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1
Truitt, Theodore O., Roger A. Adelman, Dan H. Kelly, and J. Paul Willging. "Quantitative Endoscopy: Initial Accuracy Measurements." Annals of Otology, Rhinology & Laryngology 109, no. 2 (February 2000): 128–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/000348940010900203.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The geometric optics of an endoscope can be used to determine the absolute size of an object in an endoscopic field without knowing the actual distance from the object. This study explores the accuracy of a technique that estimates absolute object size from endoscopic images. Quantitative endoscopy involves calibrating a rigid endoscope to produce size estimates from 2 images taken with a known traveled distance between the images. The heights of 12 samples, ranging in size from 0.78 to 11.80 mm, were estimated with this calibrated endoscope. Backup distances of 5 mm and 10 mm were used for comparison. The mean percent error for all estimated measurements when compared with the actual object sizes was 1.12%. The mean errors for 5-mm and 10-mm backup distances were 0.76% and 1.65%, respectively. The mean errors for objects <2 mm and ≥2 mm were 0.94% and 1.18%, respectively. Quantitative endoscopy estimates endoscopic image size to within 5% of the actual object size. This method remains promising for quantitatively evaluating object size from endoscopic images. It does not require knowledge of the absolute distance of the endoscope from the object, rather, only the distance traveled by the endoscope between images.
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Thomas, Roy F., William T. Monacci, and Eric A. Mair. "Endoscopic Image-Guided Transethmoid Pituitary Surgery." Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery 127, no. 5 (November 2002): 409–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1067/mhn.2002.129821.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
OBJECTIVE: We describe a new endoscopic transethmoid approach for pituitary surgery and to compare it with other surgical techniques. STUDY DESIGN AND SETTING: Eleven patients undergoing pituitary surgery from September 2000 through January 2002 underwent an image-guided endoscopic transethmoid procedure to remove pituitary tumors. Ease of approach, resection, exposure of the surgical field, and operative complications were documented. RESULTS: Endoscopic ethmoidectomy permits enhanced exposure and simplified tumor resection. The use of one nostril to stabilize the endoscope and the other to pass instruments affords a bimanual procedure that avoids the difficulty of small nares and keeping the scope fixed while exchanging instruments. Operative morbidity was low with no significant complications in this pilot study. CONCLUSIONS: This approach opens a generous operative exposure while safely allowing room to endoscopically maneuver and affords direct access should revision surgery be needed. SIGNIFICANCE: This procedure uses a technique familiar to otolaryngologists and may be used for pituitary and other skull base tumors. The transseptal approach to the sella turcica is the most commonly performed procedure to reach the pituitary gland. Three major variations of the transseptal approach are used: sublabial approach, external rhinoplasty approach, and transnasal approach. Each has unique advantages and disadvantages relative to each other and the endoscopic procedure, apart from the shared transseptal route ( Table 1 ). The techniques have been described elsewhere previously. 1–3 More recently, endoscopy has been used to aid the approach to the pituitary. The first endoscopic procedures used the transseptal dissection route through a standard sublabial incision, with the endoscope passed through a self-retaining speculum. 4–6 In other cases the endoscope was used for the approach only, with the binocular operating microscope subsequently used for the tumor resection. 7 Except for the wide field of vision afforded by the endoscopic approach, the morbidity of a transseptal dissection remained. More recent advances have used an endonasal approach, which allows the surgeon to bypass the transseptal dissection. 8–11 The majority of procedures performed use one nostril to pass the endoscope and other instruments, with limited endoscopic operative maneuverability. We introduce an endonasal transethmoid approach bypassing the need for a nasal retractor, headrest, and postoperative nasal packing, while providing enhanced endoscopic operative maneuverability through bimanual instrumentation using both nares and an endoscope stabilizer.
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Sato, Tomoya. "TXI: Texture and Color Enhancement Imaging for Endoscopic Image Enhancement." Journal of Healthcare Engineering 2021 (April 7, 2021): 1–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2021/5518948.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Recognition of lesions with subtle morphological and/or color changes during white light imaging (WLI) endoscopy remains a challenge. Often the endoscopic image suffers from nonuniform illumination across the image due to curvature in the lumen and the direction of the illumination light of the endoscope. We propose an image enhancement technology to resolve the drawbacks above called texture and color enhancement imaging (TXI). TXI is designed to enhance three image factors in WLI (texture, brightness, and color) in order to clearly define subtle tissue differences. In our proposed method, retinex-based enhancement is employed in the chain of endoscopic image processing. Retinex-based enhancement is combined with color enhancement to greatly accentuate color tone differences of mucosal surfaces. We apply TXI to animal endoscopic images and evaluate the performance of TXI compared with conventional endoscopic enhancement technologies, conventionally used techniques for real-world image processing, and newly proposed techniques for surgical endoscopic image augmentation. Our experimental results show that TXI can enhance brightness selectively in dark areas of an endoscopic image and can enhance subtle tissue differences such as slight morphological or color changes while simultaneously preventing over-enhancement. These experimental results demonstrate the potential of the proposed TXI algorithm as a future clinical tool for detecting gastrointestinal lesions having difficult-to-recognize tissue differences.
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HU, CHAO, LI LIU, BO SUN, and MAX Q. H. MENG. "COMPACT REPRESENTATION AND PANORAMIC REPRESENTATION FOR CAPSULE ENDOSCOPE IMAGES." International Journal of Information Acquisition 06, no. 04 (December 2009): 257–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0219878909001989.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
A capsule endoscope robot is a miniature medical instrument for inspection of gastrointestinal tract. In this paper, we present image compact representation and preliminary panoramic representation methods for the capsule endoscope. First, the characteristics of the capsule endoscopic images are investigated and different coordinate representations of the circular image are discussed. Secondly, effective compact representation methods including special DPCM and wavelet compression techniques are applied to the endoscopic images to get high compression ratio and signal to noise ratio. Then, a preliminary approach to panoramic representation of endoscopic images is presented.
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Akhmetvaleev, R. R., I. A. Lackman, D. V. Popov, and M. V. Krasnoperov. "Image segmentation technique to support automatic marking of objects in endoscopic images." Informatization and communication, no. 2 (February 16, 2021): 146–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.34219/2078-8320-2021-12-2-146-154.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The aim of this study is to develop a method for visual segmentation of various objects of endoscopic images based on a collection of endoscopic images. The method was developed on the basis of a collection of images obtained by ENVD LLC on a contractual basis with medical organizations of the Republic of Bashkortostan, Russia. The collection consists of 70 endoscopic images recording clinical cases diagnosed in accordance with the Paris Tumor Classification of Gastrointestinal Diseases. A number of machine vision operations were carried out, including image preprocessing, image sampling, and subsequent clustering for the purpose of image segmentation. Results: A technique for the analysis of endoscopic images was developed, which makes it possible to obtain the contours of objects of interest to a specialist performing endoscopy. Conclusion. The developed solution allows to speed up and improve the procedure for marking endoscopic images, which in turn prepares a platform for further processing of endoscopic images, for example, nosological classification of neoplasms.
