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1
Zubko, Olga. "KRONES AND FOREIGN CURRENCY IN THE WALLETS OF UKRAINIAN EMIGRANTS IN INTERWAR CZECHOSLOVACZCZYNA (1918 – 1939)." Journal of Ukrainian History, no. 47 (2023): 42–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.17721/2522-4611.2023.47.4.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The aim of the study. Characteristics of the Czechoslovak and Austrian krones, the German mark, the Polish zloty, the American dollar, and the Soviet ruble (chervinets) as the main currencies in interwar Czechoslovaczczyna; their «presence» in the wallets of Ukrainian emigrants. The research methodology is based on the principles of specifically historical, problematically chronological, objectivity and integrity and on the use of methods of analysis and synthesis. The scientific novelty consists in description the official bank exchange rates of the Czechoslovak, Austrian krone, Polish zloty, German «golden» mark and Reichsmark, and the Soviet Ruble-Chervonets in relation to the American dollar, the acquisition of one or another currency of the gold standard. Conclusions. In 1918 - 1925 and 1923 - 1939 both Austrian and Czechoslovak crones were in circulation on the territory of the First Republic of Czechs and Slovaks. The koruna česká was most desired in the wallets of the «Prague Ukrainians». In the interwar CzSR banknotes in denominations of 1, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 500, 1,000, and 5,000 krones were in circulation. They were printed in Prague. Among the coins, geler denominations of 5, 10, 20, and 50 were common. The coins were minted in the town of Kremnica (Eastern Slovaczczyna). At first, from 1918 to 1925, Austrian crowns prevailed on the territory of the Czechoslovak Republic. After the collapse of Austro-Hungary Czechoslovaczczyna assumed the role of stabilizer of the Austrian crone. In 1918 - 1921, one Czechslovak crone was worth six Austrian crones (1:6). In 1921 - 1923, one Czechoslovak crone was equal to fourteen Austrian crowns (1:14). In 1924-1925 the correlation crones was 1:60. After 1925 the Austrian krone was completely withdrawn from Czechoslovak monetary circulation. The formation of the Czechoslovak krone took place in 1923. Since the Czechoslovak krone did not have a gold standard until 1929, it was «pegged» to the American dollar. In 1923 - 1935 the ratio of the Czechoslovak crone to the American dollar was 100:2.96 (100:3). The ratio of the «golden» German mark to the American dollar in 1921 was 75:1. In 1924, the Reichsmark was put into circulation in Germany in order to overcome hyperinflation. Until 1936, the Reichsmark did not have a gold standard, so its exchange rate against the American dollar in 1924 was ̶ 4 Reichsmarks 20 pfennigs for 1 American dollar. In 1924 - 1936 one Reichsmark «rose» in price to ten crones (1:10). As for the Polish zloty, there is no reliable information about its correlation to the Czechoslovak crown in the interwar period. We have the bank rate of the Polish zloty on the eve of the Second World War (from January to August 1939): 10.57:100. Until 1922, together with the Soviet ruble, there was a Chervonets in international currency circulation, which had 7.74234 g of pure gold in the gold standard, which corresponded to the pre-revolutionary gold coin with a denomination of 10 ruble. In 1923, the Chervonets strengthened its position and the minting of Chervonets coins of the appropriate weight (the so-called «Seeder») began. This Chervonets was used for settlements with European countries. And this is what changed the international authority of the Soviet currency. Until 1925, Chervonets wos in demand on international exchanges, but in 1927 their minting was stopped. In the same year 1927, it was forbidden to import and export Chervonets outside the USSR. In 1922 - 1924, one Soviet Chervonets equaled two American dollars and twenty cents (1:2.20). From 1925 to 1928, the ratio of the Chervonets to the dollar was slightly lower - 1:1.94. Since 1928, the Chervonets was completely removed from international circulation, and the Soviet ruble remained unconverted. According to the data of the State Bank of the USSR in 1936, 5 Soviet rubles and 6 kopecks were equal to 1 American dollar in calculations through the Swiss franc.
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Kornovenko, Serhii. "Agrarian policy in Ukraine during the National-Democratic Revolution of 1917-1921: experience for contemporary agrarian transformations." Eminak, no. 4(32) (January 13, 2021): 92–102. http://dx.doi.org/10.33782/eminak2020.4(32).467.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The experience of the events of the Ukrainian Revolution of 1917-1921 is especially relevant for modern Ukraine. Modern geopolitical transformations, radical changes in the domestic political life of Ukraine, ambitious plans of the government are a chance for our state to restore its full-fledged subjectivity in the international arena, in the domestic life of the country. An effective mechanism of external and internal subjectivization of Ukraine, given the longevity of agricultural culture (in a broad sense), can be agrarian policy, its effective implementation. This implies not only a clear understanding on the part of the state of the essence of agrarian policy, its purpose, stages and mechanisms of implementation. The author of the article aims to propose, taking into account the agrarian transformations of the Ukrainian revolution, a possible model of the latest agrarian transformations. Under modern conditions, the most discussed issue is the feasibility/inexpediency of opening a land market in Ukraine. The heated debate on this is primarily about the socio-economic and socio-political consequences. Last but not least, the debaters in the discussions focus on only one segment of this multifaceted phenomenon � foreign land tenure/land use/land management. That is, they are only interested in the institution of private land ownership for foreigners on the whole set of issues. The main risks of opening the land market: external and internal. External: desubjectification of Ukraine, increasing dependence on foreign capital, especially credit one, loss of status of the granary of Europe, reduction of foreign exchange earnings to the budget, desoilization (dechernozemization). Internal: legalization of the agrarian oligarchy, desubjectification of power, degradation of civil society, increasing shadowing of the economy in general, agro-industrial complex in particular, the absence of the middle class � the social basis of the state, the extinction of the countryside, its disappearance as a socio-economic, socio-political, spiritual-cultural component of the Ukrainian political nation, strengthening the demographic challenges, etc.
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Malov, I. V. "MESSAGE OF THE EDITOR-IN-CHIEF TO THE READERS OF THE FIRST ISSUE OF THE BAIKAL MEDICAL JOURNAL. JOURNAL WITH CENTENNIAL HISTORY." Baikal Medical Journal 1, no. 1 (2022): 9–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.57256/2949-0715-2022-1-9-10.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The history of the publication of a medical journal is closely connected with the life of the medical community of the Irkutsk province and began long before the establishment of Irkutsk State University. In 1858, a Circle of Doctors was created, on the basis of which, on June 26, 1863, the Society of Doctors of Eastern Siberia was created. Initiative of Irkutsk doctors G.I. Weirich, K.V. Kinasta, N.A. Belogolovoy was officially enshrined by the Minister of Internal Affairs of the Russian Empire, with the approval of the Charter of the Society. The "Society of Doctors of Eastern Siberia" was in dire need of an exchange of experience and an increase in professionalism. This required a publication that would meet the professional needs of physicians. So since 1863, the Society of Doctors of Eastern Siberia in Irkutsk began to publish the Protocols of the Society of Doctors of Eastern Siberia. The publication gained great popularity among members of the Society, and other professional medical communities became interested in it. The publication was published in a circulation of 50-100 copies, had appendices. Over the years of its existence, more than 50 issues have been published. After the opening of the medical department of Irkutsk University on August 26, 1919, and by the time of the separation of the medical faculty in January 1920, the professional needs of the medical community increased significantly. Of course, organizational work occupied the first years, and complete isolation from the center of our country did not contribute to scientific research, and after that, publishing activity was also hampered. However, without the exchange of scientific opinions, the development of medical science is impossible. Therefore, already in 1921, a group of members of the Faculty of Medicine took the initiative to create a Scientific and Medical Society. The initiative was supported and on November 15, 1921, the university board approved the charter of the new professional society of doctors. The newly created society set the next task of organizing its own printed organ. And in 1923, the publication of the Irkutsk Medical Journal began. The journal was published in the absence of any funding, but its quality corresponded to serious professional publications. The journal presented the work of students, residents, practitioners, graduate students and members of the faculty of the institute. It published clinical observations, new methods of research and treatment. The journal regularly published articles by foreign authors from the USA, France, Japan, Mongolia, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Germany, and the Czech Republic. In 2019, due to changes in legislation, the Siberian Medical Journal was forced to suspend its activities in the previous format. In 2022, after major transformations and a change in the composition of the founders, the journal was re-registered as the Baikal Medical Journal. The journal was founded by the Irkutsk State Medical University and the Irkutsk Scientific Center for Surgery and Traumatology. Professor I.V. Malov, and the composition of the editorial board and the editorial board was significantly updated. Thus, a new page was opened in the history of the leading medical publication in Siberia, whose history in 2023 will be 100 years old.
