских експеримената (у настави диференцираних природних наука).
Dosadašanja istraživanja ukazuju na pozitivan doprinos primene LEM, odnosno svake vrste eksperimenata (učeničkih – UE i demonstracionih - DE) znanju učenika razredne nastave iz integrisanih prirodnih nauka. UE podrazumevaju primenu implicitne instrukcije, dok demonstracioni eksperimenti podrazumevaju primenu eksplicitne instrukcije pri njihovom izvođenju. Međutim, nije dovoljno istraženo kada pri obrađivanju odgovarajućeg sadržaja integrisanih prirodnih nauka, u određenoj starosnoj dobi učenika, treba dati prioritet određenoj vrsti ekperimenata, odnosno kojoj vrsti instrukcija za njihovu realizaciju. Ovo je naročito značajno kada se određeni sadržaji, koje su učenici učili u prethodnim razredima (vertikalno povezani) usložnjavaju po kvalitetu, kvantitetu i obimu. Jedni od takvih sadržaja su i sadržaji o kretanju i osobinama materijala u trećem razredu.Osnovni cilj istraživanja u ovoj doktorskoj disertaciji jeste da se ispita: doprinos primene LEM, odnosno UE i DE kvalitetu i trajnosti znanja učenika trećeg razreda o kretanju i osobinama materijala u odnosu na tradicionalnu metodu (TM), kao i razlika u doprinosu između primene UE i DE na istoj varijabli (kognitivni domen); mišljenje učenika o doprinosu primene LEM (UE i DE) sticanju tih znanja (afektivni domen) kao i; korelacija između kvaliteta i trajnosti znanja učenika o odabranim sadržajima sa njihovim mišljenjem o doprinosu primene LEM (UE i DE) sticanju tih znanja (kognitivno-afektivni domen). U istraživanju je učestvovao N = 141 učenik trećeg razreda iz tri osnovne škole sa teritorije Opštine Temerin, koji su bili podeljeni u tri grupe: E1 (koja je odabrane sadržaje učila uz primenu UE – implicitna instrukcija), E2 (koja je odabrane sadržaje učila uz primenu DE – eksplicitna instrukcija) i K (koja je iste sadržaje učila uz primenu TM – eksplicitna instrukcija). Metode itraživanja su: metoda teorijske analize, eksperimentalna metoda, deskriptivna metoda i statistička metoda. Primenjene tehnike su testiranje i anketiranje. Testiranje znanja učenika o kretanju i osobinama materijala sprovedeno je pomoću testa (pre-testa, post-testa i re- testa). Anketirnje je realizovano pomoću ankete (pre-ankete i post-ankete). Pitanja u obe ankete su kreirana prema petostepenoj skali Likertovog tipa. Pre-anketom ispitano je mišljenje učenika E1 i E2 grupe pre realizacije sadržaja o kretanju i osobinama materijala, kako bi se stekao uvid u njihovo mišljenje o značaju primene LEM u sticanju njihovih znanja u prethodnim razredima. Post-anketom je ispitano mišljenje učenika E1 i E2 grupe posle realizacije ovih sadržaja, kako bi se utvrdilo da li je došlo do promene u njihovom mišljenju o značaju primene LEM u sticanju njihovih znanja. Rezultati post- ankete su korišćeni i za analizu korelacije između znanja učenika E1 i E2 grupe na post-testu i re-testu sa njihovim mišljenja o doprinosu primene LEM.LEM više (u većoj meri UE, nego DE) u odnosu na TM doprinosi ukupnom kvalitetu i trajnosti znanja učenika o kretanju i osobinama