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Lu, Bin. "Image Aided Recognition of Wireless Capsule Endoscope Based on the Neural Network." Journal of Healthcare Engineering 2022 (April 7, 2022): 1–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2022/3880356.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Wireless capsule endoscopy is an important method for diagnosing small bowel diseases, but it will collect thousands of endoscopy images that need to be diagnosed. The analysis of these images requires a huge workload and may cause manual reading errors. This article attempts to use neural networks instead of artificial endoscopic image analysis to assist doctors in diagnosing and treating endoscopic images. First, in image preprocessing, the image is converted from RGB color mode to lab color mode, texture features are extracted for network training, and finally, the accuracy of the algorithm is verified. After inputting the retained endoscopic image verification set into the neural network algorithm, the conclusion is that the accuracy of the neural network model constructed in this study is 97.69%, which can effectively distinguish normal, benign lesions, and malignant tumors. Experimental studies have proved that the neural network algorithm can effectively assist the endoscopist’s diagnosis and improve the diagnosis efficiency. This research hopes to provide a reference for the application of neural network algorithms in the field of endoscopic images.
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Wu, Chia Hsiang, and Mei Yun Su. "Specular Highlight Detection from Endoscopic Images for Shape Reconstruction." Applied Mechanics and Materials 870 (September 2017): 357–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.870.357.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Endoscopy provides a convenient way to access the inner structures of various organs. The endoscopic images provide an immediate observation and help diagnosis and therapy. Shape reconstruction from endoscopic images further provides real scale factor for image-guided navigation. However, specular highlights, bright patches of light appearing on the imaged surface, mask the real image texture and result in erroneous reconstruction. Therefore, the detection of specular highlights is essential for accurate reconstruction. In this study, we divide the images into homogeneous regions by color quantization and spatial segmentation. Then, a thresholding technique based on histogram of the pixel intensity values is used. Finally, we check the gray level consistency for each region to avoid over segmentation. The experimental results show that the proposed method can achieve successfully detection.
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HSU, CHIEH-HAO, SHAOU-GANG MIAOU, and FENG-LING CHANG. "A DISTORTION CORRECTION METHOD FOR ENDOSCOPE IMAGES BASED ON CALIBRATION PATTERNS AND A SIMPLE MATHEMATIC MODEL FOR OPTICAL LENS." Biomedical Engineering: Applications, Basis and Communications 17, no. 06 (December 25, 2005): 309–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.4015/s1016237205000469.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
In the past 30 years, the progress in optical engineering, computer science and electronic techniques have made the endoscopy an invaluable tool in both internal clinics and surgical operation. As its applications increase exponentially, it has even become a specialized division in the clinical medicine. In order to obtain a larger field of view inside a small and narrow gastrointestinal tract, an endoscope is usually equipped with a wide-angle lens (Fish eye lens). Thus, an acquired image is often with certain degree of shape distortion. The distortion gets even more serious as the objects extend outward from the center of the lens in radial. This paper discusses the effect of such distortion and the correction of the effect. By using a calibration pattern, the nonlinear distortion is corrected with a simple mathematic model for the endoscope image. Once the endoscopic lens is calibrated, the same mathematic model can be utilized repeatedly for the images captured by that endoscope. After capturing the calibration pattern using an endoscopic instrument, digital image processing techniques are applied to extract the calibration pattern from the distorted image. We propose a second order mathematic model and consider the parameters of optical lens. The coordinates of each dot in the calibration pattern are the input to the mathematic model for the correction of endoscope images. The experimental results show that the correction method is effective. For example, by comparing to the original calibration pattern image, the average errors in area calculation are 76.46% and 4.68% for the distorted and the corrected images, respectively.
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Uematsu, Junichi, Mitsushige Sugimoto, Mariko Hamada, Eri Iwata, Ryota Niikura, Naoyoshi Nagata, Masakatsu Fukuzawa, Takao Itoi, and Takashi Kawai. "Efficacy of a Third-Generation High-Vision Ultrathin Endoscope for Evaluating Gastric Atrophy and Intestinal Metaplasia in Helicobacter pylori-Eradicated Patients." Journal of Clinical Medicine 11, no. 8 (April 14, 2022): 2198. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jcm11082198.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Background: Image-enhanced endoscopy methods such as narrow-band imaging (NBI) are advantageous over white-light imaging (WLI) for detecting gastric atrophy, intestinal metaplasia, and cancer. Although new third-generation high-vision ultrathin endoscopes improve image quality and resolution over second-generation endoscopes, it is unclear whether the former also enhances color differences surrounding atrophy and intestinal metaplasia for endoscopic detection. We compared the efficacy of a new third-generation ultrathin endoscope and an older second-generation endoscope. Methods: We enrolled 50 Helicobacter pylori-eradicated patients who underwent transnasal endoscopy with a second-generation and third-generation endoscope (GIF-290N and GIF-1200N, respectively) in our retrospective study. Color differences based on the International Commission on Illumination 1976 (L*, a*, b*) color space were compared between second-generation and third-generation high-vision endoscopes. Results: Color differences surrounding atrophy produced by NBI on the GIF-1200N endoscope were significantly greater than those on GIF-290N (19.2 ± 8.5 vs. 14.4 ± 6.2, p = 0.001). In contrast, color differences surrounding intestinal metaplasia using both WLI and NBI were similar on GIF-1200N and GIF-290N endoscopes. NBI was advantageous over WLI for detecting intestinal metaplasia on both endoscopes. Conclusions: NBI using a third-generation ultrathin endoscope produced significantly greater color differences surrounding atrophy and intestinal metaplasia in H. pylori-eradicated patients compared with WLI.
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Iacucci, Marietta, Federica Furfaro, Takayuki Matsumoto, Toshio Uraoka, Samuel Smith, Subrata Ghosh, and Ralf Kiesslich. "Advanced endoscopic techniques in the assessment of inflammatory bowel disease: new technology, new era." Gut 68, no. 3 (December 22, 2018): 562–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/gutjnl-2017-315235.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Endoscopic assessment of inflammation and mucosal healing is crucial for appropriate management in IBD. Current definition of endoscopic mucosal healing has been derived using previous generation of standard white light endoscopes. New endoscopy technologies widely available provide much more detailed images of mucosal and vascular patterns. Novel endoscopic techniques with high definition image, optical and digital enhancement have enhanced the quality and fine details of vascular and mucosal pattern so that endoscopic images have started to reflect histological changes for lesions and inflammation/healing. These technologies can now define subtle inflammatory changes and increase detection and characterisation of colonic lesions in patients with IBD. The best endoscopic technique to detect dysplasia in IBD is still debated. Dye chromoendoscopy with targeted biopsies is considered by Surveillance for Colorectal Endoscopic Neoplasia Detection and Management in inflammatory Bowel Disease Patients: International Consensus Recommendations (SCENIC consensus the standard of care and recommended for adoption by gastroenterologists in practice. In future, it is possible that well-trained colonoscopists using high definition equipment with image enhancements may be able to obtain equivalent yield without pan-colonic dye spraying and characterise lesions. Finally, SCENIC introduced endoscopic resectability of some dysplastic colonic lesions—new techniques may now better characterise endoscopic resectability and limit the number of colectomies. In this review, we will provide a state-of-the-art opinion on the direction of technological advances in the assessment of IBD and how new concepts will refine clinical practice.