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Shustek, Zbyshek. "Interesting documents on the convertibility of the Soviet currency during 1924 –1937." Ukrainian Numismatic Annual, no. 1 (December 21, 2017): 165–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.31470/2616-6275-2017-1-165-172.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
In the framework of the New Economic Policy (NEP) and the currency reform of 1922-1924 the USSR currency was introduced, which was fully convertible into gold. Actually, the reform was supposed to re-introduce the old gold currency, which was in circulation in the Russian Empire before the beginning of the WWI. New Soviet copper and silver coins had the same metrological parameters as the corresponding coins before the war. Banknotes were really convenient abroad duringr 1924-1927 years and freely exchanged for other currencies, but promised to free convertibility of banknotes for gold coins has never been implemented. The reason of that was the golden blockade of the USSR and the refusal to accept these coins in the West. For this reason, the old 10-ruble coins with the portrait of Tsar Nicholas II had to continue to be minted. However, there are also internal reasons which prevented the planned exchange rate of the gold coins. The regulatory quota for issuing government bills for 500 million gold rubles was soon exceeded twice, which triggered the development of inflation. On October 1, 1926, the free export of banknotes abroad was prohibited, and in 1928 – also free entry into the USSR. Thus, the free convertibility of the new Soviet currency was abolished, and the Soviet currency became only internal. In this article we review and analyze internal instruction, which stated quite openly that the promised guarantees on new bank notes convertible into gold is in reality only a tactical maneuver relatively to other countries. From August 1, 1926, free export of the Soviet currency was prohibited in foreign countries and in 1928 it’s import from abroad. The Soviet government at that time has made some effort to foreigners who were in the USSR and were carrying Soviet money legally, they can freely convert. At the same time, this effort can be seen as an indication of the responsibility of the Soviet authorities for those who in a very short time provided free convertibility of the Soviet currency. This is evident from the passports of Czechoslovak citizens who have been visiting the USSR for 30 years. Whether its owners are not in the USSR, they were close to Soviet entry visa with a special stamp, followed by the Czech text: "Import and transfer of Soviet currency on the territory of the USSR provided to August 1, 1926". From the results obtained to date from the old passports it is not clear how the Soviet embassy began to give these stamps in the passports. Trips in the USSR were quite rare for foreigners in the interwar period. Exchange of foreign currencies in the USSR was very unprofitable for foreigners in the second half of the 1930's. However, the amount of the money received in rubles, had a much lower purchasing power than the equivalent amount in exchange currency abroad. Accordingly, in the Polish border areas of the USSR, the Soviet currency was offered much cheaper on the black market. But modern authors have noted that any purchase of Soviet money was very risky, as black markets were well controlled by the Soviet secret services. Consequently, all these documents show that the Soviet currency was very uncertain in the interwar period.
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Zhaloba, Ihor, and Ihor Piddubnyi. "Romania's Domestic and International Political Situation in the First Half of 1921 (According to the Reports of the Austrian Diplomatic Mission in Bucharest)." Mìžnarodnì zv’âzki Ukraïni: naukovì pošuki ì znahìdki, no. 30 (November 1, 2021): 262–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.15407/mzu2021.30.262.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
This article finds out the main internal and international political events and processes in the Kingdom of Romania in the first half of 1921 covered at the reports of the envoy, later the Ambassador, of the Republic of Austria Wilhelm Stork, much of which is introduced into scientific circulation for the first time. In writing the article, the authors used general scientific and special methods, including archival heuristics. According to the results of the study, it was stated that in the first half of 1921 the internal political situation in Romania looked tense, but controlled. At that time were taken measures to prevent events of internal strife, as was the case with the newly formed Communist Party, being controlled externally, fact, which drew the attention of diplomats. The Government, comprehending the inevitability of changes, carried out agrarian reform and streamlined church relations, while pursuing a consistent policy of Romanianization of the territories that were included in the kingdom after the First World War. At the same time, everything was done to get along with the neighbors, protecting themselves from misunderstandings with them and from the threat of being left alone in the case of a Bolshevik invasion. It has succeeded in either concluding relevant agreements, signing protocol of intentions or making significant progress during the negotiations. An example of such success was the Polish-Romanian agreement on a defense alliance and joint defense against the enemy from the east. The actions aimed at creating a defense alliance for protection against Hungary, in which other interested states were involved, seemed more consistent. One of the ways to consolidate the actions of diplomats was the conclusion in 1921 of marriages between members of the Romanian and Greek dynasties. This practice will continue with the marriage between a representative of the Romanian and a representative of the Serbian dynasty later more. The only thing that failed was to reach an agreement with Soviet Russia, respectively in two main tasks - to achieve recognition by the Bolsheviks of the inclusion of Bessarabia in Romania and the return of Romanian gold and foreign exchange reserves, the waste of which the Bolsheviks denied
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Dudin, Pavel N., та Zufar F. Khusainov. "Преддоговорные основы «экспорта революции» в Восточной Азии и региональный политический порядок в зоне советского влияния: позитивный опыт и социалистическая идеология в Монголии. Год 1921. Часть 1". Oriental Studies 14, № 1 (5 квітня 2021): 8–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.22162/2619-0990-2021-53-1-8-23.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Introduction. In November of 1921 after the meeting between Mongolian officials and Vladimir Lenin, an Agreement on Friendly Relations between the two states was concluded. This significant act confirmed the mutual recognition of the only legitimate government by both counterparties, measures of prevention of unfriendly actions by third parties, exchange of plenipotentiary representatives and ambassadors, state border regulations and the most favorable nation treatment for citizens whilst visiting the counterparty and jurisdiction. It also provided the regulations for a number of trade matters, intercommunication issues, questions of personal property etc., however, in actuality this document touched upon a smaller realm of mutual relations that had already been established before the execution of the Agreement, having been formalized in other documents, such as letters and memorandums. These precontractual acts are of genuine interest not only due to their uncertain legal nature and consequences, but also because they cover a much wider range of collaboration and cooperation issues than the Agreement dated November 5, 1921. Goals. So, the paper attempts an interdisciplinary insight into the mentioned documents (addresses, diplomatic notes, letters, etc.) to have preceded the Agreement and formalized Soviet Russia’s foreign policy in the region and its presence in the territory of Outer Mongolia ― to determine the role and impact of the former. Materials and Methods. The study focuses on widely known materials contained in diverse published collections of documents from the Soviet era that were never viewed by most researchers as important tools to have guaranteed the national interests in the Far East. To facilitate a more comfortable perception of the investigated materials by different specialists, the paper was divided in two ― Part One to focus on research tools and its ideological essentials, and Part Two to emphasize certain instruments to have secured the ‘export of revolution’. Results. The article specifies four key lines of cooperation: 1) bilateral collaboration that includes ‘export of ideology’ and sufficient tools thereto, such as disassociation from former political regimes, support for anticolonial sentiments, securement of equal rights in foreign policy issues, cooperative struggle against the common ideological enemy ― world capitalism, ‘soft power’ in the form of educational projects; 2) security arrangements for Soviet territories and borders, including assistance to Mongolian comrades in their fight against the White Guard, allocation of the Red Army units within Mongolian territories until the complete eradication of the White threat, with the participation of military units from the Far Eastern Republic; 3) economic cooperation through mutual financial and economic support of industrial construction projects, resource development and social infrastructure initiatives, etc., 4) joint actions on the international stage pinnacled with the recognition of the Mongolian People’s Republic by China (1945) and the rest of the world community (1961). This shows that during the shaping of the political agenda towards Mongolia the then Soviet leaders did not view contractual aspects of the mechanism as fundamental, and attached no paramount importance to international agreements, which had been distinctive of the Russian Empire.
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Kupchyk, O. "ITALY IN THE FOREIGN TRADE OF SOVIET UKRAINE, 1921-1923." Bulletin of Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv. History, no. 141 (2019): 14–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.17721/1728-2640.2019.141.3.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The circumstances under which the Soviet Ukraine established trade relations with the Kingdom of Italy in the early 1920s are revealed. The contractual basis, organizational forms of trade activity of Soviet Ukraine in Italy have been clarified. Persons of sales representatives were established (V. Vorovskyi, A. Feinstein). The role of the Ukrainian SSR Trade Representation in Rome in the foreign trade activities of Soviet Ukraine is revealed. The place of the Italian market in export and import operations of Soviet Ukraine has been determined. After studying national historiography, it was found that the trade relations of the Ukrainian SSR in the early 1920s with the Kingdom of Italy were not the subject of scientific study in contemporary Ukrainian historians. In turn, it was found that in trying to forge trade relations with Italy, the Ukrainian adviser noted that she sought to rebuild the international influence, lost after the First World War through Great Britain and France. It was informed that after the conclusion of the Preliminary Trade Agreement on December 26, 1921, Soviet Ukraine and Italy exchanged trade representatives. The duties of Soviet Ukraine’s sales representative in Italy were first performed by Russian Trade Representative V. Vorovskyi and then by Russian Trade Representative A. Feinstein. There were 5 people employed in the Ukrainian SSR’s sales office in Italy. They thoroughly explored the Italian markets (Genoa, Milan, Roman). The article shows the interest of Italian traders in Ukrainian timber, coal, scrap metal, linen cake. It is noted that the sales representatives of Soviet Ukraine initially studied the possibility of selling on the Italian market of guts, skin, horse hair, wool. They then explored the possibility of selling cattle, wheat, barley, corn, caustic soda and soda ash. It was noted that together with Russian and Italian traders the Russian-Italian Trading Company was created, which had the task not only for export-import of goods, but also for obtaining concessions by the Italian entrepreneurs in Ukraine. It has been reported that Italian workers sent food aid (sowing grain) to Ukraine for the money raised.
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Aktar, Ayhan. "Ethnic Cleansing and Diplomacy: A View of the Greek-Turkish Exchange of Populations of 1923–24 from the US National Archives." Turkish Historical Review 12, no. 1 (May 27, 2021): 47–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/18775462-bja10002.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Abstract This article is on the diplomatic processes leading to the decision to exchange populations between Greece and Turkey during the peace negotiations at the Lausanne Conference in 1923. The US National Archives has rich and hitherto unexploited archival material that encompasses the correspondence between Istanbul, Athens and the US Department of State. As the Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs Archives is still closed to researchers, US diplomatic correspondence gives a clear picture of how Greek and Turkish statesmen, as well as intermediaries such as the representatives of the League of Nations, developed and accomplished the idea of population exchange in 1922–23.
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Olatunde, Olaleye John, and Ojomolade Dele Jacob. "Effect of Foreign Exchange Rate Volatility on Industrial Productivity in Nigeria, 1981- 2015." International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development Volume-3, Issue-3 (April 30, 2019): 823–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.31142/ijtsrd22910.
