Статті в журналах: "Experimental fires"

1

Bachurin, Leonid, Ihor Iordanov, Olha Kohtieva, Yevgen Podkopayev, Oleh Yefremov, Anton Korol, and Maksym Hryhorets. "EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF DEFORMATION CHARACTERISTICS OF MINE PROTECTION STRUCTURES." JOURNAL of Donetsk mining institute, no. 2 (2020): 7–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.31474/1999-981x-2020-2-7-22.

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The purpose of the article. Studying deformation characteristics of protective structures under the influence of external loads used to maintain lateral rocks in the coal massif behind the production face. Methods. To achieve this goal, laboratory studies of the deformation characteristics of security structures under uniaxial compression were performed. Results. As a result of the research it has been established that at uniaxial compression of wooden protective constructions in the form of rolling fires from sleepers or bushes from risers, change of their rigidity is caused both by differences in properties of wood at action of external force along or across fibres, and design features. In cases where a constant compressive force is applied to the experimental sample across the fibres (rolling fires from sleepers), the change in stiffness is quadratic and reaches minimum values when the deformation of the model by 30-35%, and with a further increase in deformation to 50% stiffness increases. This indicates an increase in the resistance of rolling fires to external loads after their compression, without losing the strength of the structure. Under the action of compressive force along the fibres (bushes of risers), the stiffness of the experimental samples increases until the moment of destruction, when there is a loss of strength of the structure. The change in the stiffness of embedded arrays of crushed rock, if possible, their lateral expansion occurs due to the compaction of embedded material, i.e. recomposition of particles of crushed rock of different fractions in the total volume. Novelty. The nature of the deformation of security structures considered as prefabricated structures can be described by the change in the specific potential deformation energy spent on changing the shape and/or volume of the protective structures. Practical meaning. To ensure the stability of the side rocks in the coal massif containing the workings, it is necessary to focus on the use of flexible protection structures located above the retractable roadway.

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2

GUPTA, A. K., RAJIV KUMAR, and SURENDRA KUMAR. "COMPARTMENT FIRES: AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY." Journal of Applied Fire Science 11, no. 3 (January 1, 2002): 255–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.2190/u3yc-l1wg-g6a9-gtxx.

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3

Xuhui, Jin, Huo Ran, and W. K. Chow. "Experimental Studies on "Bare Cabin" Fires." Journal of Applied Fire Science 23, no. 3 (January 1, 2013): 269–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.2190/af.23.3.a.

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4

Li, Y., W. Chow, C. Shi, Y. You, and R. Huo. "Preliminary Experimental Studies on Cabin Fires." Journal of Applied Fire Science 13, no. 2 (February 1, 2005): 93–112. http://dx.doi.org/10.2190/q945-5605-343j-0r10.

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5

Chow, W. K., and W. L. Chan. "Experimental Studies on Forced-Ventilated Fires." Fire Science and Technology 13, no. 1+2 (1993): 1_71–1_87. http://dx.doi.org/10.3210/fst.13.1_71.

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6

Chen, Ling, Xuan Wang, Baiyi Li, and Peng Lin. "Experimental Study of Scale Effect in Tunnel Fires at Different Sealing Ratios." Fire 6, no. 3 (February 28, 2023): 92. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/fire6030092.

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Fully or partially sealing the openings of tunnels to accelerate the self-extinction of fires provides a promising firefighting tactic to beat large fires in a long tunnel. So far, most experimental studies on the characteristics of fire with different sealing ratios have been conducted in reduced-scale tunnels. However, whether the findings in a reduced-scale tunnel can be converted to its full-scale prototype tunnel based on scaling laws has not yet been adequately studied. A series of experiments with heat-release rates of 15.8, 31.6 and 63.2 kW were conducted with sealing ratios ranging from 0% to 100% in a prototype tunnel measuring 20 m long, 0.9 m wide and 0.46 m high. The experimental results were compared with those from a 1/2 reduced-scale tunnel measuring 10 m long, 0.45 m wide and 0.23 m high. It showed that temperature rise along the tunnel in the 1/2 reduced-tunnel could be significantly underestimated. The differences in temperature rise increased monotonously with distance away from the fire seat, and they were as high as 70% at the tunnel portals, irrespective of the heat-release rates and sealing ratios. The study showed that the scale effect of fires was not sensitive to the Reynolds number of flows in tunnels. The minimal sealing ratio for the self-extinction of fires in the prototype tunnel was 85%, whilst it was 75% in the 1/2 reduced-scale tunnel, and the study revealed that the fires were much easier to extinguish in the 1/2 reduced-scale tunnel than those in the prototype tunnel, where the fires can sustain in a lower oxygen concentration. The study demonstrated that scaling laws could be invalid for tunnel fires with different sealing ratios and that results observed in reduced-scale tunnels should be further verified when applied to full-scale prototypes.

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7

Vincent, J. R., and S. R. Gollahalli. "An Experimental Study of the Interaction of Multiple Liquid Pool Fires." Journal of Energy Resources Technology 117, no. 1 (March 1, 1995): 37–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.2835318.

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The risk of accidental spills and possible fires is high in the storage and handling of large quantities of flammable liquids. Such liquid pool fires are generally buoyancy-driven and emit a large fraction of their heat release in the form of radiation. Ignition and combustion characteristics of liquid pools depend on the design parameters such as diameter, spacing, and shape of the pools. This laboratory scale study was conducted to determine the effects of these parameters on the characteristics of multiple liquid pool fires. The measurements reported include pool surface regression rate, flame height, temperature, and concentrations of carbon dioxide, soot, and oxygen.