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Zhang, Guo, Jinzhao Lin, Enling Cao, Yu Pang, and Weiwei Sun. "A Medical Endoscope Image Enhancement Method Based on Improved Weighted Guided Filtering." Mathematics 10, no. 9 (April 23, 2022): 1423. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/math10091423.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
In clinical surgery, the quality of endoscopic images is degraded by noise. Blood, illumination changes, specular reflection, smoke, and other factors contribute to noise, which reduces the quality of an image in an occluded area, affects doctors’ judgment, prolongs the operation duration, and increases the operation risk. In this study, we proposed an improved weighted guided filtering algorithm to enhance endoscopic image tissue. An unsharp mask algorithm and an improved weighted guided filter were used to enhance vessel details and contours in endoscopic images. The scheme of the entire endoscopic image processing, which included detail enhancement, contrast enhancement, brightness enhancement, and highlight area removal, is presented. Compared with other algorithms, the proposed algorithm maintained edges and reduced halos efficiently, and its effectiveness was demonstrated using experiments. The peak signal-to-noise ratio and structural similarity of endoscopic images obtained using the proposed algorithm were the highest. The foreground–background detail variance–background variance improved. The proposed algorithm had a strong ability to suppress noise and could maintain the structure of original endoscopic images, which improved the details of tissue blood vessels. The findings of this study can provide guidelines for developing endoscopy devices.
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Shibata, Tomoyuki, Atsushi Teramoto, Hyuga Yamada, Naoki Ohmiya, Kuniaki Saito, and Hiroshi Fujita. "Automated Detection and Segmentation of Early Gastric Cancer from Endoscopic Images Using Mask R-CNN." Applied Sciences 10, no. 11 (May 31, 2020): 3842. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app10113842.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Gastrointestinal endoscopy is widely conducted for the early detection of gastric cancer. However, it is often difficult to detect early gastric cancer lesions and accurately evaluate the invasive regions. Our study aimed to develop a detection and segmentation method for early gastric cancer regions from gastrointestinal endoscopic images. In this method, we first collected 1208 healthy and 533 cancer images. The gastric cancer region was detected and segmented from endoscopic images using Mask R-CNN, an instance segmentation method. An endoscopic image was provided to the Mask R-CNN, and a bounding box and a label image of the gastric cancer region were obtained. As a performance evaluation via five-fold cross-validation, sensitivity and false positives (FPs) per image were 96.0% and 0.10 FP/image, respectively. In the evaluation of segmentation of the gastric cancer region, the average Dice index was 71%. These results indicate that our proposed scheme may be useful for the detection of gastric cancer and evaluation of the invasive region in gastrointestinal endoscopy.
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Fante, Kinde Anlay, Fetulhak Abdurahman, and Mulugeta Tegegn Gemeda. "An Ingenious Application-Specific Quality Assessment Methods for Compressed Wireless Capsule Endoscopy Images." Transactions on Environment and Electrical Engineering 4, no. 1 (October 24, 2020): 18. http://dx.doi.org/10.22149/teee.v4i1.139.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
<p>Image quality assessment methods are used in different image processing applications. Among them, image compression and image super-resolution can be mentioned in wireless capsule endoscopy (WCE) applications. The existing image compression algorithms for WCE employ the generalpurpose image quality assessment (IQA) methods to evaluate the quality of the compressed image. Due to the specific nature of the images captured by WCE, the general-purpose IQA methods are not optimal and give less correlated results to that of subjective IQA (visual perception). This paper presents improved image quality assessment techniques for wireless capsule endoscopy applications. The proposed objective IQA methods are obtained by modifying the existing full-reference image quality assessment techniques. The modification is done by excluding the noninformative regions, in endoscopic images, in the computation of IQA metrics. The experimental results demonstrate that the proposed IQA method gives an improved peak signal-tonoise ratio (PSNR) and structural similarity index (SSIM). The proposed image quality assessment methods are more reliable for compressed endoscopic capsule images.</p>
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Kikuchi, Daisuke, Daiki Ariyoshi, Yugo Suzuki, Yorinari Ochiai, Hiroyuki Odagiri, Junnosuke Hayasaka, Masami Tanaka, et al. "Possibility of new shielding device for upper gastrointestinal endoscopy." Endoscopy International Open 09, no. 10 (September 16, 2021): E1536—E1541. http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/a-1523-8959.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Abstract Background and study aims Infection control is essential when performing endoscopic procedures, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic. Therefore, we have developed a new shielding device called STEP for infection control in upper gastrointestinal endoscopy. Patients and methods STEP consists of a mask worn by the patient and a drape that is connected to the mask and covers the endoscope. A suction tube attached to the mask prevents aerosols from spreading. The endoscopist operates the endoscope through the drape. Three endoscopists performed a total of 18 examinations using an upper endoscopy training model with and without STEP. Endoscopic images were evaluated by three other endoscopists, using a visual analog scale. We also simulated contact, droplet, and aerosol infection and evaluated the utility of STEP. Results All examinations were conducted without a problem. Mean procedure time was 126.3 ± 11.6 seconds with STEP and 122.3 ± 10.0 seconds without STEP. The mean visual analog score was 90.7 ± 10.1 with STEP and 90.4 ± 10.0 without STEP. In the contact model, adherence of simulated contaminants was 4.9 ± 1.4 % without STEP and 0 % with STEP. In the droplet model, the number of simulated contaminants attached to the paper was 338 273 ± 90 735 pixels without STEP and 0 with STEP. In the aerosol model, the total number of particles was 346 837 ± 9485 without STEP and was significantly reduced to 222 ± 174 with STEP. Conclusions No effect on examination time or endoscopic image quality was observed when using STEP in upper gastrointestinal endoscopy. Using STEP reduced the diffusion of simulated contaminants in all three infection models.
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Boese, Axel, Cora Wex, Roland Croner, Uwe Bernd Liehr, Johann Jakob Wendler, Jochen Weigt, Thorsten Walles, et al. "Endoscopic Imaging Technology Today." Diagnostics 12, no. 5 (May 18, 2022): 1262. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics12051262.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
One of the most applied imaging methods in medicine is endoscopy. A highly specialized image modality has been developed since the first modern endoscope, the “Lichtleiter” of Bozzini was introduced in the early 19th century. Multiple medical disciplines use endoscopy for diagnostics or to visualize and support therapeutic procedures. Therefore, the shapes, functionalities, handling concepts, and the integrated and surrounding technology of endoscopic systems were adapted to meet these dedicated medical application requirements. This survey gives an overview of modern endoscopic technology’s state of the art. Therefore, the portfolio of several manufacturers with commercially available products on the market was screened and summarized. Additionally, some trends for upcoming developments were collected.
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Liebig, Kay Niklas, Homajoun Maslehaty, Athanasios K. Petridis, Wolfgang Konen, and Martin Scholz. "Comparison of two algorithms for the application of real-time image mosaicking in neuroendoscopy." Journal of Neurosurgery 121, no. 3 (September 2014): 688–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.3171/2014.5.jns121788.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Object Neuroendoscopy is used more and more frequently in neurosurgical procedures and has become an important tool in the neurosurgical armamentarium. However, the main restriction of neuroendoscopy is the limited field of view. A better overview of the area of interest would increase surgical safety and decrease procedure-related morbidity rates. In the present study, the authors aimed to improve this restriction by using and comparing two algorithms to create endoscopic panoramic images, which increase the field of view during neuroendoscopic procedures. Methods Different endoscopic methods with or without a stand and with linear or circular endoscope movements were performed in cadaveric ventricles. Video of the endoscopy was used to create image mosaics of the lateral ventricle with the help of the Kourogi or LogSearch (LS) algorithm. In the LS algorithm, different template sizes were used. Three observers graded the quality of the image mosaic in terms of usefulness in surgery. The fastest frame rate was 3–4 frames/second. Results The LS algorithm with a larger template size showed significantly better results for the creation of image mosaics than the Kourogi algorithm in linear endoscopic movement with or without a stand. In circular endoscopic movements, the results seemed to be better with the LS algorithm but were not significantly different from those obtained with the Kourogi algorithm. In summary, image quality in the experimental paradigms was satisfying. Conclusions Results in the study showed that the creation of image mosaics is possible and reliable with the featured algorithms. Image mosaicking is an applicable device for neuroendoscopy and can increase the field of view during endoscopic procedures. Its use can increase the safety and the field of application of neuroendoscopy. However, faster frame rates will be required to create a smooth image for practical use during surgery.