materijala. Učenici E1 grupe ostvarili su kvalitetnija znanja (na nivou evaluacije) u odnosu na učenike E2 grupe, kao i kvalitetnija znanja (na nivou analize, evaluacije i sinteze) u odnosu na učenike K grupe. Učenici E2 grupe ostvarili su kvalitetnija znanja (na nivou primene evaluacije i sineteze) u odnosu na učenike K grupe. Trajnost znanja učenika E1 grupe o približna je trajnosti znanja učenika E2 grupe na svim kognitivnim nivoima. Međutim, učenici E1 grupe pokazali su znatno bolje zadržavanje naučenog o odabranim sadržajima u odnosu na učenike K grupe na nivou razumevanja, primene i evaluacije. Učenici E2 grupe ostvarili su približna znanja učenicima K grupe po trajnosti na svim kognitivnim nivoima.Kada se uporede rezultati pre-ankete i post-ankete zaključuje se da su posle realizacije sadržaja o kretanju i osobinama materijala pomoću LEM učenici obe grupe pokazali pozitivnije mišljenje (na post- anketi) o doprinosu primene LEM sticanju njihovih znanja. Pored navedenog uočeno je i to da su učenici E1 grupe pokazali i znatno pozitivnije mišljenje od učenika E2 grupe o doprinosu primene LEM razumevanju odabranih sadržaja, njihovoj zainteresovanosti na časovima i razvoju socijalne interakcije.Postoji pozitivna korelacija između kvaliteta (na nivou znanja, razumevanja, primene, analize i evaluacije) i trajnosti znanja (na nivou znanja, razumevanja i primene) učenika E1 grupe o odabranim sadržajima i njihovog mišljenja o doprinosu primene LEM sticanju tih znanja. Pozitivna korelacija uočena je i između kvaliteta (na svim nivoima) i trajnosti znanja (na nivou znanja, razumevanja, primene, analize i evaluacije) učenika E2 grupe o odabranim sadržajima i njihovog mišljenja o doprinosu primene LEM tim znanjima. Jača korelacija između ispitivanih varijabli kod učenika E2 grupe u odnosu na učenike E1 grupe samo je proizvod toga koliko su ostvarene vrednosti u okviru svake varijable približne. S obzirom na to da su učenici E2 grupe ostvarili slabiji uspeh u odnosu na učenike E1 grupe u okviru svih ispitivanih varijabli (kvalitet i trajnost znanja o odabranim sadržajima i mišljenje učenika o doprinosu primene LEM tim znanjima), važno je naglasiti da su ostvarene vrednosti (rezultati) između njihovog znanja i mišljenja približnije (što je prouzrokovalo i jaču korelaciju), nego kod učenika E1 grupe (što je prouzrokovalo nešto slabiju korelaciju).Sugeriše se da bi sadržaje o kretanju i osobinama materijala u trećem razredu trebalo realizovati uz primenu jednostavnih eksperimenata (UE i DE), pri čemu bi prednost trebalo dati UE, koji se realizuju uz primenu implicitne instrukcije. Većom primenom UE, u odnosu na DE; uticalo bi se ne samo na kvalitet i trajnost znanja učenika razredne nastave o prirodi, prirodnim procesima i pojavama, nego i na njihovo pozitivno mišljenje (stavove) o značaju primene LEM u sticanju tih znanja, ali i na sam razvoj eksperimentalnih veština i navika, koje su učenicima kasnije neophodne za što samostalniju primenu kompleksnijih laboratorijskih eksperimenata (u nastavi diferenciranih prirodnih nauka).