Повний текст джерела
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Osiecki, Jakub. "Towarzystwo Polsko-Ormiańskie we Lwowie (1920-1922)." Lehahayer 7 (March 15, 2021): 233–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.12797/lh.07.2020.07.05.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Polish-Armenian Society in Lwów (1920-1922)
Using Armenian and Polish sources, the author analyses the activities ofthe Polish-Armenian Society (Towarzystwo Polsko-Ormiańskie) founded in Lwów(Poland) on June 15, 1920. This organization focused on building relations betweenPoland and Armenia. Its leaders, Jan Grzegorzewski, Garabed Keuprulian and AugustTeodorowicz established cooperation with the Armenian National Delegationin Paris, chaired by Boghos Nubar Pasha, and with its branch in Berlin. They alsoundertook the difficult mission of lobbying for the Armenian case in Warsaw. In thefirst phase of its activity, the Society planned to relocate Polish Armenians (officialsand intelligentsia) to the territories of Western Armenia; due to the deteriorating internationalsituation, the idea was abandoned. Subsequently, efforts were focused onhelping Armenian refugees from Turkey in the Caucasus; on this matter, the Societymade an appeal to the Polish Minister of Foreign Affairs, Count Konstanty Skirmunt.The suspension of the Society’s activity was related to the deterioration of Armenia’ssituation on the international arena. With the abandonment of the Armenianquestion by France and Great Britain, the exchange of letters with activists in Parisalso stopped. The author compares the Society with its counterpart in London – theBritish Armenian Committee, emphasizing the organization of Polish Armenianswas truly exceptional because it was the first one of its kind, and also because itfocused not on the problems of the local diaspora, but on the issue of Armenia’s independence.
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Michailidis, Iakovos D. "Perceptions of the Lausanne Treaty in the Greek public sphere." Cahiers balkaniques 50 (2024): 87–103. http://dx.doi.org/10.4000/11rxs.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Abstract: the article focuses on the reception of the Treaty of Lausanne in Greece from 1923 until today. It argues that the Treaty was disadvantageous to Greece, due to its defeat in the war with Turkey from 1919 to 1922. During the interwar period, the Treaty was criticized by several sides, mainly regarding the compulsory exchange of the Greek and Turkish populations. However, the majority of Greeks accepted it as the only option. From the early 1930s onwards, the Treaty of Lausanne gradually became a fundamental pillar of Greek foreign policy. Today, Greece strongly supports the implementation of the Treaty of Lausanne, often accusing Turkey of violating it.
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Piskova, Mariyana. "The Cinema of Transcaucasia in the 1920s and 1930s." Balkanistic Forum 29, no. 3 (November 1, 2020): 130–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.37708/bf.swu.v29i3.7.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The paper is concerning the Soviet seizure of the cultural space of Transcaucasia and the establishment of „national“cinematography in the Soviet republics of Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan in 1920s – 1930s. The Soviet power realizing the influential potential of cinema turned it into instrument of state propaganda. The three Transcaucasian film studios (in Tiflis, Yerevan, Baku) had a common task – to change the image of the East as exotic world and to alternate it with the image of the Soviet East. At the same time each of the film studios was entrusted a specific role in the Soviet cinema: The Georgian film studio as the first established Transcaucasian studio initiated the earliest agitation films glorifying the Soviet republic and the earliest heroic – adventure (western) films „Red Devils“ (“Krasnye dyavolyata”) (1923). But as the most prominent success of the Georgian cinema was labelled the movie „Eliso“ (1928), which according to the Soviet critique was considered as „ historically realistic narrative about the struggles against the colonial politics of Tsar’s autocracy“. The role of the non-Muslim Armenia and the Armenian film studio was to contribute for the removing the yashmaks from the face of the East. About the highly evaluated from the Soviet propaganda film „Namus“ (1925) „the father of the Trans-caucasian cinema“ Hamo Bek-Nazarov received the recognition of being the first one to show the true image of the East without make-up. Another task of the Armenian cinema which was successfully done was to ridicule and relegate the independent Armenian republic, governed by the party of Dashnaktsutyun (1918-1920). Baku film studio was called upon to turn into centre of movies influencing ideologically and artistically the audience of Azerbaijan, Dagestan, Persia, Turkey and other Eastern countries. It was proclaimed to be national proletarian centre for export of socialism to „ the foreign countries of the East“. By Azerbaijan movies anti-Islamic Soviet propaganda was implemented denouncing „the reactionary essence of the Muslim priesthood “. Such are movies „Bismillah“ (1925) and „Sevil“(1929, co-production with Armenian film studio). The movie „Sevil“ came out during the campaign for removing the yashmaks which was organized and controlled by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. It got the recognition of contributing for the „liberating of women of the East“. The movie is significant of the cooperation between the Azerbaijani playwright, poet and screenwriter Jafar Jabbarli, the film studio in Baku today is named after him, and the Armenian director Hamo Bek-Nazarov, the film studio in Yerevan is also named after him. In the conclusions some myths about the Soviet Transcaucasian cinema are mentioned, myths already demystified. The Transcaucasian cinema from 1920s – 1930s was not a result of free and creative exchange of knowledge and experience but it was created in a capsulated world under the control of the Soviet power. That is way the whole story of this cinema from the beginning of the 20th century is full of examples for its use for narrow political aims.
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Muñoz, Pedro Felipe, and Stefan Rinke. "Latin America in the global exchange of the German Hygiene Museum in Dresden (1919-1930)." Revista Tempo e Argumento 14, no. 35 (April 30, 2022): e0104. http://dx.doi.org/10.5965/2175180314352022e0104.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
In 1912, Karl Lingner created the German Hygiene Museum Dresden profiting from the Dresden International Hygiene Exhibition 1911. Lingner aimed to build a permanent building for the museum, but due to the Great War and post-war economic crisis in Germany, the permanent building was not opened until 1930. In the Weimar Republic, the museum circulated internationally through traveling exhibitions and the sale and donation of collections and exhibits. This circulation comprised a global exchange promoting health education that included Latin America. In keeping with German foreign cultural policy of the period, the German Hygiene Museum played an active role in the transatlantic cultural relations and the German-Latin American exchange, functioning as "a cultural propaganda institute". In this article, we explore the transnational circulation of objects and collections between Dresden and Latin America which was also associated with international efforts to promote public health. Keywords: Public Health; Health Education; Cultural Propaganda; German-Latin American Relations; Transnational and Global History.
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Murphy, Kate. "Relay Women." Feminist Media Histories 5, no. 3 (2019): 114–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/fmh.2019.5.3.114.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Between 1926 and 1938, the Foreign Department of the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) played a central role in transnational broadcasting. Initially headed by a man, Major C. F. Atkinson, it would grow to become largely the domain of women. Starting in 1933, at the helm was Isa Benzie, an Oxford graduate who had joined the BBC in 1927 as Atkinson's secretary. Realizing her potential, he trained and encouraged her to deputize for him, and she was his natural successor when he resigned his post. In 1930, on Benzie's recommendation, her great friend Janet Quigley was recruited to the department. Together they oversaw international relays—the exchange of programs between different countries of the world. Benzie oversaw Europe, and Quigley, the United States. The two women operated in an area that was overwhelmingly peopled by men, and this article considers the significance of their work at a time when the gendering of broadcasting roles was the norm.
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Takagi, Shinji. "The Effectiveness of Foreign Exchange Market Intervention: A Review of Post-2001 Studies on Japan." Journal of Reviews on Global Economics 3 (March 26, 2014): 84–100. http://dx.doi.org/10.6000/1929-7092.2014.03.07.
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Bragoudakis, Zacharias, and Rafail Voulgarakis. "Modelling the Volatility of Stock Indices and Foreign Exchange Rates in BRICS : Empirical Evidence from GARCH Models." Review of Economics and Finance 21 (2021): 142–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.55365/1923.x2021.19.14.
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Grzechnik, Marta. "Gdynia 1920–1939: Poland’s Gateway to the World." Studia Historica Gedanensia 13 (2022): 204–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.4467/23916001hg.22.014.17434.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
In 1923, construction of a new Polish seaport began in the small fishermen’s village of Gdynia. By 1926, the village transformed into a port town, and by 1939 it was the biggest and one of the most modern ports on the Baltic Sea, responsible for half of Poland’s foreign exchange. The construction, which was a great investment and considerable strain on the country’s modest resources, was accompanied by intensive enthusiastic propaganda. It was carried out by research institutions (e.g. Baltic Institute) organisations such as Maritime and Colonial League, journalists, writers etc., and it was expressed in exhibitions, public events such as “Holidays of the Sea,”literature, poetry, film and other media. Gdynia became a symbol of Poland’s transformation from nation of farmers to one of seafarers; of modernisation, civilizational development, and even overseas expansion and acquiring colonies. This was summarised with a metaphor of the port being Poland’s “window”or “gateway to the world,”thanks to which it could escape its historically problematic position between Germany and Russia/USSR, and –through a network of trade connections, seafaring, and colonies in Africa and South America –acquire a global presence. This article discusses the rhetoric and realities of Gdynia as the symbol of this ambition in interwar Poland, the contrast and similarities between the image of Gdynia created in contemporary propaganda and publications, and the reality of the actual city.
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Самедов, Фарман Фамиль. "Foreign Economic Relations of Sumgait city (On the Chemical Industry. 1991-2003)." Bulletin of Science and Practice, no. 8 (August 15, 2022): 416–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.33619/2414-2948/81/42.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
В статье анализируется экономический кризис в сумгаитской химической промышленности в результате распада СССР и разрыва традиционных экономических связей с бывшими советскими республиками после обретения Азербайджаном независимости и меры, предпринятые для выхода из этого кризиса. Кроме того, рассмотрены установление экономических связей и обмен опытом в химической промышленности с экономически развитыми странами: Германией, США, Турцией, Японией, Великобританией, Кореей, Италией, Болгарией и Испанией, замена физически и морально устаревшего оснащения сумгаитских химических предприятий новым и разработка новых проектов по увеличению производственных мощностей заводов, а также инвестиции этих стран в сумгаитскую химическую промышленность и совместная работа с группой экспертов ЕС по устранению экологической проблемы. The article analyzes the economic crisis in the Sumgait chemical industry as a result of the collapse of the USSR and the severance of traditional economic ties with the former Soviet republics after the independence of Azerbaijan and the measures taken to overcome this crisis. In addition, the establishment of economic relations and exchange of experience in the chemical industry with economically developed countries in the chemical industry: Germany, USA, Turkey, Japan, Great Britain, Korea, Italy, Bulgaria and Spain, replacement of physically and morally obsolete equipment at Sumgait chemical enterprises with new ones and develop new projects to increase the production capacity of factories, as well as the investment of these countries in the Sumgait chemical industry and joint work with a group of EU experts to eliminate the environmental problem were also searched.
