Статті в журналах з теми "Environmental Engel Curve"

In this study, gender patterns in allocation of health expenditure have been investigated for Pakistan. Using Household Integrated Expenditure Survey (HIES) data for the year 2010-11, the conventional Engel curve as well as the Hurdle Methodology have been employed to detect gender biasness. Gender discrimination has been studied at three decision stages: reporting sick, consulting medical practitioners, and incurring positive medical expenditure. Results indicate that the nature of discrimination varies by age cohort and type of health seeking behaviour. There is a pro-female bias among women above the age of 40 in health expenditure allocation and a pro-male bias in consulting a doctor in working age group (26-40). These results reflect the possibility that females above 40, in Pakistan, are in general more likely to develop severe sickness and thus incur higher medical expenditure. The results also reveal an interesting reversal of the pro-male bias in health expenditure that is present for younger age cohorts particularly in the working age sample. Additionally, there is variation in the likelihood of consulting a doctor in younger age group in rural areas and lower income group.

PurposeThis study aims at analysing the causal crowding-out effect of tobacco spending on intrahousehold budget share in Vietnam. Besides, we also examine the differences in expenditure patterns between tobacco spending households and non-spending households in Vietnam as well as determine the reason behind these differences.MethodsWe estimated a system of quadratic conditional Engel curve to determine intrahousehold resource allocation using the latest Vietnam Household Living Standard Survey data in 2016. In order to estimate the causal crowding-out effect of tobacco spending, GMM 3SLS method is used to simultaneously deal with heteroscedasticity and endogeneity problems.ResultsAlthough the Wald test results propose the difference in preferences between tobacco spending and non-spending households in Vietnam, once controlling for household characteristics, the results from GMM 3SLS method show that the differences are insignificant. Generally, the crowding-out effect of tobacco spending in Vietnamese households is modest because of the small share of tobacco in the total household expenditure. An increase in tobacco expenditure only leads to a fall in the budget shares of education. The crowding-out effect, however, mainly appears in the case of low-income households.ConclusionsThe reduction in education caused by tobacco consumption, particularly in low-income households, may extend inequality and thus prevent the socioeconomic development in Vietnam in the long term. Additionally, the tiny share of tobacco in household expenditure reveals that the price of tobacco products in Vietnam is extremely low, leading to high proportion of tobacco smokers. Government, therefore, should continuously increase the tobacco tax so that it could restrict the tobacco affordability.

In the present paper, an investigation into Thailand’s energy demand is performed to determine if: (1) a linear or nonlinear Engel curve better explains the relationship between income and energy consumption, and (2) systems with pre-commitments better model energy consumptions. Four demand systems are estimated: an almost ideal demand system (AIDS), the quadratic almost ideal demand system (QAIDS), generalized almost ideal demand system (GAIDS), and the generalized quadratic almost ideal demand system (GQAIDS). Elasticities are calculated for policy implications. The empirical results suggest that models considering pre-commitments and nonlinear Engel curves may be slightly more appropriate for Thailand’s energy system, from both statistic and economic standpoints. Statistical inferences appear to favor the GQAIDS model based on the encompassing results. Economic reasonability also appears to favor the GQAIDS model, in particular, petroleum products, as it provides results consistent with the notions of precommitments and fuel substitutability found in previous studies. Most of the previous studies in various forms have shown that the demand for petroleum products is relatively inelastic to price in Thailand. The current study, however, finds that own-price elasticities of uncompensated demand for petroleum products are almost unitary, which is relatively more elastic than most of the previous studies. As such, further studies are required and the price-based policy on petroleum products targeting the reduction in petroleum product dependence must be implemented with caution.

Abstract A study was conducted in the Post Oak Belt of East Texas to determine which site factors affected height growth of slash pine (Pinus elliottii Engelm.). Height-age pairs were developed from stem analysis data. Nonlinear regression was implemented to develop a generalized height-age model. After curves were developed, stepwise regression was used to determine impacts of environmental variables on height growth. Environmental factors correlated with height growth included A horizon depth and those related to moisture relations including seasonal precipitation, average daily temperature, and texture of the A horizon. South. J. Appl. For. 21(2):71-74.