Recent studies indicate that there is a positive contribution of the application of LEM, i.e. of every kind of experiments (student - UE and demonstration - DE) to the knowledge of students of classroom teaching in integrated natural sciences. UEs imply implicit instruction, while demonstration experiments imply explicit instruction in their application. However, it has not been sufficiently investigated when, in addressing the appropriate content of integrated natural sciences, at a given age of the student, priority should be given to a particular type of experiment or to what type of instruction for their realization. This is especially important when certain content which students have learned in previous classes (vertically connected) is complicated on the basis of its quality, quantity and scope. One of these is content about the movement and properties of materials in third grade. The main aim of the research in this doctoral dissertation is to examine the contribution of LEM application i.e. the UE and DE quality and durability of knowledge of third grade students about the movement and properties of materials in relation to the traditional method (TM). Furthermore, it will also look into the difference in contribution between UE and DE application on the same variable (cognitive domain) and students' opinion on the contribution of the application of LEM (UE and DE) to the acquisition of this knowledge (affective domain), as well as the correlation between quality and durability of students' knowledge of selected content with their opinion on the contribution of LEM (UE and DE) application to the acquisition of that knowledge (cognitive-affective domain). This research included N = 141 third grade students from three elementary schools from the territory of Temerin Municipality which were divided into three groups: E1 (which learned selected content using UE - implicit instruction), E2 (which learned selected content using DE - explicit instruction) and K (which learned the same content using TM - explicit instruction). The research methods are as follows: theoretical analysis method, experimental method, descriptive method and statistical method. The used techniques are testing and interviewing. Testing of students' knowledge of movement and material properties was conducted using a test (pre-test, post-test and re-test). Surveys were implemented through a questionnaire (presurvey and post-survey). The questions in both surveys were designed according to a five-point Likert-type scale. Pre-survey examined the opinion of E1 and E2 group students before the realization of the content on movement and material properties, in order to gain insight into their opinion on the importance of applying LEM in acquiring their knowledge in the previous grades. The post-survey examined the opinion of E1 and E2 students after the realization of these contents, in order to determine whether there was a change in their opinion about the importance of applying LEM in acquiring their knowledge. Post-survey results were also used to analyze the correlation between E1 and E2 group students' knowledge on post-test and re-test with their opinions on the contribution of LEM implementation. Compared to TM, LEM contributes more (more UE than DE) to the overall quality and durability of students' knowledge of movement and material properties. E1 group students achieved higher quality (at the level of evaluation) compared to E2 group students, as well as better knowledge (at the level of analysis, evaluation and synthesis) than the K group students. The students of the E2 group achieved higher quality knowledge (at the level of application of evaluation and synthesis) than the students of the K group. The durability of knowledge of E1 group students is approximate to that of E2 students at all cognitive levels. However, the E1 group students showed significantly better retention of the selected content compared to the K group students at the level of understanding, application and evaluation. The E2 group students gained an up-to-date knowledge of the K group students in durability at all cognitive levels. When comparing the results of the pre-survey and the post-survey, it is concluded that after the realization of the content about the movement and the material properties with the LEM, students from both groups showed a more positive opinion (at the post-survey) about the contribution of the application of the LEM to the acquisition of their knowledge. In addition, it was noted that E1 group students showed significantly more positive opinions than E2 group students about the contribution of LEM application to understanding of selected content, their interest in classes and the development of social interaction. There is a positive correlation between the quality (at the level of knowledge, understanding, application, analysis and evaluation) and the durability of knowledge (at the level of knowledge, understanding and application) of E1 group students on selected content and their opinion on the contribution of LEM application to the acquisition of that knowledge. Furthermore, a positive correlation was noticed between the quality (at all levels) and the permanence of knowledge (at the level of knowledge, understanding, application, analysis and evaluation) of E2 group students on selected content and their opinion on the contribution of LEM application to this knowledge. The stronger correlation between the examined variables in the E2 group students compared to the E1 group students is only a product of how the values are close to each variable. Considering that the students of the E2 group achieved less success than the students of the E1 group within all the examined variables (quality and durability of knowledge about the selected contents and students' opinion on the contribution of applying LEM to this knowledge), it is important to emphasize that the achieved values (results) between their knowledge and opinion are closer (which also caused a stronger correlation) than for E1 group students (which caused a slightly weaker correlation). It is suggested that the contents about the movement and properties of the materials in the third class should be realized using simple experiments (UE and DE), with preference given to UEs, which are realized using implicit instruction. Greater use of UEs than DEs; would affect not only the quality and durability of students' knowledge of the classroom teaching about nature, natural processes and phenomena, but also their positive opinion (attitudes) about the importance of applying LEM in acquiring this knowledge, but also to the development of experimental skills and habits itself, which are later necessary for students to apply complex laboratory experiments as independently as possible (in teaching differentiated natural sciences).