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Emoto, Hiroshi. "Shibui Katsura: The Emergence of a Japanese Global Icon, 1921–70." Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 82, no. 1 (March 1, 2023): 63–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/jsah.2023.82.1.63.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Abstract “Katsura is shibui”—this persistent slogan originated in two special issues of House Beautiful published in 1960. Themed “Discover shibui” and “How to be shibui with American things,” these publications linked the image of the Katsura Detached Palace with shibui and employed this “untranslatable” word to evoke the notion of richness in simplicity. But as this article shows, Katsura’s global fame can be traced at least back to the early 1920s, when German scholars investigated the imperial villa as an example of Japanese timber construction, followed soon after by Japanese architects and critics. Shibui, in contrast, first became an aesthetic term when the Japanese government promoted it in the 1930s as part of a campaign to encourage foreign tourism. This study reconstructs the process through which a growing number of publications and international exchanges addressed these topics, culminating in the postwar period, when the initial contact between the two genealogies of Katsura and shibui sparked a heated aesthetic debate.
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Bauerkämper, Arnd. "Transnational Fascism: Cross-Border Relations between Regimes and Movements in Europe, 1922-1939." East Central Europe 37, no. 2-3 (March 25, 2010): 214–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/187633010x534469.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
In recent debates about transnational and inter-cultural approaches in historiography, crossborder relations have usually assumed a positive connotation for mutually enriching the parties involved. However, research on bilateral relationships between Italian Fascism and German National Socialism and of fascist movements in other European states demonstrate that transnational exchange is normatively ambivalent, i.e. it can comply with our aims, wishes and expectations or not. This contribution will present evidence for the attractiveness of Italian Fascism and German Nazism throughout Europe in the 1920s and 1930s. Beyond high politics, cooperation between fascists extended to other areas, like recreation and public relations. Nevertheless, fascist movements and regimes appropriated foreign doctrines and policies selectively in order to avert the charge of copying foreign models. They also stressed their nationalist credentials. Yet hypernationalism was deeply ingrained in fascist ideology, too. Thus, cooperation between European fascists was continuously hampered by mutual antagonism. Altogether, fascist nationalism and transnationalism were interrelated rather than mutually exclusive. Nevertheless, cross-border cooperation between fascist movements should not be underestimated or reduced to wartime collaboration.
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Mikhailova, Yulia. "The Soviet-Latvian Peace Treaty on August 11, 1920: Negotiations, Public Opinion, Implementation Mechanisms. Publication of Documents from the Foreign Policy Archive of the Russian Federation." ISTORIYA 12, no. 7 (105) (2021): 0. http://dx.doi.org/10.18254/s207987840016579-5.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
This publication of documents from the Archive of Foreign Policy of the Russian Federation highlights the Soviet-Latvian peace negotiations, and issues related to the implementation of the peace treaty on August 11, 1920. These are transcripts of plenary meetings of the delegations of the RSFSR and Latvia, minutes of meetings of the Soviet-Latvian commission on the determination of the border, note correspondence (notes of the NKID to the Latvian diplomatic mission in Moscow, the notes of the Latvian diplomatic mission to the NKID, the RSFSR embassy in Latvia to the Latvian Foreign Ministry, the Latvian Foreign Ministry to the RSFSR embassy in Latvia, the Latvian peace delegation to the RSFSR). The published documents make it possible to highlight such issues as the development of a decision on the establishment of the Soviet-Latvian border, the exchange of refugees, the re-evacuation of property and the mutual holding of hostages. The archival materials are supplemented by an appeal to the materials of the Latvian press, which comprehensively covered the course of the peace negotiations and the solutions being developed.
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Nafziger, E. Wayne. "Meiji Japan as a Model for Africa's Economic Development." African and Asian Studies 4, no. 4 (2005): 443–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156920905775826170.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
AbstractThis paper examines the major ways in which the economic development model of Meiji Japan, 1868-1912, applies to contemporary Africa. The focus is on capital formation and technology policies that contributed to Meiji Japan's rapid industrial capitalist growth: self-directed strategies, technological borrowing, taking advantage of shifts in comparative advantage from the product cycle, educational policy, business assistance, financial institutions, transfer of agricultural savings to industry, low wages policy, industrial dualistic complementarity, and foreign-exchange rate policies conducive to export expansion. For each of these policies, the author analyzes the extent to which African countries can emulate Meiji Japan's approaches or whether changing circumstances require modification of the Japanese model.
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Ćwikła, Leszek. "Polish-Czechoslovak Cross-border Tourism between 1919 and 1939 in the Light of Polish Legislation." PRÁVNĚHISTORICKÉ STUDIE 53, no. 2 (October 31, 2023): 89–100. http://dx.doi.org/10.14712/2464689x.2023.27.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The article revolves around Polish-Czechoslovak tourism relations between 1919 and 1939. The author analysed the legislation establishing solutions aimed to facilitate tourism on both sides of the border. The Tourism Convention drawn up in Prague on 30th May 1925 was of key importance in this regard. Attention was also paid to selected provisions of the Polish-Czechoslovak commercial conventions relevant to the development of tourism. The following part of the article examines passport and visa regulations governing departure from Poland to Czechoslovakia and arrival to Poland from Czechoslovakia. The author also studies the foreign exchange regulations that individuals entering Czechoslovakia for tourist purposes had to follow.
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Popov, Maxim Evgenievich. "The Russian Theater in Berlin (1919-1923): the Experience of Cultural Exports." Samara Journal of Science 6, no. 4 (December 1, 2017): 156–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.17816/snv201764208.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The paper is devoted to the consideration of Russian theatrical activity in Berlin during 1919-1923, when Berlin was the focus of Russian theater life abroad, and active creative exchange between German and Russian cultures took place in this connection. The problem of exporting Russian art culture to Western countries is of interest for both domestic and foreign researchers. Among the topical problems on this issue, the Russian theater plays an important role. The study of this issue gives an idea of the potential of Russian culture in a different social and cultural environment. In the center of the research is the process of formation and development of Russian theatrical life in the German cultural environment. The author made an attempt to identify and disclose the main artistic directions of the Russian theater in Berlin in 1919-1923 and determine their role in bringing Germany to the achievements of national culture. The work uses materials from the memoirs of contemporaries and periodicals. On the basis of these sources it is shown that the theater played one of the fundamental roles in preserving the Russian cultural community and their cultural appearance on the overseas. Russian theatrical seasons contributed to the Wests involvement in the achievements of Russian culture and the establishment of cultural and artistic ties between Germany and Soviet Russia. Thus, the activities of the Russian migr and touring Russian theater in Berlin in 1919-1923 reflected the high potential of Russian culture in the conditions of a foreign social environment.
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Roma-Marzio, Francesco, Simonetta Maccioni, David Dolci, Giovanni Astuti, Nicoletta Magrini, Federica Pierotti, Roberta Vangelisti, Lucia Amadei, and Lorenzo Peruzzi. "Digitization of the historical Herbarium of Michele Guadagno at Pisa (PI-GUAD)." PhytoKeys 234 (October 12, 2023): 107–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.3897/phytokeys.234.109464.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The herbarium digitization process is an essential first step in transforming the vast amount of data associated with a physical specimen into flexible digital data formats. In this framework, the Herbarium of the University of Pisa (international code PI), at the end of 2018 started a process of digitization focusing on one of its most relevant collections: the Herbarium of Michele Guadagno (1878–1930). This scholar studied flora and vegetation of different areas of southern Italy, building a large herbarium including specimens collected by himself, plus many specimens obtained through exchanges with Italian and foreign botanists. The Herbarium is composed by 547 packages of vascular plants. Metadata were entered into the online database Virtual Herbaria JACQ and mirrored into a personalized virtual Herbarium of the Botanic Museum. After the completion of the digitization process, the number of sheets preserved in the Herbarium amounts to 44,345. Besides Guadagno, who collected 42% of his specimens, a further 1,102 collectors are represented. Most specimens were collected in Europe (91%), but all the continents are represented. As expected, Italy is the most represented country (59%), followed by France, Spain, Germany, and Greece. The specimens cover a time span of 99 years, from 1830 to 1929, whereas the specimens collected by Guadagno range between 1889 and 1928. Furthermore, we traced 134 herbarium sheets associated with documents, among which 75 drawings handmade by Guadagno, 34 letters from various corresponding authors, 16 copies of publications, and 14 copies of published iconographies.