Die Einführung des urbanen Gebietes in § 6a BauNVO [1] dient der Optimierung der Innenentwicklung, um die Inanspruchnahme von Flächen „auf der grünen Wiese“ zu reduzieren [2-3]. Sie soll insbesondere den Kommunen die Planung von funktionsgemischten Gebieten in innerstädtischen Lagen erleichtern [3-4]. Die Kommunen können so – zum Zwecke der verstärkten Nutzungsmischung und um mehr Wohnraum zu schaffen – Wohnen und Gewerbe enger zusammenbringen. Um diese Ziele zu erreichen, wurden die zulässigen Immissionsrichtwerte der TA Lärm [5] für urbane Gebiete auf 63 dB(A) im Beurteilungszeitraum Tag (6-22 Uhr) und auf 45 dB(A) im Beurteilungszeitraum Nacht (22-6 Uhr) festgesetzt. Damit liegt der Immissionsrichtwert tagsüber 3 dB über dem der Mischgebiete; nachts ist der zulässige Immissionsrichtwert identisch. Diese Erhöhung wird vom Gesetzgeber begründet mit einem Duldungswillen bzw. Akzeptanz der Bevölkerung vor dem Hintergrund der damit verbundenen Vorteile: der „Stadt der kurzen Wege“. Das Forschungsvorhaben konzentriert sich auf die Untersuchung der Geräuschimmissionen in innerstädtisch verdichteten Gebieten und geht der Frage nach, wie sich die Lärmsituation dort auf die Bevölkerung auswirkt. Damit betritt das Vorhaben Neuland; vergleichbare Untersuchungen liegen nach Kenntnis der Autorinnen und Autoren dazu bislang nicht vor. Die hier ermittelten und dargestellten Expositionswirkungskurven konzentrieren sich auf die Auswirkungen von „urbanem Gewerbelärm“. Davon umfasst sind die Gewerbelärmquellen, die typischerweise in innerstädtischem Gebiet vorzufinden sind, das heißt Gastronomie, Einzelhandel und kleinere Gewerbebetriebe oder auch Tankstellen.

Based on data mainly from the International Comparison Program for 156 countries, we conduct a global cross-sectional estimation of an extended rank-3 MAIDADS demand system for nineteen commodity groups including agri-food detail for integration in a Computable General Equilibrium model. We render both marginal budget shares and commitment terms depending on the implicit utility level and consider age shares on the population, the Gini-Coefficient, the share of Islamic population, a sea access indicator and mean temperatures as further explanatory variables. We find that especially demographic factors, the share of Islamic population and mean temperature considerably improve model selection statistics and the fit of commodity groups with a low fit in a variant where prices and income only are used. Graphics of the estimated Engel curves, with details for agro-food commodity groups, highlight income dynamics of budget shares.

Abstract Background Elevated blood pressure (i.e. hypertension) and diabetes (BPD) are the two major noncommunicable diseases that expose households to high out-of-pocket treatment costs in low- and middle-income countries. Medication is the biggest share of BPD treatment expenses, and households with someone suffering from BPD may need to adjust consumption of other commodities to pay for essential BPD medicines. We assess how BPD medication expenditures are associated with crowding out of other household commodities in Pakistan. Methods We analyze self-reported household consumption data from the nationally representative Pakistan Household Income and Expenditure Survey 2015–16. We estimate conditional Engel curves under the Quadratic Almost Ideal Demand System framework to examine the differences in average consumption shares between BPD medication-consuming and not-consuming households. Results We find that BPD medication expenditures are associated with crowding out of food and crowding in of other medical expenditures for all households, but the magnitudes of crowding out and crowding in are larger for the poorer households. BPD medication spending is also associated with crowding out of education and personal care for middle-class and wealthier households. Conclusions Our results indicate that allocations for essential commodities, like food and education, are lower for BPD medication–consuming households and inform policies for preventive health promotions and affordable treatment for hypertension and diabetes.