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Imtiaz, Mohammad S., and Khan A. Wahid. "Color Enhancement in Endoscopic Images Using Adaptive Sigmoid Function and Space Variant Color Reproduction." Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine 2015 (2015): 1–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/607407.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Modern endoscopes play an important role in diagnosing various gastrointestinal (GI) tract related diseases. The improved visual quality of endoscopic images can provide better diagnosis. This paper presents an efficient color image enhancement method for endoscopic images. It is achieved in two stages: image enhancement at gray level followed by space variant chrominance mapping color reproduction. Image enhancement is achieved by performing adaptive sigmoid function and uniform distribution of sigmoid pixels. Secondly, a space variant chrominance mapping color reproduction is used to generate new chrominance components. The proposed method is used on low contrast color white light images (WLI) to enhance and highlight the vascular and mucosa structures of the GI tract. The method is also used to colorize grayscale narrow band images (NBI) and video frames. The focus value and color enhancement factor show that the enhancement level in the processed image is greatly increased compared to the original endoscopic image. The overall contrast level of the processed image is higher than the original image. The color similarity test has proved that the proposed method does not add any additional color which is not present in the original image. The algorithm has low complexity with an execution speed faster than other related methods.
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Wei, Li, John Burke, Arnau Benet, Manish Aghi, Jose Gurrola, and Ivan El-Sayed. "Endoscope Image Capture System with Mirrorless Camera." Journal of Neurological Surgery Part B: Skull Base 80, no. 01 (July 25, 2018): 079–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-0038-1667003.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
AbstractModern endoscopic surgery relies on capturing high fidelity images for a multitude of purposes. One method of capturing images involves incorporating infrared and 4 k resolution video in the image capture system. However, the price of such whole image capture systems remains expensive and potentially cost prohibitive for some practitioners. A major need exists for less expensive alternatives. Herein, we introduce a method of using a mirrorless camera for the purposes of an endoscope capture device. This system comprises components that are all readily commercially available. Sample pictures taken by this system are provided and the potential function of mirrorless camera is explored. This image capture system provides reasonable quality images, should be more reasonably affordable and easily implementable in variety of practices, and will help decrease the barriers to producing research in the area of endoscopic surgery.
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Kirsten, Lars, Joseph Morgenstern, Mikael Timo Erkkilä, Martin Schindler, Jonas Golde, Julia Walther, Max Kemper, et al. "Functional and morphological imaging of the human tympanic membrane with endoscopic optical coherence tomography." Current Directions in Biomedical Engineering 3, no. 2 (September 7, 2017): 99–101. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/cdbme-2017-0021.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
AbstractIn this ex vivo feasibility study, endoscopic structural and functional optical coherence tomography (OCT) imaging with a field of view of 8 mm is presented allowing the inspection of nearly the entire tympanic membrane through the ear canal. The endoscope utilizes a gradient index optics for simultaneous OCT and video endoscopy. Additionally, Doppler-OCT allows the measurement of the tympanic membrane oscillation. Due to the fast image acquisition, only minor motion artifacts have been observed, which don’t affect the image quality. In conclusion, endoscopic OCT is considered as a promising tool for the comprehensive examination of the human middle ear.
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Lui, Thomas, Kenneth Wong, Loey Mak, Michael Ko, Stephen Tsao, and Wai Leung. "Endoscopic prediction of deeply submucosal invasive carcinoma with use of artificial intelligence." Endoscopy International Open 07, no. 04 (April 2019): E514—E520. http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/a-0849-9548.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Abstract Background and study aims We evaluated use of artificial intelligence (AI) assisted image classifier in determining the feasibility of curative endoscopic resection of large colonic lesion based on non-magnified endoscopic images Methods AI image classifier was trained by 8,000 endoscopic images of large (≥ 2 cm) colonic lesions. The independent validation set consisted of 567 endoscopic images from 76 colonic lesions. Histology of the resected specimens was used as gold standard. Curative endoscopic resection was defined as histology no more advanced than well-differentiated adenocarcinoma, ≤ 1 mm submucosal invasion and without lymphovascular invasion, whereas non-curative resection was defined as any lesion that could not meet the above requirements. Performance of the trained AI image classifier was compared with that of endoscopists. Results In predicting endoscopic curative resection, AI had an overall accuracy of 85.5 %. Images from narrow band imaging (NBI) had significantly higher accuracy (94.3 % vs 76.0 %; P < 0.00001) and area under the ROC curve (AUROC) (0.934 vs 0.758; P = 0.002) than images from white light imaging (WLI). AI was superior to two junior endoscopists in terms of accuracy (85.5 % vs 61.9 % or 82.0 %, P < 0.05), AUROC (0.837 vs 0.638 or 0.717, P < 0.05) and confidence level (90.1 % vs 83.7 % or 78.3 %, P < 0.05). However, there was no statistical difference in accuracy and AUROC between AI and a senior endoscopist. Conclusions The trained AI image classifier based on non-magnified images can accurately predict probability of curative resection of large colonic lesions and is better than junior endoscopists. NBI images have better accuracy than WLI for AI prediction.
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IGARASHI, TATSUO, SATOKI ZENBUTSU, YUKIO NAYA, TAKURO ISHII, WEN-WEI YU, and TOMONORI YAMANISHI. "ASSESSMENT OF VOIDING FUNCTION BY ENDOSCOPIC IMAGING — A PRELIMINARY REPORT." Journal of Mechanics in Medicine and Biology 09, no. 04 (December 2009): 609–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0219519409003164.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
We report a novel method of reconstructing the 3D structure of the prostatic urethra and measuring its elasticity using endoscopic video images, and discuss their relation to clinical relevancy. Information regarding pixel color and brightness in the endoscopic video image is converted to relative distance between the object and the light source. An opened, 3D image of the prostatic urethra is obtained from a video image captured by the endoscope as it is slowly pulled through the urethra. The elasticity of the urethra is determined by recording a video image of the endoscope fixed in the prostatic urethra, with and without irrigation under water pressure of approximately 80 cm H 2 O . Angulation of the prostatic urethra is estimated by the number of intersections between the outline of protruded prostate and the midline of the urethra in patients with severe voiding dysfunction scheduled for transurethral resection of prostate, and in those scheduled for transurethral resection of bladder tumor without apparent discomfort during urination. The number of intersections showed a relationship with voiding symptoms. In conclusion, reconstruction of the 3D structure of the prostatic urethra from endoscopic video images is a feasible method that shows promise for estimating the mechanism of voiding dysfunction.