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Guzik-Makaruk, Ewa M., and Piotr Fiedorczyk. "The Achievements of the Codification Commission of the Second Republic of Poland — a Century After Regaining the Independence." Internal Security Special Issue (January 14, 2019): 15–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0012.8398.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Reborn in 1918, the Polish state inherited from the partition countries: Russia, Prussia and Austria their legal systems. The task of unifying the codification of the law was entrusted to the Codification Commission, established on the basis of the Act of 1919. The Commission was to prepare draft legislation in the field of civil and criminal law. It was a body of 44 lawyers and had a high degree of independence from political factors. As a result of the Commission’s work, more than 20 legal acts were created. In the area of civil law, these were laws mainly related to foreign legal transactions. These included, among others, bills of exchange and cheque law, copyright law, patent law, law on combating unfair competition. The two laws of 1926 were of particular importance: private international law and inter-district law. Three codes of private law were also created: the Code of Obligations (1933, considered the most outstanding civil work of the Commission), the Commercial Code and the Code of Civil Procedure. In the area of criminal law, a full codification was carried out, first by implementing the Code of Criminal Procedure (1928) and then the Criminal Code (1932). These two acts were based on different doctrinal bases, which made criminal law inconsistent. The Criminal Code of Juliusz Makarewicz in particular was an outstanding work, based on the findings of the School of Sociological Criminal Law. The Codification Commission did not finish its work until the outbreak of the war. However, present codes are largely based on the solutions developed within the Commission.
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Cojocaru, Gheorghe. "The disarmament conference in Moscow from December 1922 and Romania." Revista de istorie a Moldovei, no. 3-4(131-132) (November 2022): 42–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.58187/rim.131-132.03.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
In the conditions of the international isolation of the Russian Government, at the initiative of the Soviet diplomacy in December 1922, a „disarmament conference” was held in Moscow, in which the states bordering Russia participated. Although it was invited, Romania did not respond to the invitation, because the Soviets refused to recognize the border on the Dniester. The tribune of the Moscow conference was used by Russian diplomacy for propaganda purposes. At the conference, the Romanian Government aimed to explore, through its ally Poland, the possibility of normalizing relations with the Russian Government, on the condition of recognizing its eastern border and the intention to give up the treasure seized in Moscow. During an exchange of views with Poland’s representative at the conference, Prince Radziwill, Deputy Commissar for Foreign Affairs M. M. Litvinov warned that Russia would demand a plebiscite in Bessarabia. A century later, a question remains, however, whether or not the Moscow conference was an occasion for a beginning of normalization of Russian-Romanian relations.
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ALPER, Ali Eren. "The Relationshıp Between Exchange Rate and Foreign Trade in Turkey: Findings of The Fourier Bootstrap Toda Yamamoto Causality Test." Fiscaoeconomia 7, no. 2 (May 25, 2023): 1391–401. http://dx.doi.org/10.25295/fsecon.1259216.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Türkiye sabit kur rejimini uyguladığı 1923-2001 yılları arasında, ilk olarak 7 Eylül 1946 tarihinden başlayarak dış ticaret dengesini sağlamak amacıyla birçok devalüasyon yapmış ancak hiçbir kur müdahalesi beklenen olumlu sonuçları vermemiştir. Türkiye 2001 yılından sonra uygulamaya koyduğu yapısal dönüşümlerden birisi olarak dalgalı kur sistemine geçiş yapmıştır ve bu tarihten sonra piyasa arz ve talep koşullarına göre belirlenen döviz kurunun dış ticaret dengesi üzerine etkileri başlıca araştırma konularından birisi olmuştur.
Bu çalışmada 2013:01 – 2022:12 dönemi aylık verileri kullanılarak Türkiye’de reel efektif döviz kuru ile dış ticaret arasındaki nedensellik ilişkisi yapısal değişimi dikkate alan Fourier Bootstrap Toda Yamamoto nedensellik testi ile araştırılmıştır. Analiz sonuçlarına göre Türkiye’de reel efektif döviz kuru ile ithalat ve ihracat arasında nedensellik tespit edilememiştir. Çalışma sonucunda Türkiye’de döviz kurunu etkileyerek, dış ticaret dengesini yönlendirmeye çalışan politikaların başarılı olamayacağı tespit edilmiştir. Bu sebeple dış ticaret dengesini iyileştirmeye odaklanan politikaların üretilen mal ve hizmetlerin niteliksel özelliklerine odaklanmasının daha doğru olacağı düşünülmektedir.
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Ashraf, Assef. "The Politics of Gift Exchange in Early Qajar Iran, 1785–1834." Comparative Studies in Society and History 58, no. 2 (March 29, 2016): 550–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0010417516000177.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
AbstractThis article uses gift-giving practices in early nineteenth-century Iran as a window onto statecraft, governance, and center-periphery relations in the early Qajar state (1785–1925). It first demonstrates that gifts have a long history in the administrative and political history of Iran, the Persianate world, and broader Eurasia, before highlighting specific features found in Iran. The article argues that the pīshkish, a tributary gift-giving ceremony, constituted a central role in the political culture and economy of Qajar Iran, and was part of the process of presenting Qajar rule as a continuation of previous Iranian royal dynasties. Nevertheless, pīshkish ceremonies also illustrated the challenges Qajar rulers faced in exerting power in the provinces and winning the loyalty of provincial elites. Qajar statesmen viewed gifts and bribes, at least at a discursive level, in different terms, with the former clearly understood as an acceptable practice. Gifts and honors, like the khil‘at, presented to society were part of Qajar rulers' strategy of presenting themselves as just and legitimate. Finally, the article considers the use of gifts to influence diplomacy and ease relations between Iranians and foreign envoys, as well as the ways in which an inadequate gift could cause offense.
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Pérez, Luciana, and Bénédicte Vauthier. "Historia del corazón, historia de una traducción seguida del Epistolario de Vicente Aleixandre a Jacques Comincioli." Monteagudo, no. 27 (March 9, 2022): 289–340. http://dx.doi.org/10.6018/monteagudo.491211.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
This article describes and analyses the letters that Vicente Aleixandre wrote from 1960 to 1983 to Jacques Comincioli (1932-2018). The exchange originated in the Swiss Hispanist's proposal to translate Historia del corazón (1954) into French. The correspondence recounts the vicissitudes of this project and in doing so sketches a snapshot of Spanish literature making its way into foreign literary markets during Franco's regime. Read in the light of other correspondence collections, it enriches the interpretation of Aleixandre’s epistolary corpus, and that of other members of the Generation of 1927, who corresponded with young Hispanists during Franco's regime. Este artículo describe y analiza las cartas que Vicente Aleixandre dirigió de 1960 a 1983 a Jacques Comincioli (1932-2018). El intercambio se origina en la propuesta del hispanista suizo de traducir al francés Historia del corazón (1954). La correspondencia hace memoria de los avatares de este proyecto y se esboza así una instantánea de la literatura española abriéndose paso en los mercados literarios extranjeros durante el franquismo. Leídas a la luz de otros epistolarios, se enriquece la interpretación del epistolario aleixandrino, y el de otros miembros de la generación del 1927 que se cartearon con jóvenes hispanistas durante el franquismo.
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Singh, Gagandeep, Niraj Singh, Ranjith Kumar Ellur, Alexander Balamurugan, G. Prakash, Rajeev Rathour, Kalyan Kumar Mondal, et al. "Genetic Enhancement for Biotic Stress Resistance in Basmati Rice through Marker-Assisted Backcross Breeding." International Journal of Molecular Sciences 24, no. 22 (November 8, 2023): 16081. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms242216081.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Pusa Basmati 1509 (PB1509) is one of the major foreign-exchange-earning varieties of Basmati rice; it is semi-dwarf and early maturing with exceptional cooking quality and strong aroma. However, it is highly susceptible to various biotic stresses including bacterial blight and blast. Therefore, bacterial blight resistance genes, namely, xa13 + Xa21 and Xa38, and fungal blast resistance genes Pi9 + Pib and Pita were incorporated into the genetic background of recurrent parent (RP) PB1509 using donor parents, namely, Pusa Basmati 1718 (PB1718), Pusa 1927 (P1927), Pusa 1929 (P1929) and Tetep, respectively. Foreground selection was carried out with respective gene-linked markers, stringent phenotypic selection for recurrent parent phenotype, early generation background selection with Simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers, and background analysis at advanced generations with Rice Pan Genome Array comprising 80K SNPs. This has led to the development of Near isogenic lines (NILs), namely, Pusa 3037, Pusa 3054, Pusa 3060 and Pusa 3066 carrying genes xa13 + Xa21, Xa38, Pi9 + Pib and Pita with genomic similarity of 98.25%, 98.92%, 97.38% and 97.69%, respectively, as compared to the RP. Based on GGE-biplot analysis, Pusa 3037-1-44-3-164-20-249-2 carrying xa13 + Xa21, Pusa 3054-2-47-7-166-24-261-3 carrying Xa38, Pusa 3060-3-55-17-157-4-124-1 carrying Pi9 + Pib, and Pusa 3066-4-56-20-159-8-174-1 carrying Pita were identified to be relatively stable and better-performing individuals in the tested environments. Intercrossing between the best BC3F1s has led to the generation of Pusa 3122 (xa13 + Xa21 + Xa38), Pusa 3124 (Xa38 + Pi9 + Pib) and Pusa 3123 (Pi9 + Pib + Pita) with agronomy, grain and cooking quality parameters at par with PB1509. Cultivation of such improved varieties will help farmers reduce the cost of cultivation with decreased pesticide use and improve productivity with ensured safety to consumers.