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8

Kuzyk, A., V. Tovaryanskyi, and K. Drach. "EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH OF FIRES IN GRASSY ECOSYSTEMS." Fire Safety 35 (February 26, 2020): 35–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.32447/20786662.35.2019.06.

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Formulation of the problem. The fire hazard of grass ecosystems depends on many factors that determine the proper condition of the combustible material and support the burning process. The most important indicators of danger are the condition and humidity of grass. The main external factors of influence on the occurrence and spread of fires in natural ecosystems are: air temperature and air relative humidity, precipitation, wind speed. The urgent task is to determine the rate of spread of fires in grassy ecosystems. The purpose of this work is to establish the features of occurrence and spread out of grass fires in the forest-steppe conditions of Ukraine on the basis of fire hazard analysis and experimental studies. Research methods. The studies were conducted in the forest-steppe zone in the Vinnytsia region on November 1-3, 2019. The plots with 10 m in length and 3 m in width were chosen, taking into account the wind direction along the plot. During the studies, the wind speed was in a range of 0 to 10 meters per second, the air temperature varied from 7 to 14 Celsium degrees during the day and from -3 to 12 Celsium degrees at night. The air humidity varied from 52 to 69 per cent during the day and from 72 to 84 per cent at night. The humidity of the grass was 20-22 per cent in the daytime, and 27-30 per cent at night. The fire load on the sites was 4-5 t/ha. The main results of the study. Combustion mostly did not happen since 19 p.m. till 10 a.m. because the grass cover during the night increased the moisture content due to the relative humidity increasing and drop of temperature. After 10 a.m. in clear conditions and in the presence of wind, the humidity of the grasses decreased, which facilitated their ignition and spread of fire. However, in the absence of wind, ignition did not happen. The fire spreading rate depended on wind speed and grass height. For grasses 40 cm high the fire spread rate was from 2.5 m/min (wind speed 1-2 m/s) to 3.5 m/min (wind speed 6-8 m/s). For grasses 60 cm high the fire spread rate was from 3.1 m/min (wind speed 1-2 m/s) to 12.5 m/min (wind speed 6-8 m/s). Conclusions. The rate of fire spread in grassу ecosystems depend on temperature and relative humidity, wind speed, grass humidity, height and spatial location. At night, the high humidity of grasses, caused by high relative humidity and low air temperature, hinders ignition and burning, but the fire may occur in the presence of wind in the presence of several sources of ignition with sufficient energy.

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9

Kral, Katherine C., Ryan F. Limb, Torre J. Hovick, Devan A. McGranahan, Aaron L. Field, and Peter L. O’Brien. "Simulating Grassland Prescribed Fires Using Experimental Approaches." Fire Ecology 11, no. 3 (December 2015): 34–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.4996/fireecology.1103034.

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10

Yuana, Li-Ming, and G. Cox. "An experimental study of some line fires." Fire Safety Journal 27, no. 2 (September 1996): 123–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0379-7112(96)00047-1.

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11

Kunsch, Jean-Paul. "Modelling of tunnel fires and experimental validation." PAMM 5, no. 1 (December 2005): 677–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pamm.200510314.

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12

Siddapureddy, Sudheer, and SV Prabhu. "Experimental and numerical simulation studies on heat transfer to calorimeters engulfed in diesel pool fires." Journal of Fire Sciences 35, no. 2 (March 2017): 156–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0734904117694047.

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Characterization of heat transfer to calorimeters engulfed in pool fires is extremely important. To estimate the heat flux to the calorimeters, experiments are performed with horizontal stainless steel 304L pipes engulfed in diesel pool fires. The concept of adiabatic surface temperature is applied to predict the incident heat flux to horizontally oriented calorimeters engulfed in diesel pool fires. Plate thermometers are used to measure the adiabatic surface temperature for diesel pool fires. The estimated subsurface temperatures inside the steel pipes using the adiabatic surface temperature concept and the measured temperatures are in good agreement. Adiabatic surface temperature is also computed from fire simulations. The incident heat fluxes to the steel pipes engulfed in fire predicted from the simulations are found to be in good agreement with the experiments. The fire numerical code is validated against the 1 m pool fire experimental results of centerline temperature distribution and irradiances away from fire. A correlation is provided for the estimation of adiabatic surface temperature for large diesel pool fires. These results would provide an effective way for thermal test simulations.

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13

Ali, Hayder Khalid, Sallal R. Abid, and Nildem Tayşi. "Thermal Behaviour and Microstructure of Self-Cured High-Strength Plain and Fibrous Geopolymer Concrete Exposed to Various Fire Scenarios." Buildings 13, no. 10 (September 26, 2023): 2444. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/buildings13102444.