Under the premise that vocabulary learning in a Spanish as a second language in-class environment may be affected by the instructional approach adopted by the instructors or the materials followed, this study explores the influence of rather distant teaching styles, such as implicit and explicit approaches, on the learning outcome of Spanish lexicon. Research has shown successful results in studies undergoing both approaches (Ellis, 1994; Barcroft, 1994; Maura, 1995; Huckin and Coady, 1997; Schmitt, 2000; Paribakht and Wesche, 2000; Hiebert and Kamil, 2005). Despite the adopted instructional approach, vocabulary is finally assimilated by the learners to an extended degree. Nevertheless, explicit style shows better results in early stages of learning, whereas implicit style proves to be more effective in a more advanced stage of learning, since beginning students' lack of vocabulary limits their inferring ability (Zimmerman, 1997; Coady, 1997). The reason is that the explicit approach facilitates breadth knowledge of the material, in opposition to implicit approach, which facilitates a depth of knowledge (Paribakht & Wesche, 1996). As a result, we may have students with vocabulary breadth knowledge, who gloss a Spanish word in English, but are unable to apply or recognize the word in a context; as opposed to students with depth of knowledge, who may know the Spanish glosses of English words and their meaning variations depending on context On the other hand, Second Language Acquisition (SLA) has also proved to be influenced by factors out of the scope of instructional techniques. Each learner may approach differently to the foreign language learning process and affect his/her final results (Oxford, 1990; Skehan, 1991). Facts such as motivation, or individual strategies, will influence the mastery of vocabulary regardless of the instructional approach This study presents the vocabulary learning results of a long term implicit and explicit approach treatment applied to two different sections of an intermediate Spanish course. Lexicon learning results will be correlated with the individual factors of motivation and learning strategies to measure aspects that may be determinant in the acquisition of Spanish vocabulary in an in-class university-level setting
acase@tulane.edu

In the past century, grammar instruction has aroused debate among scholars and instructors in the field of second language teaching and acquisition without absolute consensus. However, for the acquisition of Chinese grammar by adult L2 learners, there is wider acceptance that grammar should be taught due to the unique Chinese grammatical features. The issue in question is merely on how to teach Chinese grammar effectively. Hence, inspired by many other comparative studies on explicit and implicit instruction methods for teaching Western languages such as English, French, Spanish and so forth, the researcher conducted an empirical study to investigate the effectiveness of the two instruction methods on Chinese grammar acquisition. The current study consisted of two experiments, involving two target forms: Affirmative-Negative Questions (A-Not-A Questions) and the perfective aspect particle LE (了). The participants were beginning level Chinese language learners who studied Chinese as a second language in two class sections of the Elementary Non-intensive Chinese Class at a large public university. They formed two comparative groups naturally. During the two experiments, the explicit group was provided with explicit knowledge of grammar patterns, examples carrying the patterns and opportunities to practice with the teacher’s explicit corrective feedback, while implicit group received input without any grammatical knowledge or explanation. The teacher would give recast feedback (implicit) if students made mistakes in their practice. Importantly, the explicit and implicit teaching groups were reversed in the second experiment, in order to enable each group to be exposed to both the explicit and the implicit teaching conditions. Analysis of the results obtained from immediate-tests and delayed post-tests yielded three main findings: first, learners who had received explicit grammar instruction treatment overall gained greater improvement in their knowledge of, and their ability to use the target forms in the short term; second, when it comes to longer-term effects, both groups in the two experiments showed loss, in varying degrees, in the knowledge of and the ability to use the target forms; third, explicit instruction was of more advantage for L2 Chinese learners when they are learning more complex rules.

Behavioral sciences, and particularly nudges, are becoming increasingly relevant in the definition of policies designed to prompt desirable societal outcomes, namely in the health domain. This research studies the impact of two different nudge interventions in the choice of healthy food items: a social norm (with an explicit nature) and background music (sensory-based, with an implicit nature). The research also investigates the continued influence of these interventions in subsequent moments of choice. A digital experiment was conducted, and results confirm the strength of the social norm as an effective nudge. However, the proposed sensory-based nudge was not successful – future replication studies need to be conducted. Interestingly, we observe a consistency effect under the presence of either stimuli, meaning that people exposed to the stimuli perpetuate either the healthy or the unhealthy behavior in subsequent choices regardless of the nudge-type. Possible explanations and managerial implications are further explored.