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Lokhmatov, Maksim M., T. N. Budkina, V. I. Oldakovsky, A. V. Tupylenko, and S. I. Ibragimov. "INTRALUMINAL ENDOSCOPY IN CHILDREN - PAST, PRESENT, FUTURE." Russian Pediatric Journal 21, no. 4 (April 30, 2019): 230–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.18821/1560-9561-2018-21-4-230-236.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The review presents the stages of the development of endoluminal endoscopy from rigid endoscopes with tube illumination to digital high-resolution endoscopy and methods of optical biopsy. The development of endoscopic studies in children began in the 60s of the XX century, and now they are indispensable methods of the visualization. There are described diagnostic options and achievements of intraluminal endoscopy in children, as well as the prospects for its development. The current level of endoscopy in pediatrics includes a high resolution of the obtained image, a morphological study of biopsies and a full range of endosurgical procedures. The authors believe the prospects for the development of endoluminal endoscopy in pediatrics to be determined by the improvement of endoscopes along with maintaining their high resolution with a gradual transition to robotic remote-controlled endoscopic systems.
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Doolin, Edward J., and Louise Strande. "Calibration of Endoscopic Images." Annals of Otology, Rhinology & Laryngology 104, no. 1 (January 1995): 19–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/000348949510400104.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
In pediatric airway surgery, endoscopic evaluation of the lesions and treatment is important. However, there are no objective and reproducible methods for measurement. The purpose of this study was to define the optical effects of a Storz-Hopkins system and develop a method of calibration and measurement. Known geometric images (grids and circles) were viewed through the Storz-Hopkins system and recorded. These images were then analyzed morphometrically with a computer image analyzer (Jandel Scientific). The distortion of the endoscope could be identified, and the severity was found to be a function of the distance from the center of the field (r = .962). When this distortion factor (range, 0% to 25% shrinkage) was used mathematically, known circles could be measured by means of an endoscopic image. The error was reduced from 17.6% to 4.3% (p < .003). With morphometric programs the optical distortion of the bronchoscope can be calibrated. This can then be used to correct the measurement of images.
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Boese, Axel, Alfredo Illanes, Sathish Balakrishnan, Nikolaos Davaris, Christoph Arens, and Michael Friebe. "Vascular pattern detection and recognition in endoscopic imaging of the vocal folds." Current Directions in Biomedical Engineering 4, no. 1 (September 1, 2018): 75–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/cdbme-2018-0019.
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AbstractAt present transoral laryngeal interventions are mainly observed and controlled by an external two dimensional direct microscopic view. This modality provides an overall view on the surgery situs in a straight line of sight. For treatment planning and appropriate documentation, an endoscopic inspection is mandatory prior to surgery. Nowadays a detailed endoscopic work-up of laryngeal lesions can be performed by contact endoscopy in combination with structure enhancement like Narrow Band Imaging. High resolution and magnification of up to 150 times provide detailed visualization of vascular structures and pathological changes of the tissue surface. In these procedures it is difficult however to localize the evaluated areas on large scale scenes like the microscopic view used for surgery. To provide a fast and easy image matching an automated vessel pattern recognition and allocation is presented. Endoscopic images depicting representative vessel structures of the vocal folds are selected out of contact endoscopy video scenes. These images are pre-processed for background homogenization. A Frangi Vessel Segmentation filter and morphological operations are used to extract the vessel structure and match it to the microscopic image. Using this method 4 detailed contact endoscopy images could be allocated in different scenes of the microscope video. This method can be used to simplify treatment planning and to prepare image data for documentation.
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Kim, Youngkyu, Jeongmin Oh, Seung-Ho Choi, Ahra Jung, June-Goo Lee, Yoon Se Lee, and Jun Ki Kim. "A Portable Smartphone-Based Laryngoscope System for High-Speed Vocal Cord Imaging of Patients With Throat Disorders: Instrument Validation Study." JMIR mHealth and uHealth 9, no. 6 (June 18, 2021): e25816. http://dx.doi.org/10.2196/25816.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Background Currently, high-speed digital imaging (HSDI), especially endoscopic HSDI, is routinely used for the diagnosis of vocal cord disorders. However, endoscopic HSDI devices are usually large and costly, which limits access to patients in underdeveloped countries and in regions with inadequate medical infrastructure. Modern smartphones have sufficient functionality to process the complex calculations that are required for processing high-resolution images and videos with a high frame rate. Recently, several attempts have been made to integrate medical endoscopes with smartphones to make them more accessible to people in underdeveloped countries. Objective This study aims to develop a smartphone adaptor for endoscopes, which enables smartphone-based vocal cord imaging, to demonstrate the feasibility of performing high-speed vocal cord imaging via the high-speed imaging functions of a high-performance smartphone camera, and to determine the acceptability of the smartphone-based high-speed vocal cord imaging system for clinical applications in developing countries. Methods A customized smartphone adaptor optical relay was designed for clinical endoscopy using selective laser melting–based 3D printing. A standard laryngoscope was attached to the smartphone adaptor to acquire high-speed vocal cord endoscopic images. Only existing basic functions of the smartphone camera were used for HSDI of the vocal cords. Extracted still frames were observed for qualitative glottal volume and shape. For image processing, segmented glottal and vocal cord areas were calculated from whole HSDI frames to characterize the amplitude of the vibrations on each side of the glottis, including the frequency, edge length, glottal areas, base cord, and lateral phase differences over the acquisition time. The device was incorporated into a preclinical videokymography diagnosis routine to compare functionality. Results Smartphone-based HSDI with the smartphone-endoscope adaptor could achieve 940 frames per second and a resolution of 1280 by 720 frames, which corresponds to the detection of 3 to 8 frames per vocal cycle at double the spatial resolution of existing devices. The device was used to image the vocal cords of 4 volunteers: 1 healthy individual and 3 patients with vocal cord paralysis, chronic laryngitis, or vocal cord polyps. The resultant image stacks were sufficient for most diagnostic purposes. The cost of the device including the smartphone was lower than that of existing HSDI devices. The image processing and analytics demonstrated the successful calculation of relevant diagnostic variables from the acquired images. Patients with vocal pathologies were easily differentiable in the quantitative data. Conclusions A smartphone-based HSDI endoscope system can function as a point-of-care clinical diagnostic device. The resulting analysis is of higher quality than that accessible by videostroboscopy and promises comparable quality and greater accessibility than HSDI. In particular, this system is suitable for use as an accessible diagnostic tool in underdeveloped areas with inadequate medical service infrastructure.
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Bang, Chang Seok, Hyun Lim, Hae Min Jeong, and Sung Hyeon Hwang. "Use of Endoscopic Images in the Prediction of Submucosal Invasion of Gastric Neoplasms: Automated Deep Learning Model Development and Usability Study." Journal of Medical Internet Research 23, no. 4 (April 15, 2021): e25167. http://dx.doi.org/10.2196/25167.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Background In a previous study, we examined the use of deep learning models to classify the invasion depth (mucosa-confined versus submucosa-invaded) of gastric neoplasms using endoscopic images. The external test accuracy reached 77.3%. However, model establishment is labor intense, requiring high performance. Automated deep learning (AutoDL) models, which enable fast searching of optimal neural architectures and hyperparameters without complex coding, have been developed. Objective The objective of this study was to establish AutoDL models to classify the invasion depth of gastric neoplasms. Additionally, endoscopist–artificial intelligence interactions were explored. Methods The same 2899 endoscopic images that were employed to establish the previous model were used. A prospective multicenter validation using 206 and 1597 novel images was conducted. The primary outcome was external test accuracy. Neuro-T, Create ML Image Classifier, and AutoML Vision were used in establishing the models. Three doctors with different levels of endoscopy expertise were asked to classify the invasion depth of gastric neoplasms for each image without AutoDL support, with faulty AutoDL support, and with best performance AutoDL support in sequence. Results The Neuro-T–based model reached 89.3% (95% CI 85.1%-93.5%) external test accuracy. For the model establishment time, Create ML Image Classifier showed the fastest time of 13 minutes while reaching 82.0% (95% CI 76.8%-87.2%) external test accuracy. While the expert endoscopist's decisions were not influenced by AutoDL, the faulty AutoDL misled the endoscopy trainee and the general physician. However, this was corrected by the support of the best performance AutoDL model. The trainee gained the most benefit from the AutoDL support. Conclusions AutoDL is deemed useful for the on-site establishment of customized deep learning models. An inexperienced endoscopist with at least a certain level of expertise can benefit from AutoDL support.