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The fire resistance of construction materials is an essential part of safety requirements in the construction industry. In this work, experimental investigations were conducted to understand the thermal behaviour, spalling, transfer characteristics, strength, and microstructures of self-cured high-strength plain (HSGC) and steel-fibre-reinforced geopolymer concrete (S–HSGC) under severe fire scenarios with peak temperatures of 275, 560, and 825 °C; the peak was maintained for a period of 120 min after reaching it. Forty-eight standard cylindrical specimens for each mixture were prepared to test and analyse their time–heat response, gradients, visual appearance, spalling, density change, water absorption, and compressive strength before and after fire exposure. Additionally, Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) along with Energy Dispersive X-ray Analysis (EDX) were utilised to analyse the internal structures and phase transformations. The thermal analysis showed that no cases of explosive spalling were recorded during sample exposure to various fires, while the used hook-end steel fibres had an influence on the considered test variables. The sample cores almost reached the target heat, and the thermal saturation degree at the peak ranged from 55 to 97%. The experimental findings also revealed slight surface cracking after exposure to 560 °C fires, while the surface cracking was more obvious for specimens exposed to 825 °C. Moreover, the residual compressive strength of the S–HSGC at various fires was noticeably 10.20% higher than that of the HSGC. Also, state-of-the-art research data were used to discuss the prediction model’s performance. The SEM and EDX results showed that the self-cured geopolymerization process was effective and successful in producing gels, in addition to the significant phase transformations in microstructures at different fires. This study presented sophisticated data on the behaviour of HSGC and S–HSGC exposed to fires up to 825 °C.

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14

Morandini, Frédéric, and Xavier Silvani. "Experimental investigation of the physical mechanisms governing the spread of wildfires." International Journal of Wildland Fire 19, no. 5 (2010): 570. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wf08113.

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One of the objectives of the present study is to gain a deeper understanding of the heat transfer mechanisms that control the spread of wildfires. Five experimental fires were conducted in the field across plots of living vegetation. This study focussed on characterising heat transfer ahead of the flame front. The temperature and heat flux were measured at the top of the vegetation as the fire spread. The results showed the existence of two different fire spread regimes that were either dominated by radiation or governed by mixed radiant–convective heat transfer. For plume‐dominated fires, the flow strongly responds to the great buoyancy forces generated by the fire; this guides the fire plume upward. For wind‐driven fires, the flow is governed by inertial forces due to the wind, and the fire plume is greatly tilted towards unburned vegetation. The correlations of the temperature (ahead of the flame front) and wind velocity fluctuations change according to the fire regime. The longitudinal distributions of the radiant heat flux ahead of the fire front are also discussed. The data showed that neither the convective Froude number nor the Nelson convection number – used in the literature to predict fire spread regimes – reflect the observed behaviour of wind‐driven fires.

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15

Liao, Baisheng, Lizhong Yang, Xiaoyu Ju, and Yang Peng. "Experimental investigation on thermal and toxic gas hazards of typical photovoltaic modules in fire." E3S Web of Conferences 269 (2021): 01015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202126901015.

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Considering that distributed photovoltaic systems are increasingly used in commercial buildings and residential areas, the potential safety hazards caused by building fires or photovoltaic system fires are very prominent. Photovoltaic fires have different characteristics from ordinary fires and are more difficult to extinguish immediately. The photovoltaic system itself will become an additional heat load in a fire, and the safety impact of the toxic gas released by it in densely populated areas is also very important.Based on the fire calorimetry method, this paper conducts an experimental study on the thermal hazards and toxicity hazards of typical photovoltaic panels under fire. Under different external heat radiation, several important combustion characteristic parameters of customized photovoltaic samples were investigated, such as, heat release rate, mass loss rate, total heat of combustion, etc. The instantaneous concentration of several key toxic gases was tested, and the risk was quantitatively analyzed through the FED value recommended in ISO13344:2015.

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16

Wang, Feng, Yu Wang, Yubing Huang, and Qixiang Yan. "Experimental study on the smoke temperature distribution alongside the lining in tunnel fires." Thermal Science 23, no. 6 Part A (2019): 3701–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/tsci190114273w.

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Tunnel fire temperature is a key factor for tunnel structural safety and evacuation. This study aimed to investigate the smoke temperature distribution alongside the lining across the section and effects of pool sizes and fuels on it through a series of small-scale experiments. The results showed the heat release rates of diesel were significantly lower than gasoline?s when they had the same pool size and volume. Nevertheless, the duration of diesel combustion increased obviously. As a result, the maximum smoke temperature under the ceiling for gasoline was significantly higher than diesel?s. The results were subsequently adopted to compare with other test results and illustrated a similar result. The initial temperature rising rates for gasoline pool fires were shown to agree well with the standardized temperature curves, but they were significantly lower for diesel pool fires. Two exponential correlations on vertical temperature distribution were provided, respectively, for gasoline and diesel fires. These findings are expected to be useful for the design of the thermal boundary on the lining in tunnel fires.

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17

Vega, J. A., E. Jiménez, J. L. Dupuy, and R. R. Linn. "Effects of flame interaction on the rate of spread of heading and suppression fires in shrubland experimental fires." International Journal of Wildland Fire 21, no. 8 (2012): 950. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wf10124.

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Suppression fires are frequently used in wildland firefighting operations. However, little is known about how suppression fires behave and how the main front and the suppression fire interact. Lack of information limits the operational use and effectiveness of suppression fires and compromises the safety of firefighters. A series of experimental fires were conducted in a shrubland fuel complex in Galicia to quantify the effect of the interaction between a heading fire burning upslope with the prevailing wind and a suppression fire burning downslope from a control line against the wind. An empirical model was developed to estimate the possible effect of interaction between fronts on the rate of spread of both fronts. For heading fires, the explanatory variables were: wind speed on the windward side of the fire, distance between fronts and slope angle. In contrast, for suppression fires, the only significant explanatory variable was the distance between fronts. The models reflected the observed low to moderate acceleration in the rate of spread of both fronts and the short distance over which interaction occurred (<20 m). The study revealed that the safe and effective use of suppression firing is more limited than previously expected. In fact, with moderately high wind velocities on flat and moderately steep terrain, the use of line firing appeared unsafe.