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Anzor, Kushkhabiev. "Cooperation of the Kabardino-Balkarian branch of the Soviet committee for cultural relations with compatriots abroad with non-governmental organizations of foreign Circassian diasporas in the socialistic times (1966-1991)." Kavkazologiya 2022, no. 2 (June 30, 2022): 127–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.31143/2542-212x-2022-2-127-147.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
It was revealed that in 1966-1991 years the Kabardino-Balkarian branch of the Soviet Committee for Cultural Relations with Compatriots Abroad (KBB), with the support of the authorities of Ka-bardino-Balkarian Republic, conducted activities to promote socialist ideology in foreign Circas-sian diasporas to increase among them supporters of the USSR and adherents of the socialist sys-tem. During the period of perestroika (1985-1991), the work of the KBB comprised explaining to foreign compatriots the essence of reforms in the USSR and attracting investors from among them. The activities and methods used by the KBB turned out to be quite effective: in the foreign Circassian diasporas the share of supporters of the USSR, persons maintaining ties with organiza-tions and citizens of the autonomies of the North Caucasus, members of the communist parties of Syria and Jordan, youth democratic organizations, the Arab Socialist Renaissance Party increased. The activities of the KBB contributed to the strengthening of friendly relations between the USSR and the countries of residence of compatriots, mainly with Jordan and Syria. Contacts (exchanges of delegations and tourist groups, education of youth of foreign compatriots in the universities of the KBASSR, organization of recreation for children of foreign compatriots in pioneer camps and sanatoriums of the republic, systematic correspondence of the KBB and residents of the republic with foreign compatriots) of representatives of foreign Circassian diasporas with their historical homeland, supplies to foreign compatriots of printed, video and audio materials, broadcasting ra-dio programs to the Circassian diasporas in the countries of the Middle East were mainly per-formed in the Circassian language, which largely contributed to the preservation of the ethno-cultural specifics of the foreign Circassian diasporas. The cooperation of the KBB with non-governmental organizations (NGO) of foreign compatriots also contributed to the study of the Russian language, Russian and Soviet culture by a considerable number of them.
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Domonkos, Endre. "The Impacts Of The Great Depression 1929-33 On Hungary’s Economy." Multidiszciplináris kihívások, sokszínű válaszok, no. 1 (June 5, 2021): 3–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.33565/mksv.2021.01.01.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The Great Depression of 1929-33 had serious consequences on Hungary’s economy. The Central and Eastern European countries, including Hungary were hit severely by the downturn of the wholesale prices as regards of agricultural products in international markets. Besides declining prices another major problem was that the industrialised countries introduced protectionist measures (customs duties and quotas). As a result of this process, market opportunities were constrained and later ceased to exist. The situation was further aggravated by the fact that the unfavourable gap between agrarian and industrial prices further widened in the 1920s. Although the crisis started to emerge in the agriculture, its effects were extended to the industry as well. Due to the lack of safe markets, heavy industrial branches declined sharply, whereas the volume of output fell modest in the light industry. The bankruptcy of the Austrian Credit Anstalt on 12th Mai 1931 adversely affected Hungary’s financial system. In order to overcome the difficulties, banking holiday was ordered by the government, which coupled with the suspension of all payments and the introduction of foreign exchange control. Foreign trade has changed significantly. In 1937, the share of Hungary’s export in Germany’s trade was 42 percent, which increased to more than 50 percent after the Anschluss. Thus, at the end of the 1930s, the Third Reich became the most important trade partner of Hungary. Thanks to favourable external conditions accompanied by the rearmament programme of Nazi Germany and state intervention, the performance of the Hungarian economy improved, and by 1937 it surpassed the pre-depression level. The Győr Programme, announced on 12th March 1938 with its military and infrastructural development contributed to the economic boom, which had positive impacts both in the heavy and light industrial branches.
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Horowitz, Richard S. "Breaking the Bonds of Precedent: The 1905–6 Government Reform Commission and the Remaking of the Qing Central State." Modern Asian Studies 37, no. 4 (October 2003): 775–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0026749x03004025.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
On January 29, 1901, in the grim aftermath of the Boxer Uprising and the humiliating foreign invasion of north China that followed, the Empress Dowager Cixi issued a famous edict that initiated the New Policy (xinzheng) reforms.The weakness of China is caused by the strength of convention and the rigid network of regulations. We have many mediocre officials but few men of talent and courage. The regulations are used by mediocre men as the means of their self-protection, and taken advantage of by government clerks as sources of profit. The government officials exchange numerous documents but they never touch reality. The appointment of capable men is restricted by regulations so rigid that even men of exceptional talent are missed. What misleads the country can be expressed in one word, selfishness, and what suffocates all under heaven is precedent.
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Kaminishi, Miriam. "The seasonal demand for multiple monies in Manchuria: re-examining Zhang Zuolin's government's economic policy during the 1920s." Financial History Review 20, no. 3 (August 9, 2013): 335–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0968565013000140.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
This article reviews the political economy of Manchuria under the rule of Zhang Zuolin, which resulted in the economic instability that occurred during the winter of 1928. One can conjecture that the economic instability did not occur only because of the arbitrariness of the political and military regional government. The instability appears to be related to an ongoing seasonal demand for monies, which was relatively high between the months of September and March, since it corresponded to the period of commerce in soybeans − the region's main economic activity −, the migration of seasonal workers, and also the festive period of the Chinese New Year. The analysis was conducted based on primary materials published by the South Manchuria Railway Company, such as currency issuance and the variation of the exchange rate of the major currencies in circulation among foreign and Chinese currencies.
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ČOVIĆ, PAULINA. "FOREIGN STUDENTS AT THE UNIVERSITY OF BELGRADE AND THEIR INTEREST IN THE HISTORY OF SOUTH SLAVS (1923–1941)." ISTRAŽIVANJA, Јournal of Historical Researches, no. 30 (December 25, 2019): 197–216. http://dx.doi.org/10.19090/i.2019.30.197-216.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The paper examines the schooling of foreign students, holders of the scholarships awarded by the Ministry of Education of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes/Yugoslavia, at the University of Belgrade between the two World Wars. The first competitions were opened mid 1920s, with those countries which aided the schooling of Yugoslav students at their respective universities being eligible to apply. During the 1930s student exchange continued, in an apparently more extensive and organized manner, only to be extended at the end of the period under review to include countries with which the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, in accordance with the change of foreign policy orientation, established close political and economic relations. Thus, in the beginning, students from France, Great Britain, Czechoslovakia and Poland came to study in Belgrade, whereas, during the years before World War II, students also came from Turkey, Germany and Italy. Scholarship holders most often worked on developing their knowledge of Serbo-Croatian-Slovenian, studied literature and Yugoslav culture in general. Many of them chose to study history, whether as part of their undergraduate or specialist studies. They are the particular focus of this study. The paper is based on unpublished archival sources, periodicals and relevant historiographic literature.
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Klynina, Tetiana. "Cultural diplomacy of the State Department as a tool of US foreign policy: the "Golden Age" (1953 – 1961 years)." UKRAINIAN CULTURAL STUDIES, no. 2 (11) (2022): 52–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.17721/ucs.2022.2(11).10.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The article is devoted to the consideration of the issue of the development of US cultural diplomacy in 1953-1961 as a tool for implementing foreign policy. In American historiography, it is customary to describe this period as the "golden age", since there was a significant breakthrough in the understanding of the importance of culture as one of the effective elements of the implementation of US foreign policy. The methodological basis of the article was the principle of historicism, a systematic approach, problem-chronological and descriptive methods. The purpose of the article is to analyze the main types of cultural diplomacy that the USA used to promote itself abroad in the context of the confrontation with the Soviet Union. The article emphasizes the problem of comparing the concepts of "cultural diplomacy" and "public diplomacy", which makes it difficult to understand their organizational histories. The author of the article starts from the position that "cultural diplomacy" is not separate from "public diplomacy" and is an integral part of it. It is emphasized that the development of the Cold War and the Soviet Union's representation of itself as a country with a great cultural heritage and potential posed the question of changing cultural policy before the US government. During the presidency of D. Eisenhower, dance tours, art exhibitions, cinematography, literature, musical performances, educational, scientific and cultural exchange programs were transformed from an element of exclusively American art into instruments of foreign policy. Not the last role in this transformation was played by the US State Department and, created later, the US Information Agency. Although at the same time, both institutions tried to avoid full responsibility for the results of cultural policy implementation. The basis for this attitude was the constant criticism of congressmen (among whom J. McCarthy played a significant and rather harmful role), as well as the focused attention of the American public on the appropriateness of using the money of American taxpayers. The article refutes the thesis that art in the United States was outside of politics and proves that culture has been in step with the US foreign policy course. Nevertheless, despite a number of obstacles and state control, the cultural diplomacy of D. Eisenhower's time appeared in other colors and really became its "golden period".
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Mikhailova, Yu L. "Peace negotiations between Russia and Latvia in 1920: Premises, key issues, and outcomes." Moscow University Bulletin of World Politics 14, no. 3 (November 27, 2022): 227–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.48015/2076-7404-2022-14-3-227-264.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The conclusion of the Peace Treaty between Latvia and the RSFSR on August 11, 1920 marked an important stage both in the process of international recognition of Latvia and in the normalization of international relations in the region in general, and charted a new course of the foreign policy of the Soviet state. On the basis of a wide range of archival sources (transcripts of the plenary meetings of the RSFSR and Latvia delegations, the meetings minutes of the Soviet-Latvian boundary commission, etc.), as well as recent Russian and foreign historical researches, the paper examines a set of issues related to the conclusion of the Treaty. The key issues that predetermined the agenda of the Soviet-Latvian peace negotiations included border demarcation, the exchange of war prisoners, the return of property evacuated to Russia, the return of refugees and the establishment of procedures for citizenship option. The author notes that the issue of border delimitation and demarcation was one of the most controversial and painful during the negotiations. The ethnographic principle for future borders was inextricably linked with economic and military-strategic considerations. The author examines territorial concessions made by the RSFSR to Latvia and concludes that they served as a demonstration of the Soviet Russia readiness to take into account the territorial claims of the Baltic republics, which allowed it to achieve peace in the region and fix new borders, as well as to establish trade relations indispensable for the survival of a young Soviet state during the Civil War. At the same time, the Soviet representatives took a hard line on compensations for the damage caused during hostilities and the return of property evacuated from Latvia. The author concludes that the Soviet-Latvian treaty and similar treaties with other Baltic states not only enabled the establishment of a new balance of power in the East Baltic region for the interwar period and laid the foundation for the Soviet foreign policy towards the Baltic republics, but also served as a vivid example of realization of ‘the right of self-determination of peoples up to secession’. Finally, these treaties became one of the means to break the diplomatic isolation of Soviet Russia.