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Tang, Yubo, Jennifer Carns, Timothy Quang, Enrique M. Reina, Susana Gonzalez, Daniel G. Rosen, Sharmila Anandasabapathy, and Rebecca R. Richards-Kortum. "A Multimodal Optical Imaging Platform for the Early Detection of Gastric Malignancies." Journal of Global Oncology 2, no. 3_suppl (June 2016): 6s. http://dx.doi.org/10.1200/jgo.2016.004820.
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Abstract 14 We developed a novel multimodal video endoscope and evaluated its usefulness for the early detection of gastric neoplastic lesions. The imaging platform is a modified upper GI endoscope capable of white light imaging (WLI), widefield vital-dye fluorescence imaging (VFI) and high-resolution microendoscopy (HRME) in a single endoscopic insertion. A custom filter module is attached to the distal tip of the endoscope to enable VFI; HRME is performed by introducing a fiber optic probe through the endoscope working channel. Proflavine, a vital dye that stains nuclei is used to provide image contrast in both VFI and HRME. VFI images of proflavine stained tissue reveal the glandular patterns of the gastric mucosa, while HRME images reveal nuclear morphology with subcellular resolution. The performance of the platform was evaluated in a pilot study to image 35 patients with known or suspected gastric cancer undergoing either endoscopy or surgical resection. Patients were recruited at Mount Sinai Hospital, NY, and Hospital Evangelico in Siguatepeque, Honduras. For each patient, images were acquired with WLI, VFI and HRME sequentially during endoscopy. Images of neoplasia show disruption and effacement of glandular patterns. These alterations are visualized with enhanced contrast in VFI when compared to WLI; HRME images presenting the nuclear architecture at a subcellular level confirm these findings. Results suggest that this multimodal imaging platform can potentially enable a two-step protocol for early gastric cancer detection, wherein suspicious areas are red flagged with improved contrast using VFI, and then further imaged with HRME to confirm whether neoplasia is present based on changes in nuclear morphology. Given the convenient adaptation of the system design to other commercial endoscopes and the low cost of HRME (< $2,500), the utility of this multimodal imaging platform should be further evaluated in in vivo studies and low-resource settings. AUTHORS' DISCLOSURES OF POTENTIAL CONFLICTS OF INTEREST: Yubo Tang No relationship to disclose Jennifer Carns No relationship to disclose Timothy Quang No relationship to disclose Enrique M. Reina No relationship to disclose Susana Gonzalez No relationship to disclose Daniel G. Rosen Research Funding: Biotheragnostics Sharmila Anandasabapathy Honoraria: Medial Medical Rebecca R. Richards-Kortum Consulting or Advisory Role: Janssen Global Services Research Funding: Merck
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Vogt, F., W. Hohenberger, D. Paulus, H. Niemann, C. H. Schick, and S. Krüger. "Evaluation of Computer-assisted Image Enhancement in Minimal Invasive Endoscopic Surgery." Methods of Information in Medicine 43, no. 04 (2004): 362–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-0038-1633878.
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Summary Objectives: This paper focusses on the evaluation of the usage of computer-aided image processing methods for minimal invasive surgery. During video endoscopy of visceral cavities the images are displayed directly on the monitor without further processing. In the course of the operation the former good quality of the images decreases due to typical disturbances like bleeding, smoke or flying particles. These disturbances can be reduced by using image processing methods like color normalization, temporal filtering or equalization. Methods: In this double-blinded analysis, 14 surgeons with different levels of experience evaluated 120 image pairs and 5 image sequences, directly comparing original and processed images or movies. Results: Color normalization and equalization proved to significantly enhance video endoscopic images. With regard to temporal filtering, an improvement could be seen in the image sequences with filter size 5 being a greater enhancement than filter size 3. Comparing the state of experience and its influence on the results, it occurred that the experienced surgeons preferred the original color while altogether agreeing that the color-normalized images were better. Conclusions: The results obtained in the present evaluation show that the image processing methods which were used can significantly improve the quality of video endoscopic images. As a result of this, necessary lavages of the operated area are reduced and a better overview and orientation for the surgeon can be reached.
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Qi, Yameng, Jinhua Ding, Li Li, Meimei Ai, Ye Zhang, Xiufen Chen, and Kathe Rin. "Application of Endoscopic Ultrasound Image Analysis in the Treatment of Digestive Tract Diseases and Nursing." Journal of Medical Imaging and Health Informatics 10, no. 9 (August 1, 2020): 2211–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1166/jmihi.2020.3159.
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Objective: To study the diagnostic accuracy of microprobe endoscopic ultrasonography (mEUS) in the diagnosis of bulge of digestive tract, and to summarize and explore the characteristics of ultrasound images of gastrointestinal bulge in mEUS diagnosis, to comprehensively evaluate microprobe ultrasound. The ability of endoscope to diagnose gastrointestinal bulging lesions provides a certain clinical basis for later nursing. Methods: A retrospective analysis of 302 cases of gastrointestinal bulging cases underwent microprobe ultrasound endoscopy from November 2011 to December 2015. The diagnosis of all cases was confirmed by endoscopic pathology, surgical pathology or follow-up. Microprobes were compared. The diagnostic accuracy of the results of ultrasound endoscopy and traditional endoscopy. Results: A total of 302 patients underwent microprobe ultrasound endoscopy, including 274 upper gastrointestinal tract, 28 colorectal, 97 esophagi in upper gastrointestinal tract, 152 in stomach and 25 in duodenum. The coincidence rate of mEUS diagnosis of esophageal bulge lesions was 97.93% (95/97), and the coincidence rate of gastroscopy diagnosis was 68.04 (66/97). The coincidence rate of mEUS diagnosis in gastric elevated lesions was 94.07% (143/152), and the coincidence rate of gastroscopy diagnosis was 50.65% (77/152). Conclusion: Microprobe endoscopic ultrasound can clearly show the structure of each layer of the digestive tract wall, reflecting the origin of the lesion and the depth of infiltration. Therefore, it can make accurate diagnosis of most gastrointestinal bulging lesions.
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Seki, Yojiro, Hiromichi Umezu, Masaaki Usui, Takashi Tsumanuma, and Ken-ichi Nakatate. "“Picture-in-picture” endoscopic images in the microscope." Neurosurgical Focus 6, no. 4 (April 1999): E12. http://dx.doi.org/10.3171/foc.1999.6.4.13.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The authors describe a new piece of equipment that enables simultaneous monitoring of the endoscopic image and unilateral microscopic image; that is, "picture-in-picture" images for endoscope-assisted microsurgery. The system is simple and purely optical, consisting of light-weight semi-rigid fibers and a special adapter incorporated in the microscope. Throughout the initial neurosurgical procedures in which it was tested, the system proved particularly useful for inspecting the facial nerve behind the acoustic neurinoma and for observing the contact between arteries and the facial nerve during decompressive procedures for hemifacial spasm.