Explicit memory tests require the deliberate recollection of recently presented material and are defined by having students think back to a previous instructional episode. Implicit memory tests do not require students to deliberately retrieve recently presented material, rather students are asked to name whatever comes to mind when given a cue of some kind. The amount of information retrieved in this manner (which reflects previously presented content) represents the amount of priming or transfer from the previous instructional episode. Elaborative instructional processing (making meaningful associations between to-be-learned material) has been reported to create differential performance effects, known as dissociations, between explicit and implicit tests. Lab research suggests that performance on both tests may be increased with elaborative processing, but that implicit tests are significantly less affected. Likewise, instructional strategies that incorporate elaborative questioning techniques into classroom instruction, have been found to increase student performance on explicit-type tests. Processing dissociations between explicit and implicit tests have been explained by adapting the framework of Transfer Appropriate Processing (T.A.P.), emphasizing the overlap in instruction and retrieval processes engaged by students as best predicting memory performance. Processing theorists have postulated that dissociations between explicit and implicit tests due to elaborative processing may be explained by the task requirements of particular explicit and implicit tests. Explicit tests generally require elaborative processing and benefit from elaboration during instruction. Implicit tests generally require integrative processing (e.g. perceiving relations between implicit test cues and instructional targets) and benefit less from elaborative instruction. The present study was designed to examine how an elaborative questioning strategy would affect students' memory for instructional information, measured with an explicit and implicit test. Importantly, would there be an increase to performance on both tests due to elaborative instruction and would there be a dissociation found evidenced by greater benefits to explicit over implicit test performance? Forty-four students from grades 3 and 4 were randomly paired with a classmate during instruction, and were presented 12 facts about outer space in one of two instructional conditions: (non-elaborative) read aloud or (elaborative) interrogative elaboration. Students in the read aloud condition were instructed to read out loud, slowly and carefully with the experimenter, each of the 12 space facts. Students in the interrogative elaboration condition were instructed to read out loud with the experimenter each of the space facts, and were asked three questions after each fact requiring a "yes" or "no" response. After all the space facts and questions had been completed, students made a poster about the facts. The following day, students were tested individually with an explicit and implicit memory test. The explicit test required students to think back to yesterday, and recall as many of the facts about space that they could remember. For the implicit test, students were read a brief story (about 50 words) ending with a question requiring students to name five members of a particular space category. Performance on both tests was significantly greater in the interrogative elaboration condition than in the read aloud condition; however, no evidence of a processing dissociation was found— that is explicit and implicit test performance did not vary. It was concluded, congruent with the T.A.P. processing framework, that in the classroom setting the overlap in processing between instruction and testing was a greater determinant of memory performance on both tests than was the deliberate (explicit) or non-deliberate (implicit) access to retrieve the instructional material.

碩士
國立中正大學
英語教學研究所
101
The purpose of the current study was to investigate the immediate effects, delayed effects, and subjects’ perceptions of explicit and implicit instruction on the learning of English comparative adjectives. The current study was conducted from March to May of 2012, and the subjects were 61 seventh-grade junior high school students from two English classes in Changhua County, Taiwan. One of the classes formed the implicit group, while the other served as the explicit group. The implicit group (n=31) received implicit grammar instruction with no explanation of the rules, but using stories embedded with examples of comparative adjectives, while the explicit group (n=30) was given explicit grammar instruction explaining the rules of comparative adjectives. Data was collected using a background information questionnaire, a pretest, an immediate posttest, two delayed posttests, and a post-learning questionnaire. The findings indicated that both explicit and implicit instruction had immediate effects on the learning of English comparative adjectives, with t-test results revealing that the two instruction types were equally effective. In terms of delayed effects on the learning of the target grammar, the affects of the explicit instruction were found not to be retained after one month or after two months from the end of instruction; however, the implicit instruction did show delayed effects lasting for at least two months. That is to say, the explicit instruction only showed learning effects in the short-term, while subjects receiving the implicit instruction were able to retain their memory of the target grammar in both the short-term and the long-term. As for the subjects’ perceptions of the grammar instruction that they received, both groups rated the instruction highly and expressed positive views of the course. However, the subjects receiving the implicit instruction rated their experience significantly more positively than did the subjects who received the explicit instruction, indicating that the subjects in the implicit group were especially satisfied with the implicit instruction that they received. Finally, the subjects in both groups provided some responses regarding the advantages and disadvantages of the instruction that they had received. Based on the results, some pedagogical implications and suggestions for further research were provided at the end of the study.