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Nikolić, Goran, and Slađana Zdravković. "The Yugoslav Turkish trade in The interwar period (1918-1941): Dynamic and structural analysis." Ekonomski pogledi 23, no. 1 (2021): 35–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.5937/ekopogl2101035n.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The subject of this paper is the analysis of the Yugoslav-Turkish trade in 1920-1939. The main goal of the research is to point out the qualitative and quantitative indicators of trade between the two countries. In addition to the economic scientific approach, which is based on the analysis of statistical indicators derived from data on the exchange between the two countries, a historical approach was applied, which is reflected in the use of historical sources and contextual analysis of processes and events based on them. Despite the modest importance of mutual foreign trade, which could not be significantly affected by the dynamics of strong average annual growth of Yugoslav imports from Turkey, export-import flows between the two countries made a positive contribution to creating a much more important aspect of their relations: political, which was reflected in the signing of the Balkan Pact in 1934.
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Jones, Jr, Plummer. "Advocacy for Multiculturalism and Immigrants' Rights: The Effect of U. S. Immigration Legislation on American Public Libraries: 1876-2020." North Carolina Libraries 78, no. 1 (2020): 3–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.3776/ncl.v78i1.5376.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The American Library Association (ALA), founded in 1876, demonstrated its advocacy for immigrants' rights and multiculturalism in adult library services, from 1918 to 1948 in the Committee on Work with the Foreign Born (CWFB), which served as a clearinghouse for Americanization (assimilation) services within a philosophical framework of cultural pluralism, now known as multiculturalism. The ALA CWFB throughout its existence depended on grants from the Carnegie Corporation from 1911 to 1961 through the American Association for Adult Education (1915-41), and the Ford Foundation, through its Fund for Adult Education (1951-61). Beginning in 1956 with the Library Services Act, the federal government began to fund libraries, including programs for immigrants, African Americans, Native Americans, and adult illiterates. Since 1972, the Reference & User Services Association (RUSA) has provided literacy training for foreign- and native-born adult illiterates; and the Public Library Association (PLA) has supported programs to prepare New Americans for citizenship. Since 1983, the ALA Ethnic and Multicultural Information Exchange Round Table (EMIERT) has encouraged access to multicultural publications and collaborates with ALA affiliates for various ethnic and minority groups. The ALA advocates for the rights of DACA recipients and supports the need for a DREAMER (Development, Relief, and Education for Alien Minors) Act.
41
Sokolova, D. V. "Genetic diversity of the table beet (<I>Beta</I> L.) collection at VIR as a potential source for breeding (a review)." Proceedings on applied botany, genetics and breeding 183, no. 4 (December 21, 2022): 239–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.30901/2227-8834-2022-4-239-250.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
This review presents brief information about the history of the table beet (Beta vulgaris L. subsp. vulgaris var. conditiva Alef.) collection at the N.I. Vavilov All-Russian Institute of Plant Genetic Resources (VIR), its composition, research trends, and significance for domestic breeding. The collection started in 1924 with Vavilov’s collecting activities. Currently, the collection consists of 2512 accessions; the table beet variety is represented by 461 accessions from 45 countries, collected in numerous expeditions, obtained from foreign genebanks through germplasm exchange and seed requests, received from domestic and foreign breeders, plus materials developed by VIR researchers. Table beet is an economically important, high-yielding, ubiquitous crop that has a wide cultivation area and is a valuable biochemical food product with beneficial effects on human health.The information is provided on the genetic diversity of VIR’s table beet collection, including current trends of its study and use in breeding. Characteristics of table beet accessions available in the collection, their morphological features and value, and the names of accessions from different trait groups and genetic sources are described. Presently, 125 cultivars and 38 F1 hybrids of table beet are listed in the State Register of Breeding Achievements of the Russian Federation, 70% of which are products of domestic breeding.
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Rynkov, Vadim M. "Labor market regulation in Eastern Russia in 1918–1922: Institutional factors, mechanisms, and outcomes." Russian Journal of Economics 7, no. 2 (July 9, 2021): 137–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.32609/j.ruje.7.56634.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
This article uses archival documents and periodical publications to analyze the impact of the Civil War on the labor market in the regions of Eastern Russia. It considers key labor market institutions such as legislation, infrastructure (labor exchanges, unemployment funds, and professional and entrepreneurship organizations), and labor contracts. It has been established that there was continuity in the regulatory framework and labor market management tools between the Provisional Government and the anti-Bolshevik governments. The study shows the challenges and shortcomings of managing hiring and dismissal processes by soft regulatory methods given the deep economic crisis. The labor supply was backed by extensive cohorts of prisoners of war, refugees, and foreign workers, which contributed to a drop in labor rates. The government sought to stabilize the situation by reinforcing transactional barriers to reduce employment. The labor market in Eastern Russia was subjected to regionalization and localization.
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Podniesińska, Katarzyna. "„[…] ta korona po pięciu wiekach z grobu wychodząca na świat, na jasne słońce” – ekslibris Muzeum Narodowego w Krakowie." Res Gestae 11 (December 4, 2020): 217–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.24917/24504475.11.13.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
In 1901, the association Polska Sztuka Stosowana (Polish Applied Arts) announced a contest for a bookplate to be featured at the National Museum in Kraków. It was the fi rst competition of this sort in the Polish lands, and the result was the fi rst artistic Polish bookplate created by a traditional technique. Its author was Jan Bukowski, then starting his career in typography and illustration. Marking books with a decorative label, usually pasted onto the front endpaper, was becoming fashionable among bibliophiles and was an expression of their taste, education and artistic culture. For the following twenty or so years, the contest became a model for many other similar competitions. This article analyzes the form and content of the bookplate in question, which for many years became the trademark and logo of the National Museum in Kraków. It was also the paragon of the Polish exlibris valuable not only for its artistic but also Polish national features. Lastly, it was an object of exchange between the museum and Polish and foreign institutions,on the one hand, and between collectors, on the other.
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VAN DE VEN, HANS. "Robert Hart and Gustav Detring during the Boxer Rebellion." Modern Asian Studies 40, no. 3 (July 2006): 631–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0026749x06002058.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
This article focuses on Robert Hart during the Boxer Rebellion. My reconstruction of his activities is based on a recently discovered file in the archives of the Chinese Maritime Customs Service held at the Second Historical Archives in Nanjing. While it has long been known that Hart corresponded with Qing officials during the Siege itself and while a few letters have been published, the file contains more than one hundred exchanges between Hart and Qing officials written after the end of the Siege of the Legations. I have further relied on a box of documents dealing with the Boxer Rebellion in the Hart Manuscript Collection at the Queen's University of Belfast, including Hart's notes on his meetings with Qing officials. These materials provide insight into the way Hart was able to persuade the Qing and foreign countries to begin negotiations and illustrate the critical role he played in fashioning the Boxer Protocol signed on 7 September 1901.
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Jan, Herman, and Balaban Milan. "Tomáš Baťa a národohospodářské otázky nového Československa 1918–1923 ve vzájemné korespondenci s Františkem X. Hodáčem." Česko-slovenská historická ročenka 23, no. 2 (2021): 57–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.5817/cshr.2021.23.2.3.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
A leading Czechoslovak entrepreneur, Tomáš Baťa has been the subject of constant attention and his business activities have been examined in many ways. Less attention, however, has been paid to Baťa’s thoughts and opinions. This is undoubtedly because he rarely spoke out openly on questions of national economy in his public appearances. Based on seven letters exchanged with his friend František X. Hodáč from 1918 to 1923, this article reconstructs Baťa’s views on the political, social and economic situation of the newly created Czechoslovak state. At this time, the Bata Corporation had to cope with post-war economic disruptions and uncertainty in international relations. In the daily struggle for the economic survival of the corporation, he also ventured into the sphere of economic theory, taking a stance on issues such as devaluation, profit and loss, prices and wages, and the foreign interests of the state. Baťa would meet the leading figures of the state and, in discussions with finance ministers Alois Rašín and Karel Engliš, his views matured and exerted a considerable influence on people involved in economic theory and policymaking in Czechoslovakia.
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Bubnov, Vyacheslav. "Genesis of the Russian Financial System and the Ways of its Transformation: the Period Before 1928." Bulletin of Baikal State University 33, no. 4 (December 22, 2023): 635–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.17150/2500-2759.2023.33(4).635-646.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The life of modern human society is impossible without an effective economic model. In turn, functioning economies are ensured by the financial system of society. The purpose of this scientific research is to formulate a scientific approach to the development of the domestic financial system, which, unlike most foreign ones, has gone through stages of a complete change in the current paradigm. The Russian financial system has gone through mutually exclusive stages of development: finance of catch-up development, finance of war communism, finance of the new economic policy, Soviet finance, neoliberal and globalist finance, national finance. Each of these stages reflects fundamental changes in the methods and methods of management, which could not but affect the elements of the financial system. In financial theory and practice, there is high theoretical, methodological and methodological uncertainty regarding the elements of the financial system. In this context, their study from a historical perspective is relevant. It is proposed to highlight the following main elements: national currency, payment system, monetary relations, tax system, banking system, insurance system, mortgage system, public finance, securities market, mutual investment funds and non-state pension funds, exchange trading, existence of relationships with international finance. The research methodology is based on a theoretical analysis of the basic scientific principles of the formation of the financial system and its elements. The informational and empirical basis for the research was scientific research by Russian and foreign scientists, data from state and corporate statistics, and information and analytical reviews. The object of observation is the Russian financial system before 1928. The scientific novelty lies in the formation of the author's conceptual approach to the financial system and its elements, and the imperatives for the emergence of economic problems caused by the underdevelopment of the financial system are identified. The study showed the need to further improve the elements of the financial system to ensure economic growth and development.