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18

Kuai, Shichao, Ningning Li, Wei Zheng, Jingguang Tong, Feng Zhao, Lei Xu, and Zibo Qi. "Experimental study on electric fire based on nitrogen injection technology." Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2656, no. 1 (December 1, 2023): 012008. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2656/1/012008.

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Abstract Electric fire occurs frequently in daily life. The fault arc, overload and short circuit of electric fire phenomena are the important factors of electric fire. In view of this, electric fire test research based on nitrogen injection technology is carried out, focusing on the effect of nitrogen injection technology on fault arc, overload, and short circuits of electric fires. The combustion inhibition characteristics of nitrogen injection technology on electric fires are analyzed through comparative tests, and the application method of nitrogen injection technology in the field of electric fire prevention is explored.

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19

Son, Kwang Ik, Gyo Chang Son, Hyung Joon Kim, and Jung Woo Kim. "Transition of Land Cover Characteristics at Wild-Fired Watershed." Advanced Materials Research 886 (January 2014): 249–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.886.249.

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Wild fires in a mountain area cause severe runoff. The runoff causes secondary mal-effects such as soil erosion and environmental contamination. Korea had suffered from serious soil yield problems at Imha reservoir in 2003. The muddy flow in the reservoir lasts for an years at that time and the water resources problem had prevailed around the watershed. But there was no reliable method in predicting the amount of soil yield and developing count measures against soil erosion. The goal of this research is to find the sustainability transition of land cover characteristics in a wild-fired watershed. For the success of this research, experimental watershed which had suffered from wild-fires was operated last five years. With the collected field data, the transition of land cover characteristics of watershed was analyzed. It was found that the land cover factor was increased about one hundred times at first year after the wild fire. Then it decreases constantly until it remains stable condition which is reached at fourth year after wild-fires.

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20

Wang, Xuehui, Tiannian Zhou, Qinpei Chen, Junjiang He, Zheng Zhang, and Jian Wang. "Experimental study on combustion characteristics of blended fuel pool fires." Journal of Fire Sciences 37, no. 3 (May 2019): 236–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0734904119839917.

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Liquid–vapor phase equilibrium theories are used to analyze boiling processes of blended fuel pool fires, and the results show that there are two boiling mechanisms (azeotropism and non-azeotropism) for blended fuels compared with single-component fuels. A series of pool fire experiments were conducted to investigate the combustion characteristics of blended fuel pool fires. The experimental results showed that the two boiling mechanisms have different effects on the burning process of the fuel blends. The boiling temperature and composition varied for the non-azeotropic blends during the burning process and remained steady for azeotropic blends. Furthermore, the boiling temperature of azeotropic blends is lower than that of its components and ranges from a specific temperature to the boiling point of the less volatile component. The flame radiant fraction of the azeotropic blend was also relatively constant during the burning process, whereas that of the non-azeotropic blend varied in different stages of the burning process. Heskestad’s flame height model and flame axial temperature distribution model are applicable for pool fires of azeotropic and non-azeotropic blends.

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21

Wotton, B. M., R. S. McAlpine, and M. W. Hobbs. "The effect of fire front width on surface fire behaviour." International Journal of Wildland Fire 9, no. 4 (1999): 247. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wf00021.

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To determine the effect of fire front width on surface fire spread rates, a series of simultaneously ignited experimental fires was carried out in a pine plantation. Fires were ignited in plots with widths ranging from 0.5 m to 10 m and were burned in low wind conditions. Flame lengths were small in all fires, ranging from 20 cm to 60 cm. Since pre-heating of the forest litter from flame radiation is assumed to be an important mechanism in the spread of low intensity, low wind surface fires, it then follows that the width of a flaming front should effect on the heating of the fuel to ignition temperatures. Total flame radiation was also measured at a point 50 cm ahead of the advancing flame front for a number of the fires. Experimental results indicate that a flame radiation measured ahead of the fire stays fairly constant once the flame width is between 2 and 5 m. Theoretical flame radiation calculations confirm this trend. Rates of spread between the 5 and 10 metre width fires also appear to be similar; this indicates that, for the type of fires studied, once flame width is greater than about 2 m, radiation from any extra width of fire front has little effect on spread rate.

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22

AlizadehAttar, Alireza, Mojtaba Pourmahdian, and Baghar Anvaripour. "Experimental Study and CFD Simulation of Pool Fires." International Journal of Computer Applications 70, no. 11 (May 17, 2013): 9–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.5120/12004-5790.

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23

Kumar, Ajit, Akhilesh Gupta, Ravi Kumar, and A. K. Gupta. "Experimental Investigation and Analysis of Fires Involving Solids." Journal of Applied Fire Science 22, no. 3 (January 1, 2012): 313–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.2190/af.22.3.f.

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24

Koseki, H., Matti Kokkala, and G. Mulholland. "Experimental Study Of Boilover In Crude Oil Fires." Fire Safety Science 3 (1991): 865–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.3801/iafss.fss.3-865.

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25

Gimeno-Garcı́a, E., V. Andreu, and J. L. Rubio. "Spatial patterns of soil temperatures during experimental fires." Geoderma 118, no. 1-2 (January 2004): 17–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0016-7061(03)00167-8.