The micro- and mini-distributed generation (MMDG) has significantly increased after the normative resolution No. 482/2012 in Brazil; the installed capacity surpassed 7 GW in 2021. In the international context, a similar event was observed, whose process generated a cross-subsidy for other consumers, in addition to other problems that affect the economic balance of concessionaires. To mitigate this issue, the National Electric Energy Agency (ANEEL) is in the process of revising current rules. Thus, this study estimates the weight of this decision, through a methodology adapted from international assessment models, based on information from the Brazilian regulatory system. In order to achieve it, this paper presents metrics to define the potential market MMDG, based on the consumption patterns of consumers. Then, through time series analysis, the MMDG demand curve is estimated under two scenarios up to 2030. Finally, the economic impact on tariff adjustments and revisions, and their effect on the electric power concessionaires are evaluated. In the distribution companies of the Enel Group alone, economic losses are estimated at USD 1.2 billion by 2030; 53% of this will be passed on to consumers’ tariffs. Thus, based on international experiences, it can be concluded that the best model is the adequate grid remuneration.

Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are a prevalent health concern within the general population of Pakistan, where the average lifespan is notably lower than the global average, with men typically living to 67 years and women to 69 years. According to the 2019 Global Burden of Disease study, Pakistan had an estimated age-standardized incidence rate of CVD at 918.18 per 100,000 (compared to the global rate of 684.33 per 100,000), along with an age-standardized death rate of 357.88 per 100,000 (globally, this rate is 239.85 per 100,000).1 Coronary heart disease (CHD), as revealed by the Framingham Heart Study focusing on individuals aged 40 to 94 without prior heart disease, displayed a lifetime risk of 49% for men and 32% for women when reaching the age of 40.2 There has been a declining trend in death rates in the United States attributed to CVD, CHD, and stroke since 1975. Data from 2000 to 2008 also indicate a decline in CHD mortality.3 Worryingly, the World Health Organization (WHO) reports a concerning rise in CHD-related fatalities in Pakistan. In 2020, 240,720 individuals died due to CHD, accounting for 16.49% of all deaths. This highlights an escalating trend of CHD-related mortality in Pakistan. It's important to note that most individuals presenting with cardiac events have one or more established or borderline risk factors aside from age and gender.4-6 While some essential risk factors are discernible, others may remain elusive. The screening of these risk factors and the evidence for targeted therapeutic interventions are still emerging and require further exploration.7 The starting point for assessing CVD risk factors is variables used to predict major cardiovascular events. These include age, sex, blood pressure, cholesterol levels, diabetes mellitus, and smoking status. Although risk assessment tools like the Pooled Cohort Equation in 2014 and Astro-CHARM have been developed, they have yet to provide satisfactory assessments for potential new CVD risk factors.8 CHD is recognized as a multifactorial disorder resulting from genetic and environmental factors interplay. Environmental risk factors have been identified in approximately 80% of CHD cases.9 Several risk scores, such as the Framingham Risk Score, PROCAM, Reynolds Risk Score, and QRISK 2, have been proposed to guide the use of statins in high-risk groups.10-14 Yet, these risk scores often lack precision and may either overestimate or underestimate future CHD events.15,16 The variation in disease susceptibility among individuals with similar environmental factors and conventional coronary artery disease risk factors (CRFs) may be attributed to genetic variations.17 Genetic analysis can potentially enhance risk discrimination beyond the consideration of CRFs alone. Family history of heart disease, accounting for more than 40% of risk estimation, has long been considered a part of CRFs.18 Candidate gene studies have been conducted to identify common variants in genes associated with disease pathways.19 Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) have been employed as markers of genetic diversity. Among these SNPs, those located on the 9p21 locus have shown the strongest association with CHD risk to date.20,21 However, despite the clear link between these variants and incident CHD, 9p21 locus SNPs have not definitively improved the prediction or classification of CHD risk compared to traditional risk factors.22-24 It is important to note that most genetic studies on CHD have predominantly focused on European/Caucasian populations, and their applicability to the South Asian population, including Pakistan, requires further investigation.25,26 In this context, the Pakistani population, much like other Asian countries, is underrepresented in genetic research on CHD. Shahid SU et al. did some work in this respect,27 showing 21 SNPs risk score for genetic risk analysis in the Pakistani population. In conclusion, while different risk assessment tools have been developed for the Pakistani population aged 40 years and above, there is an urgent need to expand cardiac risk evaluation by identifying genetic markers related to CHD, particularly in the younger population. This will be crucial for advancing our understanding of CHD risk factors and developing more effective prevention and intervention strategies. References Samad Z, Hanif B. Cardiovascular Diseases in Pakistan: Imagining a Postpandemic, Postconflict Future. Circulation. 