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Šipelytė, Monika. "Juozas Gabrys and Lithuania at the League of Nations: Press, Business, Politics." Lietuvos istorijos studijos 48 (December 27, 2021): 33–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.15388/lis.2021.48.2.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The activity of Juozas Gabrys and his colleagues at the League of Nations in Geneva from 1927 until 1939 is the main subject of this article. The questions about this group of people are analyzed through several perspectives, such as journalism, business, and politics. The territorial and ethnical problems which were addressed by Lithuania at the League of Nations and the decisions of Lithuanian diplomats and politicians were overviewed in the press publications of Gabrys in various Lithuanian newspapers. In these texts he mostly focuses on two main topics in international interwar Lithuanian politics – the question of Vilnius its regarding mutual relations with Poland and the question of Memel and its region, which was intensely disputed by Lithuanian and German influences. Simultaneously, Gabrys had the intentions to develop business relations between Lithuania and Switzerland. He and his family worked in the fields of real estate and money exchange. Also, he established the Lithuanian Information Bureau in Geneva, which received irregular donations from the Lithuanian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, yet most of the publications were funded by Gabrys himself. The answer to the question of Gabrys’s real influence on Lithuanian foreign policy could be given only partially. As for now, the possibility to measure this influence is limited only to the press and information field, as Gabrys’s work in those fields, although forgotten and underestimated nowadays, was observed and evaluated by his contemporaries. Due to his publications, Lithuanians could form an opinion about the League of Nations and its decisions as well as the situation on the level of European policy.
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Mulligan, William, and Jack S. Levy. "Rethinking Power Politics in an Interdependent World, 1871–1914." Journal of Interdisciplinary History 49, no. 4 (March 2019): 611–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/jinh_a_01340.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Interdependence altered power relations between the European great powers between 1871 and 1914 in ways that both sustained the conditions for peace and, after 1911, made a European war more likely. Interdependence accelerated the development of international financial and commercial networks. Transnational social and cultural exchanges raised the costs of a general war, offered multiple channels for states and societies to exercise influence over each other, and altered power relations. The great powers pursued their interests through not only military force but also trade deals, financial loans, expert missions (teams sent to smaller states ostensibly to aid in modernization), and cultural diplomacy. They competed for influence in smaller states. Many of the crises that pockmarked this era derived from their contested interests in such strategically vital areas in Europe as the Balkans, the Ottoman Empire, and the Low Countries, as well as elsewhere in the world. States that lost out in this transformation, notably Austria-Hungary and Russia, saw the militarization of their foreign policies as a way to compensate for weaknesses in other forms of power.
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Bond, Jennifer. "‘The One for the Many’: Zeng Baosun, Louise Barnes and the Yifang School for Girls at Changsha, 1893–1927." Studies in Church History 55 (June 2019): 441–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/stc.2018.9.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
This article explores the role of Chinese Christian women in the internationalization of Chinese education in the early twentieth Century. In particular, it examines the changing relationship between Church Missionary Society (CMS) missionary Louise Barnes, and Zeng Baosun, the great granddaughter of Zeng Guofan. Zeng Baosun was born in 1893 in Changsha, educated at the CMS's Mary Vaughan School in Hangzhou, and became the first Chinese woman to graduate from the University of London, before returning to China to establish a Christian school for girls in Changsha (Yifang) in 1918. Although an extraordinary example because of her elite family background, Zeng's story highlights how Chinese women used the networks to which their Christian education exposed them on a local, national and international scale to play an important role in the exchange of educational ideas between China and the West during the early twentieth century. The story of the relationship between Zeng and Barnes also reveals the changing power dynamics between foreign missionaries and Chinese Christians in the process of indigenizing the church in China: the roles of teacher and pupil were reversed upon their return to Changsha, with Zeng serving as headmistress of her own school and Barnes as a teacher.
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YEŞILBURSA BEHÇET, KEMAL. "FROM FRIENDSHIP TO ENMITY SOVIET-IRANIAN RELATIONS (1945-1965)." History and Modern Perspectives 2, no. 1 (March 30, 2020): 92–105. http://dx.doi.org/10.33693/2658-4654-2020-2-1-92-105.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
On 26 February 1921, the Soviet Union signed a «Treaty of Friendship» with Iran which was to pave the way for future relations between the two states. Although the Russians renounced various commercial and territorial concessions which the Tsarist government had exacted from Iran, they secured the insertion of two articles which prohibited the formation or residence in either country of individuals, groups, military forces which were hostile to the other party, and gave the Soviet Union the right to send forces into Iran in the event that a third party should attempt to carry out a policy of usurpation there, use Iran as a base for operations against Russia, or otherwise threaten Soviet frontiers. Furthermore, in 1927, the Soviet Union signed a «Treaty of Guarantee and Neutrality» with Iran which required the contracting parties to refrain from aggression against each other and not to join blocs or alliances directed against each other’s sovereignty. However, the treaty was violated by the Soviet Union’s wartime occupation of Iran, together with Britain and the United States. The violation was subsequently condoned by the conclusion of the Tripartite Treaty of Alliance of 29 January 1942, which permitted the Soviet Union to maintain troops in Iran for a limited period. Requiring restraint from propaganda, subversion and hostile political groups, the treaty would also appear to have been persistently violated by the Soviet Union: for example, the various radio campaigns of «Radio Moscow» and the «National Voice of Iran»; the financing and control of the Tudeh party; and espionage and rumour-mongering by Soviet officials in Iran. Whatever the Soviet’s original conception of this treaty may have been, they had since used it one-sidedly as a treaty in which both countries would be neutral, with one being «more neutral than the other». In effect, both the 1921 and 1927 treaties had been used as «a stick to beat the Iranians» whenever it suited the Soviets to do so, in propaganda and in inter-governmental dealings. During the Second World War, the treaty between the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and Iran, dated 29 January 1942 - and concluded some 5 months after the occupation of parts of Iran by allied forces, the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union were entitled to maintain troops in Iran, but the presence of such troops was not to constitute a military occupation. Nonetheless, Soviet forces in the Northern provinces used their authority to prevent both the entry of officials of the Iranian Government and the export of agricultural products to other provinces. The treaty also required military forces to be withdrawn not later than six months after «all hostilities between the Allied Powers and Germany and her associates have been suspended by the conclusion of an armistice or on the conclusion of peace, whichever is the earlier». This entailed that the Soviet Union should have withdrawn its forces by March 1946, six months after the defeat of Japan. Meanwhile, however, there emerged in Iranian Azerbaijan, under Soviet tutelage, a movement for advanced provincial autonomy which developed into a separatist movement under a Communist-led «National Government of Azerbaijan». In 1945, Soviet forces prevented the Iranian army from moving troops into Azerbaijan, and also confined the Iranian garrison to barracks while the dissidents took forcible possession of key points. At the same time, Soviet troops prevented the entry of Iranian troops into the Kurdistan area, where, under Soviet protection, a Kurdish Republic had been set up by Qazi Mohammad. In 1946, after Iran had appealed to the Security Council, the Russians secured from the Iranian Prime Minister, Qavam es Saltaneh, a promise to introduce a bill providing for the formation of a Soviet-Iranian Oil Company to exploit the Northern oil reserves. In return, the Soviet Union agreed to negotiate over Azerbaijan: the Iranians thereupon withdrew their complaint to the Security Council, and Soviet forces left Azerbaijan by 9 May 1946. In 1955, when Iran was considering joining a regional defensive pact, which was later to manifest itself as the Baghdad Pact, the Soviet Government threatened that such a move would oblige the Soviet Union to act in accordance with Article 6 of the 1921 treaty. This was the «big stick» aspect of Soviet attempts to waylay Iranian membership of such a pact; the «carrot» being the conclusion in 1955 of a Soviet-Iranian «Financial and Frontier Agreement» by which the Soviets agreed to a mutually beneficial re-alignment of the frontier and to pay debts arising from their wartime occupation of Northern Iran. The Soviets continued their war of nerves against Iranian accession to the Pact by breaking off trade negotiations in October 1955 and by a series of minor affronts, such as the cancellation of cultural visits and minimal attendance at the Iranian National Day celebrations in Moscow. In a memorandum dated November 26, the Iranian Government openly rejected Soviet criticisms. Soviet displeasure was expressed officially, in the press and to private individuals. In the ensuing period, Soviet and Soviet-controlled radio stations continued to bombard their listeners with criticism of the Baghdad Pact, or CENTO as it later became. In early 1959, with the breakdown of the negotiations for a non-aggression pact, Iran-Soviet relations entered into a phase of propaganda warfare which intensified with the signature of the bilateral military agreement between Iran and the United States. The Soviet Union insisted that Iran should not permit the establishment of foreign military bases on its soil, and continued to threaten Iran despite the Shah’s assurance on this issue. Consequently, the Iranians denounced Articles 5 and 6 of the 1921 treaty, on the basis of which the Soviet Union was making its demands. Attempts by the Secretary-General of the United Nations to improve relations met with little success until September 1959, when Russia offered massive economic support on condition that Iran renounced its military agreements with the United States. This offer was rejected, and, as relations continued to become strained, the Soviets changed their demand to one neither for a written agreement that Iran would not allow its terrain to be used as a base of aggression nor for the establishment of foreign missile bases. The publication by the Soviet Union of the so-called «CENTO documents» did nothing to relieve the strain: the Soviet Union continued to stand out for a bilateral agreement with Iran, and the Shah, in consultation with Britain and the United States, continued to offer no more than a unilateral assurance. In July 1962, with a policy of endeavouring once more to improve relations, the Shah maintained his insistence on a unilateral statement, and the Soviet Government finally agreed to this. The Iranian undertaking was accordingly given and acknowledged on 15 September. The Instruments of ratification of the 1957 Agreements on Transit and Frontier Demarcation were exchanged in Moscow on 26 October 1962 and in Tehran on 20 December, respectively.