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26

Makhviladze, G. M., A. V. Shamshin, S. E. Yakush, and A. P. Zykov. "Experimental and numerical study of transient compartment fires." Combustion, Explosion, and Shock Waves 42, no. 6 (November 2006): 723–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10573-006-0107-6.

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27

Pinto, Cláudia, Domingos Viegas, Miguel Almeida, and Jorge Raposo. "Fire whirls in forest fires: An experimental analysis." Fire Safety Journal 87 (January 2017): 37–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2016.11.004.

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28

Alexander, Martin E., and Dennis Quintilio. "Perspectives on experimental fires in Canadian forestry research." Mathematical and Computer Modelling 13, no. 12 (1990): 17–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0895-7177(90)90095-5.

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29

El Houssami, Mohamad, Eric Mueller, Alexander Filkov, Jan C. Thomas, Nicholas Skowronski, Michael R. Gallagher, Kenneth Clark, Robert Kremens, and Albert Simeoni. "Experimental Procedures Characterising Firebrand Generation in Wildland Fires." Fire Technology 52, no. 3 (May 12, 2015): 731–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10694-015-0492-z.

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30

Miranda, A. I., J. Ferreira, J. Valente, P. Santos, J. H. Amorim, and C. Borrego. "Smoke measurements during Gestosa-2002 experimental field fires." International Journal of Wildland Fire 14, no. 1 (2005): 107. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wf04069.

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Currently, there is a growing awareness that smoke produced during forest fires can expose individuals and populations to hazardous concentrations of air pollutants. Aiming to contribute to a better understanding of the air pollution phenomenon associated with forest fires, this paper presents and analyses the atmospheric emissions and air quality concentration measurements performed in the 2002 fire experiments at Gestosa, Central Portugal. Two vehicles were equipped with a meteorological station and air quality analysers that were turned on continuously to acquire concentrations of particulate matter, nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide. Nitrogen and sulfur dioxides were measured using a grid of fixed passive samplers. Also, firefighters and research-team members used passive samplers during the experiments in order to estimate the human exposure to these pollutants. Measurements of volatile organic compound emissions, using Tedlar bags, were carried out. Results were analysed taking into account not only the concentration values but also the variables involved, such as the combustion phase and the meteorology, and identifying possible relationships between them. Despite the small size of the burning plots when compared to wildfires, the measured levels of pollutants were however considerable, indicating the effect of these experiments on the local air quality and stressing the serious levels of air pollution that can be expected during wildfires.

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31

Putnam, T., and B. W. Butler. "Evaluating fire shelter performance in experimental crown fires." Canadian Journal of Forest Research 34, no. 8 (August 1, 2004): 1600–1615. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/x04-091.

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Fire shelters are critical safety items required for use by most wildland firefighters in the United States. Most testing of fire shelters, clothing and other personal protective equipment (PPE) has been limited to prescribed fires or laboratory based studies. This study reports results from experiments where lined and unlined stainless steel or aluminum and glass fabric shelters were tested under high intensity crown fire conditions in and adjacent to experimental burn plots. Firefighter clothing and standard (pre-2003) fire shelters were also tested. Measured shelter surface and air temperatures and thermal impact on firefighter personal protective equipment were used to deduce the survivability of shelter designs and deployment location. Multiple glass and aluminum layered shelters show more promise than stainless steel shelters for improving overall fire shelter survivability. Data collected outside the burn plots generally indicate decreased heating as distance from forest edge increases, supporting the importance of maximizing distance from vegetation for survivability. It is recommended that common experiment protocols be adopted so that future research into fire shelter and PPE performance builds on work-to-date and provides a common basis from which analyses can be completed.

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32

Bai, ZP, and YF Li. "Experimental and numerical study of maximum ceiling temperature in a tunnel." Advances in Mechanical Engineering 11, no. 12 (December 2019): 168781401989749. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1687814019897492.

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Maximum ceiling temperatures in a tunnel with different ventilation velocities with three heat release fires are studied experimentally and theoretically. This article investigates the ventilation velocity effects on maximum ceiling temperature combustible materials around ignition source in tunnel fires. Several fire experimental tests are conducted with longitudinal ventilation velocity changes in a small-scale tunnel (23 m in length, 2 m in width, and 0.98 m in height), where three heat release fires (237, 340, and 567 kW) and their corresponding values in the real tunnel are 20, 30, and 50 MW, respectively. This article modifies the current temperature prediction model taking the ignition materials near the fire source into account in tunnels. Results show that the ceiling maximum temperature increases, corresponding to the burn time when other experimental conditions remain unchanged for a given fire heat level source. The ceiling temperature reduces quickly when the ventilation velocity is increased from 0.5 to 2.0 m/s. Moreover, this article proposes an equation that can be used to estimate the ceiling maximum temperature variation value with three heat release fires in tunnels. Finally, experimental results are also compared with the tunnel ceiling temperature attenuation equations established by Alpert, Heskestad, and Ingason. The equation proposed in this article appears to provide better estimates of ceiling temperature variation than the Kurioka model developed in their scaled experiments. The prediction agrees well with the experimental and measured data by the modified equations of this article.

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33

Liu, Peng, Ye Gao, and Shu Sheng Li. "Comparison of LES and RANS Models in Compartment Fires Simulation." Applied Mechanics and Materials 300-301 (February 2013): 119–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.300-301.119.