碩士
國立交通大學
教育研究所
97
In the past, the ways of changing students’ the scientific epistemological views (SEVs) might be divided into either the “explicit” or “implicit” approach. The explicit approach refers to the usage of history of science in the teaching process, and the implicit approach refers to the utilization of science inquiry activities. The purpose of this study was mainly to investigate the effects of combining the explicit and implicit instruction of changing the junior high school students' SEVs and the students' learning strategies. This study was conducted with a quasi-experimental research design. The subjects were sixty-one eighth graders. Thirty-one students in one class were assigned to the combining explicit and implicit instruction group, while thirty students in another class were assigned to the traditional instruction group. The students’ SEVs and strategies of learning science were probed both before and after the research treatment, lasting about three months. The tools utilized at pre-test and post-test included “epistemological beliefs on science questionnaire”, ”SEVs questionnaire”, ”contextual questionnaire for SEV” and interviews. An interview was also conducted to assess students’ learning strategies of science both before and after the research treatment. Research findings revealed that there was no statistical difference between two groups after the research treatment on “epistemological beliefs on science questionnaire” and “SEVs questionnaire”. But both in the interviews and on “contextual questionnaire for SEV”, it reveled that the SEVs of the experimental group students were changed toward more constructivist-oriented, and at the same time their SEVs become more consistent. After the traditional instruction, some of the control group students had changed their SEVs toward either more constructivist or positivist. According to the interview results, it was found that students’ SEVs could be changed toward more constructivist by the explicit instruction, such as posing questions like: “what is science”, “how the scientific knowledge were created and acquired”, “why the identical phenomenon has different scientific theories to explain”, “what are the characteristics of scientific knowledge”. But the implicit instruction can promote the application of scientific knowledge into the real life. Meanwhile in the strategies of learning science, the combing explicit and implicit instruction also caused the students to be more willing to discuss with other peers, as well as develop the tendency of monitoring oneself learning activity, or adopt experimental approach to examine new things and events. This study revealed some evidence that the combination of explicit and implicit approaches might change the students’ SEVs. It is suggested that researchers can use both approaches to enhancing students’ SEVs, and develop more lesson plans or instructional activities to examine their potential.

Dissertação de Mestrado apresentada ao ISPA - Instituto Universitário
As crianças são influenciadas pelos contextos onde se encontram e pelas figuras significativas da sua vida, bem como, pelos grupos a que pertencem consoante a sua vontade de pertença ou de ligação a certas pessoas. Estas figuras significativas podem ser os seus pais ou os seus professores e têm atitudes acerca dos polícias que podem ser passadas aos filhos ou aos alunos consoante os casos. Existem dois tipos de atitudes: as explícitas e as implícitas, podendo ser diferentes uma da outra. As implícitas são transmitidas por meios não-verbais e de forma inconsciente, não dependendo da situação em que se encontram, ao contrário das explícitas que são transmitidas de forma calculada tendo em conta o contexto e os objectivos da situação. Segundo a literatura, as crianças têm maior tendência para assimilar a informação transmitida de forma implícita do que de forma explícita, utilizando essa informação para desenvolver as suas próprias atitudes implícitas e explícitas, que até por volta dos 10 anos, são muito semelhantes. Como tal, espera-se que as atitudes, quer explícitas quer implícitas, das crianças em relação à polícia sejam semelhantes entre si e estejam correlacionadas com as atitudes implícitas dos pais e professores, podendo, no entanto, haver uma maior relação com os pais. Espera-se ainda, que as atitudes implícitas dos pais e professores sejam diferentes das suas atitudes explícitas, sendo as primeiras negativas e as ultimas mais positivas. Para este estudo serão utilizados 10 professores com os seus respectivos alunos e encarregados de educação, que farão um IAT (Implicit Association Test) para testar as suas atitudes implícitas, onde se conjugará fotografias de polícias e não polícias com palavras associadas a castigo e protecção, assim como a um questionário com 3 medidas, para testar as atitudes explícitas