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Jiang, Wei, Yuanyuan Zhou, Tao Yu, Xiao He, Lihua Peng, Yunsheng Yang, Zhidong Wang, and Hao Liu. "Interventional Status Awareness Based Manipulating Strategy for Robotic Soft Endoscopy." International Journal of Robotics and Automation Technology 6 (November 29, 2021): 1–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.31875/2409-9694.2019.06.1.
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Traditional soft endoscopy is operated with naked eyes and use of hands. Robotic soft endoscopy frees the hands of endoscopists, which reduces the labor-intensity and complexity of operation and improves the operational accuracy of endoscope, but it’s hardly to be reliably performed because the operator lacks of situational awareness of endoscopic interventional status when the hands are detached from the endoscope. This paper first presents a method to perceive the interventional status of endoscope based on image processing, the interventional status includes insertion length and velocity. A manipulating strategy was designed according to the perceived endoscope interventional status and construction parameters of dual robotic arms in order to achieve reliable interventional endoscopy. Human phantom experiments are carried out to verify the effectiveness and feasibility of the proposed interventional status awareness method and manipulating strategy. The results show that the robotic soft endoscopy can be well performed with the ability of interventional status awareness and coordinated manipulation of dual arms. The perceived insertion length indicates the position of the tip of endoscope in human body and the designed manipulating strategy is effective in endoscopic shape retention and torque transmission.
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Mangano, Francesco T., David D. Limbrick, Jeffrey R. Leonard, Tae Sung Park, and Matthew D. Smyth. "Simultaneous Image-guided and Endoscopic Navigation without Rigid Cranial Fixation: Application in Infants:Technical Case Report." Operative Neurosurgery 58, suppl_4 (April 1, 2006): ONS—E377—ONS—E377. http://dx.doi.org/10.1227/01.neu.0000205297.39862.33.
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Abstract Objective and Importance: Infants and young children demonstrate a variety of intraventricular and periventricular lesions. Endoscopy has proven useful in the treatment of many of these lesions, but its benefit is limited if it is applied to complex loculated cysts or if the disease is concealed by normal ependymal boundaries. In adults and older children, endoscopy can be augmented by the simultaneous use of frameless stereotaxy, but this combined modality has not been possible in infants and young children without rigid cranial fixation. We describe a method of achieving simultaneous stereotactic and endoscopic navigation in infants and young children by using a pinless, frameless stereotactic assembly. Clinical Presentation: The first patient was a 6-week-old boy with macroceph-aly and a bulging fontanelle. Computed tomographic and magnetic resonance imaging revealed a complex arachnoid cyst and obstructive hydrocephalus. The second patient was a 7-month-old, ex-premature (27-wk gestational age) boy who developed posthemorrhagic hydrocephalus. He underwent multiple shunt revisions, one of which was complicated by enterococcal ventriculitis. Despite bilateral ventriculoperitoneal shunts, he developed increasing head circumference, listlessness, and irritability. Imaging revealed an enlarged, multiloculated, and asymmetric ventricular system. Intervention: Simultaneous image-guided and endoscopic neuronavigation was implemented in both patients. Before the procedure, a cranial reference arc was secured to the outer table of the cranium through a small incision adjacent to the operative field. After the stereotactic apparatus was registered, the software was used to plan a trajectory for the approach. A burr hole was then made, and a rigid 6-mm endoscope was inserted for direct visualization. Once advanced past the endoscopic port tip, the electromagnetic coil stylet was used to stereotactically track position and identify areas for fenestration, biopsy, and catheter insertion. Conclusion: Endoscopic views of complex hydrocephalus and arachnoid cysts alone are often difficult to interpret. Simultaneous image-guided and endoscopic neuronavigation may be advantageous in the management of complex cases that are anatomically related to the ventricular system in infants for whom rigid cranial fixation could lead to increased procedure-related morbidity.
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Kani, H. T., I. Ergenc, G. Polat, Y. Ozen Alahdab, A. Temizel, and O. Atug. "P099 Evaluation of endoscopic mayo score with an artificial intelligence algorithm." Journal of Crohn's and Colitis 15, Supplement_1 (May 1, 2021): S195—S196. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ecco-jcc/jjab076.227.
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Abstract Background Multi-layered convolutional neural networks are artificial intelligence (AI) algorithms that allow to process specific datasets. Endoscopic mayo score (EMS) is an endoscopic scoring tool for ulcerative colitis (UC) that is widely using for evaluating the disease activity to make a further treatment plan. EMS is an endoscopist-depended subjective tool that varies according to the physician’s experience. In this study, our aim was to create a high accuracy EMS diagnostic algorithm to minimize endoscopist-depended inconsistency and standardize the patient care. Methods We collected the endoscopic images of UC patients between December 2011 and July 2019 from electronic database of our gastroenterology institute. Images with insufficient bowel cleaning, artifact, retroflection images, terminal ileum images and pouch patients were excluded. Two blinded gastroenterologists evaluated and tagged the images according to the EMS. Images with a disagreement were excluded for a further evaluation. AI algorithm was performed with Python by using PyTorch library. The dataset was divided into two (85% was used for training and %15 was used for test). ResNet18 model was also used for training. Results A total of 19690 images of 572 patients from 1053 colonoscopies were identified for the study. The mean procedure number was 1.8 per patient and the mean image number was 18.7 for per colonoscopy. Four thousand and six hundred images without any disagreement between two gastroenterologists were included to the analysis. Two thousand eight hundred and thirteen (61.65%) images were tagged as EMS 0, 956 (20.66%) were tagged as EMS 1, 406 (8.77%) were tagged as EMS 2 and 413 (8.92%) were tagged as EMS 3. Accuracy was found 73.16% with a sensitivity of 773.2% and specifity of 92.9% in assessment of all EMS groups (Image 1). Also, the accuracy of severe mucosal disease diagnosis (EMS 0 and 1 vs EMS 2 and 3) was 96.3% with a sensitivity of 98.2% and specifity of 86.5% (Image 2) with a perfect reproductivity (к: 1.00). The performance of the remission diagnosis (EMS 0 vs EMS 1,2 and 3) was done with a 92% accuracy. Conclusion This is an ongoing study and the preliminary results of our EMS diagnosis algorithm was promising with a high accuracy. The accuracy and sensitivity would be improved by including more images and improving the algorithm. The use of AI in daily IBD practice can eliminate the subjectivity according to the endoscopist in diagnosis and assessing the disease severity for treatment decision.
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Al-Ameri, Laith Thamer. "Brain Endoscopy, a big neurosurgical revolution." AL-Kindy College Medical Journal 13, no. 2 (November 1, 2018): 1–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.47723/kcmj.v13i2.26.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Endoscopy is a rapidly growing field of Neurosurgery, it is defined as the applying of endoscope to treat different conditions of brain pathology within cerebral ventricular system and beyond it, endoscopic procedures performed by using different equipment and recording system to make a better visualization enhancing the surgeon's view by increasing illumination and magnification to look around corner and to capture image on video or digital format for later studies.
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Xu, Hui. "Application of Medical Robot in the Aspect of Endoscope." Applied Mechanics and Materials 484-485 (January 2014): 289–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.484-485.289.