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Fire is an extremely complex phenomenon with combustion, flow dynamics, radiation, and chemical reaction and so on. At present, there are two field models often used in compartment fires, which are Large Eddy Simulation (LES) models and Reynolds-Averaged N-S (RANS) models. In this page, three cases of the compartment fires are simulated with both of the two field models. By comparing the temperature of different models to the available experimental data, LES apply to the big space compartment fires and RANS work for the tunnel fires. Both of the models can be used in room fires, but the result is not very well. In the future, there is more work to do on researching the field model in compartment fires.

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34

Olejniczka, Izabella, Stefan Russel, and Anna Prędecka. "Reakcja mezofauny (Collembola and Acarina) zamieszkująca łąki na mineralnych i organicznych glebach, na wiosenne doświadczalne pożary." Studia Ecologiae et Bioethicae 12, no. 3 (September 30, 2014): 121–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.21697/seb.2014.12.3.07.

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The impact of spring experimental fires on collembolan and mite communities was studied in this field experiment. In April 2008, experimental plots of 1m2 in size were chosen and burnt. Samples were taken just after fire, and 3, 7 and 12 months following the fire, in burnt plots, at the border of burnt plots and in surroundings (control). The impact of spring experimental fire on mesofauna was ambiguous. But it seems that effects of spring fires were more severe in the case of springtails than for mites.

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35

Huang, Xin, Zhilei Yu, and Zhiming Zhan. "An Experimental Study of Pool Fire Characteristics under the Effects of Cross Winds and Baffles." Fire 7, no. 1 (December 21, 2023): 4. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/fire7010004.

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The pool fires that occur behind obstructions in a ventilated environment are very different from other wind-blown pool fires. The pool fire formed by fuel leakage in an engine nacelle is a typical example of a pool fire influenced by cross winds and baffles. Mastering the combustion characteristics of this type of fire is of great significance for fire prevention and control. In this study, the burning rate, flame length, and flame tilt angle of heptane pool fires behind a baffle under different cross wind velocities (ranging from 0 to 5 m/s) were experimentally investigated. Square pool fires with dimension of 8 cm and 12 cm with baffle height from 4 to 12 cm and different distances between fire and baffle (0, 20, 30 cm) were tested in a wind tunnel. The experimental results show that the burning rate increases with the increase in cross wind velocity for each baffle height. As wind velocity exceeds 2 m/s, the burning rate first decreases and then increases with the increase in baffle height. The flame length initially increases and then decreases with increasing wind velocity. The upper flame tilt angle is mainly affected by the cross wind, while the bottom flame tilt angle is influenced by the combined effects of cross wind velocity, baffle height, and distance between baffle and flame. The empirical correlations under different distances between baffle and flame, with wind velocity and baffle height accounted for, are then proposed for the dimensionless heat release rate and the flame length of heptane pool fires.

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36

Cruz, Miguel G., Andrew L. Sullivan, Rachel Bessell, and James S. Gould. "The effect of ignition protocol on the spread rate of grass fires: a comment on the conclusions of Sutherland et al. (2020)." International Journal of Wildland Fire 29, no. 12 (2020): 1133. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wf20006.

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Sutherland et al. (2020) used simulations from a physics-based numerical fire behaviour model to investigate the effect of the ignition protocol (namely length, direction and rate of ignition) on the spread rates measured in experimental fires. They concluded that the methods used by Cruz et al. (2015) were inadequate as the fires were not spreading at the pseudo-steady state when rate of spread measurements were made, thereby raising questions about the validity of several published experimental and modelling results. Fire spread measurement data from three different outdoor experimental burning studies conducted in grass fuels are used to show that, contrary to the claims of Sutherland et al. (2020), the fire behaviour data collected in Cruz et al. (2015) were from fires spreading in the pseudo-steady-state regime and thus are compatible with data from larger experimental plots. A discussion is presented addressing why Sutherland et al. (2020) simulations were unable to replicate real-world data.

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37

Taylor, Alan H. "Fire history and structure of red fir (Abiesmagnifica) forests, Swain Mountain Experimental Forest, Cascade Range, northeastern California." Canadian Journal of Forest Research 23, no. 8 (August 1, 1993): 1672–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/x93-208.

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The fire history and stand structure (size, age, horizontal pattern) of red fir (Abiesmagnifica A. Murr) forests were studied in two 3.0-ha plots and a larger study area (400 ha) on the Swain Mountain Experimental Forest to identify the fire regime and the effects of fire on stand structure. The fire record in stumps spanned the period 1740–1985. Fires occurred in the 400-ha study area on average every 12.9 years (range 1–57 years), in plot 1 every 18.6 years (range 7–47 years), and in plot 2 every 15.7 years (range 1–45 years). Larger fires recorded in both plots and throughout the larger study area occurred every 26.2 years (range 11–47 years). Average fire-free intervals were shorter (7.9 years) during the settlement–pre-fire-sup-pression period (1851–1934) than during the presettlement (1740–1850) (21.4 years) and fire-suppression (1935–1985) (17.3 years) periods. Severe fires initiated large cohorts of red and white fir (Abiesconcolor (Gord. & Glend.) Lindl.), while low-severity fires probably caused thinning and initiated small patches of trees.

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38

Canti, M. G., and N. Linford. "The Effects of Fire on Archaeological Soils and Sediments: Temperature and Colour Relationships." Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 66 (2000): 385–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0079497x00001869.