ABSTRACT: Children are influenced by context where they leave and significant references in their lives, as well as, the groups they belong to, depending on their will of belonging or attachment to certain people. These significant figures may be their parents and teachers and have attitudes about the police that can be transmitted to children or students. There are two attitude types: the explicit and implicit ones, witch may be different from each other. The Implicit is transmitted by non-verbal means and unconsciously, not depending on the situation they are living, differently to the explicit, which is transmitted thru a calculated way taking into account the context and objectives of each situation. According to the literature, children have higher trend to absorb the information conveyed implicitly than explicitly, using this information to develop their own implicit and explicit attitudes, which, until around the age of 10 years old, are very similar. Therefore, it is expected that attitudes express or implicit related to children are similar between both and police are correlated with the implicit attitudes of parents and teachers may, however, be a higher linkage with parents. It is expected that the implicit attitudes of parents and teachers are different from their explicit attitudes, which the first are negative and the second are more positive. To implement this study will be approached 10 teachers with their students and correspondent parents, who will fulfil a IAT (Implicit Association Test) in order to test their implicit attitudes, that we will combine police officers and non-police photographs with words associated with punishment and protection, and a questionnaire will be used with 3 measures to test the explicit attitudes

碩士
國立彰化師範大學
英語學系
103
Both phonological and morphological knowledge are essential in the learning of English orthography (Carlisle, 2003; Singson, 2000). In the L1 context, researchers had investigated the effects of morphological and phonological instruction on learners’ acquisition of inflectional and derivational spelling rules (Nunes, Bryant, &; Olsson, 2003) and found that both phonological awareness and morphological awareness instruction had positive effect on L1 3rd and 4th graders’ performance in the spelling test. In Taiwan, not much attention has been given to the comparison of the effect of implicit morphological awareness (IMPA) instruction and explicit morphophonological awareness (EMPA) instruction on EFL learners' spelling performance. Therefore, the current study aimed to compare the effect of the IMPA instruction and the EMPA instruction on Taiwanese EFL junior high school students' spelling performance and morphological awareness of inflectional suffixes. Eighty-two Taiwanese EFL eighth graders participated in the current study and were randomly assigned to the IMPA instruction group, the EMPA instruction group and the control group. Both the IMPA group and the EMPA group received six weeks of experimental instruction whereas the control group only followed the regular teaching schedule. Before the pretest, the participants in the experimental groups and the control group took the Word Familiarity Test (WFT) and the Primary Spelling Inventory (PSI). The result of PSI showed that participants in these three groups were still in the letter name-alphabetic stage. Afterwards, for both of the experimental groups and the control group, they took the Inflected English Words Spelling Test (IEWST) and the Morphological Awareness Test of Inflected English Words (MATIEW) before and after receiving the six weeks of instruction. In conclusion, the participants in both the IMPA group and the EMPA group performed significantly better than the control group in the IEWST after receiving the six weeks of instruction. Furthermore, the EMPA group performed significantly better than the IMPA group in the IEWST. The participants in both the IMPA group and the EMPA group also performed significantly better in the MATIEW posttest. Though statistical analysis showed no significant difference among the three groups in the MATIEW, the EMPA group was found to have gained more points that the IMPA group and the control group. Based on these findings, it is suggested that Taiwan EFL junior high school teachers should not only integrate both morphological awareness and phonological awareness training in their instruction but also teach explicitly to help learners develop their spelling abilities and morphological awareness of English orthography.

The dissertation surveys the use of expressions of futurality in professional economic texts (the linguistic part). In addition, it investigates didactic aspects of futurality in the process of English as a second language acquisition, focusing on undergraduates in the study programme B 6208 - Economy and Management (the didactic part). The topic was chosen on the basis of the author's empirical experience and the results of pre-tests in the target group. The research is based on a corpus-based linguistic study. Seven representative monographs written by native speakers were selected as a source of relevant information about the use of futural constructions in a written economic text. All the sources were explored by means of corpus query software and instances of selected futural constructions (will, shall, be going to, be about to, be on the point of, be (due) to and the present tense) were excerpted. Functions of the futural constructions were elaborted on the basis of the numerous excerpts and confronted with English for specific (economic) purpose textbooks that are used widely at Czech economic universities. To prove or disaprove their mutual interdependence, the correlation of general language and specific language proficiencies of undergraduates from two universities was measured....