2023;147(17):1261-3. Lloyd-Jones DM, Larson MG, Beiser A, Levy D. Lifetime risk of developing coronary heart disease. Lancet. 1999;353(9147):89-92. Cooper R, Cutler J, Desvigne-Nickens P, Fortmann SP, Friedman L, Havlik R, et al. Trends and disparities in coronary heart disease, stroke, and other cardiovascular diseases in the United States: findings of the national conference on cardiovascular disease prevention. Circulation. 2000;102(25):3137-47. Greenland P, Knoll MD, Stamler J, Neaton JD, Dyer AR, Garside DB, et al. Major risk factors as antecedents of fatal and nonfatal coronary heart disease events. JAMA. 2003;290(7):891-7. Khot UN, Khot MB, Bajzer CT, Sapp SK, Ohman EM, Brener SJ, et al. Prevalence of conventional risk factors in patients with coronary heart disease. JAMA. 2003;290(7):898-904. Vasan RS, Sullivan LM, Wilson PW, Sempos CT, Sundström J, Kannel WB, et al. Relative importance of borderline and elevated levels of coronary heart disease risk factors. Ann Intern Med. 2005;142(6):393-402. Hackam DG, Anand SS. Emerging risk factors for atherosclerotic vascular disease: a critical review of the evidence. JAMA. 2003;290(7):932-40. Pencina MJ, D'Agostino Sr RB, D'Agostino Jr RB, Vasan RS. Evaluating the added predictive ability of a new marker: from area under the ROC curve to reclassification and beyond. Stat Med. 2008;27(2):157-72. Aziz KU, Faruqui AM, Patel N, Jaffery H. Prevalence and awareness of cardiovascular disease including life styles in a lower middle class urban community in an Asian country. Pak Heart J. 2008;41(3-4):11-20. Beaney KE, Cooper JA, Ullah Shahid S, Ahmed W, Qamar R, Drenos F, et al. Clinical utility of a coronary heart disease risk prediction gene score in UK healthy middle aged men and in the Pakistani population. PloS One. 2015;10(7):e0130754. Belsky DW, Moffitt TE, Sugden K, Williams B, Houts R, McCarthy J, et al. Development and evaluation of a genetic risk score for obesity. Biodemograp Soc Biol. 2013;59(1):85-100. Bennet AM, Di Angelantonio E, Ye Z, Wensley F, Dahlin A, Ahlbom A, et al. Association of apolipoprotein E genotypes with lipid levels and coronary risk. JAMA. 2007;298(11):1300-11. Brindle P, Beswick A, Fahey T, Ebrahim S. Accuracy and impact of risk assessment in the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease: a systematic review. Heart. 2006;92(12):1752-9. Casas JP, Cooper J, Miller GJ, Hingorani AD, Humphries SE. Investigating the Genetic Determinants of Cardiovascular Disease Using Candidate Genes and Meta‐analysis of Association Studies. Ann Hum Genet. 2006;70(2):145-69. Collins GS, Altman DG. An independent and external validation of QRISK2 cardiovascular disease risk score: a prospective open cohort study. BMJ. 2010;340:340:c2442. Conroy RM, Pyörälä K, Fitzgerald AE, Sans S, Menotti A, De Backer G, et al. Estimation of ten-year risk of fatal cardiovascular disease in Europe: the SCORE project. Eur Heart J. 2003;24(11):987-1003. IBC 50K CAD Consortium. Large-scale gene-centric analysis identifies novel variants for coronary artery disease. PLoS Genet. 2011;7(9):e1002260. Cooper JA, Miller GJ, Humphries SE. A comparison of the PROCAM and Framingham point-scoring systems for estimation of individual risk of coronary heart disease in the Second Northwick Park Heart Study. Atherosclerosis. 2005;181(1):93-100. Cordell HJ. Detecting gene–gene interactions that underlie human diseases. Nat Rev Genet. 2009;10(6):392-404. Samani NJ, Erdmann J, Hall AS, Hengstenberg C, Mangino M, Mayer B, et al. Genomewide association analysis of coronary artery disease. N Engl J Med. 2007;357(5):443-53. Paynter NP, Chasman DI, Buring JE, Shiffman D, Cook NR, Ridker PM. Cardiovascular disease risk prediction with and without knowledge of genetic variation at chromosome 9p21.3. Ann Intern Med. 2009;150(2):65-72. Palomaki GE, Melillo S, Bradley LA. Association between 9p21 genomic markers and heart disease: a meta-analysis. JAMA. 2010;303(7):648-56. Patel RS, Asselbergs FW, Quyyumi AA, Palmer TM, Finan CI, Tragante V, et al. Genetic variants at chromosome 9p21 and risk of first versus subsequent coronary heart disease events: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2014;63(21):2234-45. Dutta A, Henley W, Lang IA, Murray A, Guralnik J, Wallace RB, et al. The coronary artery disease–associated 9p21 variant and later life 20-year survival to cohort extinction. Circ Cardiovasc Genet. 2011;4(5):542-8. Hernesniemi JA, Seppälä I, Lyytikäinen LP, Mononen N, Oksala N, Hutri-Kähönen N, et al. Genetic profiling using genome-wide significant coronary artery disease risk variants does not improve the prediction of subclinical atherosclerosis: the cardiovascular risk in young finns study, the bogalusa heart study and the health 2000 survey–a meta-analysis of three independent studies. PloS One. 2012;7(1):e28931. Hippisley-Cox J, Coupland C, Vinogradova Y, Robson J, Minhas R, Sheikh A, et al. Predicting cardiovascular risk in England and Wales: prospective derivation and validation of QRISK2. BMJ. 2008;336(7659):1475-82. Shahid SU, Cooper JA, Beaney KE, Li K, Rehman A, Humphries SE. Genetic risk analysis of coronary artery disease in Pakistani subjects using a genetic risk score of 21 variants. Atherosclerosis. 2017;258:1-7.