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Although fire is a fundamental building block of interpretation, details of its effect on archaeological substrates are still poorly understood. The key questions, from an interpretative point of view, are the level of heating produced in the soil underneath different fires and the degree of reddening preserved in the final stratigraphy. This paper explores these questions by examination of previous studies and through a series of instrumented experimental fires. We conclude that, although there is some variation, temperatures beneath most surface-built fires remain below 500° C and reddening of the soil happens only rarely. These two generalisations are, however, linked in a complex way which is not fully clarified. Some sediments redden dramatically at temperatures commonly found under the experimental fires and in the literature on soil heating, while others fail to redden even at significantly higher temperatures. These ‘anomalies’ could relate to either organic matter content or chemical variations affecting the progress of the iron oxide transformations that lead to soil reddening.

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39

Nelson, Ralph M., Bret W. Butler, and David R. Weise. "Entrainment regimes and flame characteristics of wildland fires." International Journal of Wildland Fire 21, no. 2 (2012): 127. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wf10034.

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This paper reports results from a study of the flame characteristics of 22 wind-aided pine litter fires in a laboratory wind tunnel and 32 field fires in southern rough and litter–grass fuels. Flame characteristic and fire behaviour data from these fires, simple theoretical flame models and regression techniques are used to determine whether the data support the derived models. When the data do not support the models, alternative models are developed. The experimental fires are used to evaluate entrainment constants and air/fuel mass ratios in the model equations. Both the models and the experimental data are consistent with recently reported computational fluid dynamics simulations that suggest the existence of buoyancy- and convection-controlled regimes of fire behaviour. The results also suggest these regimes are delimited by a critical value of Byram’s convection number. Flame heights and air/fuel ratios behave similarly in the laboratory and field, but flame tilt angle relationships differ.

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40

Abdusalomov, Akmalbek Bobomirzaevich, Bappy MD Siful Islam, Rashid Nasimov, Mukhriddin Mukhiddinov, and Taeg Keun Whangbo. "An Improved Forest Fire Detection Method based on the Detectron2 Model and a Deep Learning Approach." Sensors 23, no. 3 (January 29, 2023): 1512. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s23031512.

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With an increase in both global warming and the human population, forest fires have become a major global concern. This can lead to climatic shifts and the greenhouse effect, among other adverse outcomes. Surprisingly, human activities have caused a disproportionate number of forest fires. Fast detection with high accuracy is the key to controlling this unexpected event. To address this, we proposed an improved forest fire detection method to classify fires based on a new version of the Detectron2 platform (a ground-up rewrite of the Detectron library) using deep learning approaches. Furthermore, a custom dataset was created and labeled for the training model, and it achieved higher precision than the other models. This robust result was achieved by improving the Detectron2 model in various experimental scenarios with a custom dataset and 5200 images. The proposed model can detect small fires over long distances during the day and night. The advantage of using the Detectron2 algorithm is its long-distance detection of the object of interest. The experimental results proved that the proposed forest fire detection method successfully detected fires with an improved precision of 99.3%.

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41

Sauvagnargues-Lesage, S., G. Dusserre, F. Robert, G. Dray, and D. W. Pearson. "Experimental validation in Mediterranean shrub fuels of seven wildland fire rate of spread models." International Journal of Wildland Fire 10, no. 1 (2001): 15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wf01006.

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Indexes of forest fire risk are broadcast throughout the Summer months by the French Civil Defense Authority. They are used to guide the deployment of fire prevention resources. However, in some departments, the number of fires during the Winter and Spring months of March–April is equal to or greater than during the Summer months. Some days, conditions are favourable for the propagation of fire (soil moisture content, vegetation in dormancy, relative humidity, ...), but indexes for estimating the risk during this period are not calculated. The objective of this paper is to evaluate various models of fire rate of spread, in order to choose one for Winter and Spring fires. The Fire Service of a department of the French Mediterranean area (the Lozère department) provides the opportunity and the means to conduct validation experiments on prescribed fires. Also, validation data from another department of the French Mediterranean area (Pyrénées Orientales) are presented for the same rate of spread models.

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42

Olejniczka, Izabella, Stefan Russel, and Anna Prędecka. "Wpływ doświadczalnych pożarów na zespoły mezofauny (Collembola i Acarina) dwóch typów łąk." Studia Ecologiae et Bioethicae 9, no. 3 (September 30, 2011): 85–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.21697/seb.2011.9.3.05.

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The impact of experimental fires in grasslands on soil mesofauna was studied in the field experiment. The study was carried out on two kinds of meadows: on mineral (meadow I) and organic soils (meadow II), near Warsaw (52010’N; 20050’E). In November 2007 sampling plots, 1 m2 in size were chosen at random and burnt. Soil samples were taken just after fire and in April, July, and November 2008 to the depth of 10 cm from unburned places (control), at the border of fire and in burnt plots. The soil mesofauna was extracted from soil samples in the Tullgren apparatus. There were not found any effects of experimental fires on mesofauna densities. However, a slight increase of mesofauna abundance was s observed in burned plots 12 months after experimental fires on the meadow I and decrease on the meadow II. Just after fire, in burned plots, only euedaphic species of Collembola were present among mites communities dominated Oribatida, with thick cuticule.

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43

Martin, Awaludin, Yogi Wibowo Agusta, and Pither Palamba. "Experimental Investigation of Cigarette Butts as a Trigger on Smoldering Combustion Propagation of Peat; Case Study on Pelelawan Peat." Journal of Ocean, Mechanical and Aerospace -science and engineering- (JOMAse) 64, no. 3 (November 30, 2020): 100–104. http://dx.doi.org/10.36842/jomase.v64i3.221.

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Peatland fires are a problem every year in Indonesia especially in Sumatera Island. In Riau during the dry season, there will be peatland fires that are difficult to extinguish. There are several reasons for peatland fires and this study will analyze whether cigarette butts can cause peat fires or not. In this research peat sample was dried at 35-45°C and at temperature at 115°C to reduce water content in peat samples. Cigarette butts as a trigger were prepared with a length of 30 mm and tested on a bomb calorimeter to determine their calorific values. The cigarette butts with the highest HHV (High Heating Value) were used and burned on the surface of the peat sample by adding airflow to the sample with varying flow rates. The fastest of smoldering combustion propagation velocity was obtained 785 mm/hour for vertical direction and 1336 mm/hour for horizontal direction with speed of airflow of 5 m/s. The highest temperature was obtained in the experiment of 902°C with the speed of airflow of 5 m/s.

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44

Skelly, M. J., R. J. Roby, and C. L. Beyler. "An Experimental Investigation of Glass Breakage in Compartment Fires." Journal of Fire Protection Engineering 3, no. 1 (January 1, 1991): 25–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/104239159100300103.

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45

Mao, J., Y. H. Xi, G. Bai, H. M. Fan, and H. Z. Ji. "A model experimental study on backdraught in tunnel fires." Fire Safety Journal 46, no. 4 (May 2011): 164–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2011.01.005.

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46

Chatris, J. M., J. Quintela, J. Folch, E. Planas, J. Arnaldos, and J. Casal. "Experimental study of burning rate in hydrocarbon pool fires." Combustion and Flame 126, no. 1-2 (July 2001): 1373–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0010-2180(01)00262-0.

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47

Chatris, J. M. "Experimental study of burning rate in hydrocarbon pool fires." Fuel and Energy Abstracts 43, no. 4 (July 2002): 277. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6701(02)86417-7.

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48

Sullivan, A. L., and I. K. Knight. "Estimating error in wind speed measurements for experimental fires." Canadian Journal of Forest Research 31, no. 3 (March 1, 2001): 401–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/x00-176.

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Most experimental fires, by nature, are small scale ([Formula: see text]100 m), and rate of spread measurements are taken over periods of several minutes. The aim of empirical fire modellers is to ascribe a single measure of rate of forward spread over a period to a single scalar measure of wind. The actual wind affecting the fire is unmeasurable; its value must be estimated from remote anemometry. Observation and consideration of the spatial and temporal statistics of the wind has allowed confidence limits to be placed upon the accuracy with which the measured wind reflects the wind acting on the fire front. Experimental data to verify these estimates was gathered during Project Vesta, a study into high-intensity fires in dry eucalypt forests. An equation that quantifies the accuracy of the estimate of wind affecting the fire front is given. The accuracy increases with time scale, size of the fire front, and density of anemometry. When applied to a measured wind speed taken some distance from the fire, it gives a useful estimate of the likely variation of the corresponding wind at the fire front.

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49

Alexander, Martin E., and Miguel G. Cruz. "Assessing the effect of foliar moisture on the spread rate of crown fires." International Journal of Wildland Fire 22, no. 4 (2013): 415. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wf12008.

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This paper constitutes a digest and critique of the currently available information pertaining to the influence of live fuel or foliar moisture content (FMC) on the spread rate of crown fires in conifer forests and shrublands. We review and discuss the findings from laboratory experiments and field-based fire behaviour studies. Laboratory experimentation with single needles or leaves and small conifer trees has shown an unequivocal effect of FMC on flammability metrics. A much less discernible effect of FMC on crown fire rate of spread was found in the existing set of experimental crown fires carried out in conifer forests and similarly with the far more robust database of experimental fires conducted in shrubland fuel complexes. The high convective and radiant heat fluxes associated with these fires and the lack of appropriate experimental design may have served to mask any effect of FMC or live fuel moisture on the resulting spread rate. Four theoretical functions and one empirical function used to adjust rate of fire spread for the effect of foliar or live fuel moisture were also concurrently examined for their validity over a wide range of FMC conditions with varying outcomes and relevancy. None of these model functions was found suitable for use with respect to dead canopy foliage.

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50

Alexander, Martin E., and Miguel G. Cruz. "Corrigendum to: Assessing the effect of foliar moisture on the spread rate of crown fires." International Journal of Wildland Fire 22, no. 6 (2013): 869. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wf12008_co.

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Анотація:

This paper constitutes a digest and critique of the currently available information pertaining to the influence of live fuel or foliar moisture content (FMC) on the spread rate of crown fires in conifer forests and shrublands. We review and discuss the findings from laboratory experiments and field-based fire behaviour studies. Laboratory experimentation with single needles or leaves and small conifer trees has shown an unequivocal effect of FMC on flammability metrics. A much less discernible effect of FMC on crown fire rate of spread was found in the existing set of experimental crown fires carried out in conifer forests and similarly with the far more robust database of experimental fires conducted in shrubland fuel complexes. The high convective and radiant heat fluxes associated with these fires and the lack of appropriate experimental design may have served to mask any effect of FMC or live fuel moisture on the resulting spread rate. Four theoretical functions and one empirical function used to adjust rate of fire spread for the effect of foliar or live fuel moisture were also concurrently examined for their validity over a wide range of FMC conditions with varying outcomes and relevancy. None of these model functions was found suitable for use with respect to dead canopy foliage.

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