BackgroundTobacco consumption is pervasive in Indonesia, with 6 out of 10 households in the country consuming tobacco. Smoking households, on average, divert a significant share (10.7%) of their monthly budget on tobacco products, which is higher than spending on staples, meat or vegetables. Nevertheless, evidence of the causal link between tobacco expenditure and spending on other commodities in Indonesia is limited.ObjectiveThis study aims to estimate the crowding-out effects of tobacco spending on the expenditure of other goods and services in Indonesia.MethodThis research estimates the conditional Engel curve with three-stage least square regression, where the instrumental variable technique is applied to address the simultaneity of tobacco and total non-tobacco spending. The study employs a large-scale household budget survey from the Indonesian socioeconomic survey (Susenas) from 2017 to 2019, comprising over 900 000 households.FindingTobacco spending crowds out the share of a household’s budget allocated for food, such as spending on staples, meat, dairy, vegetables and fruits. Moreover, tobacco spending also reduces the share of expenditure spent on non-food commodities, such as clothing, housing, utilities, durable and non-durable goods, education, healthcare and entertainment, although its effect is not as large as the crowding out on food. The analysis shows that the crowding-out effects of tobacco are observed across low-income, middle-income and high-income households. In addition, the simulation suggests that reducing tobacco expenditure will increase household spending on essential needs.

The article presents the results of an analytical and statistical study of the dynamics and structure of incomes and expenses of Ukrainian households. The informational basis of the study is the data of the State Statistics Service of Ukraine regarding household incomes and expenses for 2017–2021. The territorial distribution and quantitative composition of domestic households are characterized. An analysis of the structure of aggregate income resources of households was made. The dynamics, trends and problematic aspects of household income generation were studied. Real incomes of households were compared with their subsistence minimum. The analysis showed that the average monthly amount of total household resources in Ukraine during 2017–2021 showed positive dynamics. Household incomes differ significantly across regions of the country. Despite the constant and rather significant growth of the nominal incomes of Ukrainian households, their real incomes grow much more slowly, which is due to the influence of inflation. The study of expenses as a component of the assessment of the financial condition of households made it possible to single out the following features in the structure of expenses of domestic households: a high share of consumer expenses, and accordingly, a low share of non-consumer expenses, in particular, investment expenses; a high share of expenditure on food products. An analysis of the dynamics and structure of total household expenses was carried out. It is proved that the structure of domestic household expenses is quite typical for post-Soviet countries. With the help of the Engel curve, the dynamics of the current financial provision of household expenses is illustrated. It was established that the key factor affecting the formation of household expenses is their income. It has been proven that the financial condition of households is affected not only by the amount of income, but also by the level of their use. An imbalance in the structure of income and expenses of domestic households was revealed. It is noted that the financial condition of domestic households did not significantly improve during the research period.

AbstractThis paper estimates Engel curves on the foreign content (outsourcing) and the foreign environmental taxes embedded in the consumption of final goods and services in the United States (U.S.). We estimate Engel curves using U.S. household income and consumption information from 1996 to 2011 and find that they are concave and shift down over time. Importantly, our results suggest a coherent picture where the foreign content and the foreign environmental taxes in U.S. household consumption bundles decreased on average over time primarily because of a composition effect where the significant income increase has led to a shift in consumption towards goods and services with lower foreign content and lower foreign environmental taxes. Both effects represent a movement along their respective Engel curves. Consequently, other effects besides income changes play a minor role in the evolution of consumer decisions and their relationship with foreign content and environmental taxes.

Tobacco consumption implies a dilemma in the allocation of the family budget. Hence, the objective of this study is to determine the effect of tobacco consumption on expenditure patterns within Costa Rican households. The 2018 National Household Income and Expenditure Survey is used to estimate Engel curves through a Quadratic Almost Ideal Demand System, using the Seemingly Unrelated Regression model for a set of 11 expenditure categories. Due to heteroskedasticity and endogeneity, the Generalized Method of Moment Three-Stage-Least-Squares (GMM-3SLS) is used since it provides more efficient parameter estimates. Results show that tobacco consumption is associated with a crowding-out effect on health expenditure and with a crowding-in effect on restaurant and hotel expenditures. Furthermore, tobacco consumption shows a crowding-in effect on alcoholic beverages for every income quintile. This suggests that tobacco consumption could harm the country´s standard of living and not only the realm of health.

BackgroundThe main goal of this study is to estimate the crowding out impact of tobacco expenditures on the household budget allocation to other mutually exclusive commodity groups in Montenegro.MethodologyThe analysis uses the Household Budget Survey data from 2005 to 2017 to estimate a system of Engel curves using a three-stage least squares approach. As the tobacco expenditure variable is endogenous to budget shares on other consumption items, instrumental variables were included to obtain consistent estimates.ResultsOverall, the results confirm the existence of the crowding out effect of tobacco spending on various commodities, such as some food items (eg, cereals, fruits and vegetables and dairy products), clothing, housing and utilities, education and recreation while a positive effect of tobacco consumption was estimated on budget shares on bars and restaurants, alcohol, coffee and sugary drinks. These results are consistent throughout the income groups of households. The estimates indicate that an increase in tobacco expenditures leads to reduction in budget shares on essential goods, which is likely to have negative impacts on the household living standard.ConclusionsTobacco expenditure crowds out household spending on necessities, especially in case of the poorest households, thus increasing inequality, hampering human capital development and potentially causing long-term adverse effects on the households in Montenegro. Our results are similar to evidence from other low and middle-income countries. This paper contributes to the analysis of the crowding out effect of tobacco consumption, which was conducted for the first time in Montenegro.