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This paper introduces the limitation of traditional laparoscopic operation in the two-dimensional image,while an advantage of robot operation system is to use the most advanced 3D imaging system to make operation.It makes the operation target amplified 10 to times, which makes doctors see a depth-of-field, deep and stereoscopic image in the control platform, so as to make the operation more accurate and precise.The author, according to the driving types, classifies the development conditions of the representative cable endoscopy robot and wireless pill endoscope system, and discusses the research direction and prospect of the endoscopic treatment micro-robot.
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Chen, Ying Jun, Zhong Hua Sun, and Huang Ping. "Study on Image Sensor Controlling Circuit for Wireless Endoscopic MEMS." Applied Mechanics and Materials 220-223 (November 2012): 1003–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.220-223.1003.
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In this paper the design and experiments of image sensor controlling circuit using in wireless endoscopic MEMS was studied. Through comparing the excellency and deficiency of various types of image sensors, and considering the working environment and requirements in the human body, it is pointed out that the CMOS image sensor with high integration density, low power consumption, small dimension and analog image signal output is suitable for the wireless endoscopic MEMS. By theoretically analyzing, the controlling circuits of two typical image sensors were designed successfully. The images captured in the animal experiments prove the validity of the designed circuits for the wireless endoscopic MEMS.
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Levy, Michael L., Joseph C. T. Chen, Arun P. Amar, Shinya Yamada, Koji Togo, Yoshiro Iizuka, and Murwarid Mura Assifi. "Virtual endoscopic environments in modern neurosurgical practice." Neurosurgical Focus 6, no. 4 (April 1999): E13. http://dx.doi.org/10.3171/foc.1999.6.4.14.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Modern radiographic techniques have allowed the creation of high-definition planar images that can provide important anatomical as well as physiological data. Planar imaging sets can be reformatted into three-dimensional (3-D) data sets that can then be manipulated to demonstrate important anatomical or gross pathological features. Three-dimensional data sets have been used with success in modern image-guided or frameless stereotactic surgery. Another potential application is so-called "virtual endoscopy" or "scopeless endoscopy," in which a 3-D anatomical data set is reformatted into a volume-rendered image that can then be viewed. By reformatting images in this way, a "surgeon's-eye" view can be obtained, which can aid in presurgical planning and diagnosis. The use of virtual endoscopy has the potential to increase our understanding of the appropriate anatomy and the anatomical relationships most apparent during neurosurgical approaches. In so doing, virtual endoscopy may serve as an important means of planning for therapeutic interventions. On the other hand, one must always be cognizant of the technical limitations of these studies regardless of the quality of the reconstructed images. Prospective, correlative, clinical studies in which the anatomical advantages of virtual-based endoscopy are evaluated in large cadaver or patient series must be performed. Until then, the only potential ways to compensate for errors that exist in the algorithms and reconstructions of 3-D endoscopic images are based on the surgeon's understanding of the clinical state of the patient and prior experience with the anatomy in the region of question.
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Reino, Anthony J., William Lawson, Baxter J. Garcia, and Robert J. Greenstein. "Three Dimensional Video Imaging for Endoscopic Sinus Surgery and Diagnosis." American Journal of Rhinology 9, no. 4 (July 1995): 197–202. http://dx.doi.org/10.2500/105065895781873746.
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Technological advances in video imaging over the last decade have resulted in remarkable additions to the armamentarium of instrumentation for the otolaryngologist. The use of video cameras and computer generated imaging in the operating room and office is invaluable for documentation and teaching purposes. Despite the obvious advantages of these systems, problems are evident, the most serious of which include image distortion and inability to judge depth of field. For more than 6 decades 3D imaging has been neither technically nor commercially successful. Reasons include alignment difficulties and image distortion. The result is “visual fatigue,” usually in about 15 minutes. At its extreme, this may be characterized by headache, nausea, and even vomiting. In this study, we employed the first 3D video imager to electronically manipulate a single video source to produce 3D images; therefore, neither alignment nor image distortions were produced. Of interest to the clinical surgeon, “visual fatigue” does not seem to occur; however, with prolonged procedures (greater than 2 hours) there exists the potential for physical intolerance for some individuals. This is the first unit that is compatible with any rigid or flexible videoendoscopic system and the small diameter endoscopes available for endoscopic sinus surgery. Moreover, prerecorded 2D tapes may be viewed in 3D on an existing VCR. The 3D image seems to provide enhanced anatomic awareness with less image distortion. We have found this system to be optically superior to the 2D video imagers currently available.
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Wang, Liang, Hui Song, Ming Wang, Hui Wang, Ran Ge, Yan Shen, and Yongli Yu. "Utilization of Ultrasonic Image Characteristics Combined with Endoscopic Detection on the Basis of Artificial Intelligence Algorithm in Diagnosis of Early Upper Gastrointestinal Cancer." Journal of Healthcare Engineering 2021 (November 29, 2021): 1–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2021/2773022.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The aim of this study was to evaluate the diagnostic value of artificial intelligence algorithm combined with ultrasound endoscopy in early esophageal cancer and precancerous lesions by comparing the examination of conventional endoscopy and artificial intelligence algorithm combined with ultrasound endoscopy, and by comparing the real-time diagnosis of endoscopy and the ultrasonic image characteristics of artificial intelligence algorithm combined with endoscopic detection and pathological results. 120 cases were selected. According to the inclusion and exclusion criteria, 80 patients who met the criteria were selected and randomly divided into two groups: endoscopic examination combined with ultrasound imaging based on intelligent algorithm processing (cascade region-convolutional neural network (Cascade RCNN) model algorithm group) and simple use of endoscopy group (control group). This study shows that the ultrasonic image of artificial intelligence algorithm is effective, and the detection performance is better than that of endoscopic detection. The results are close to the gold standard of doctor recognition, and the detection time is greatly shortened, and the recognition time is shortened by 71 frames per second. Compared with the traditional convolutional neural network (CNN) algorithm, the accuracy and recall of image analysis and segmentation using feature pyramid network are increased. The detection rates of CNN model, Cascade RCNN model, and endoscopic detection alone in early esophageal cancer and precancerous lesions are 56.3% (45/80), 88.8% (71/80), and 44.1% (35/80), respectively. The detection rate of Cascade RCNN model and CNN model was higher than that of endoscopy alone, and the difference was statistically significant ( P < 0.05 ). The sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, and negative predictive value of Cascade RCNN model were higher than those of CNN model, which was close to the gold standard for physician identification. This provided a reference basis for endoscopic ultrasound identification of early upper gastrointestinal cancer or other gastrointestinal cancers.
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Kim, Dongmok, Sehui Chang, and Hyuk-Sang Kwon. "Wide Field-of-View, High-Resolution Endoscopic Lens Design with Low F-Number for Disposable Endoscopy." Photonics 8, no. 4 (March 24, 2021): 89. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/photonics8040089.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
In the past few decades, video endoscopy has become one of the primary medical devices in diverse clinical fields for examination, treatment, and early disease diagnosis of the gastrointestinal tract. For an accurate diagnosis, an endoscopic camera offering bright and wide field-of-view images is required while maintaining its compact dimensions to enter the long, narrow, and dark tract inside of the body. Recent endoscopic lenses successfully provide wide fields-of-view and have compact sizes for the system; however, their f-numbers still remain at 2.8 or higher. Therefore, further improvement in f-numbers is required to compensate for the restricted illumination system of the endoscopic probe. Here, we present a low f-number endoscopic lens design while providing wide field-of-view and high-resolution imaging. The proposed lens system achieved a low f-number of 2.2 and a field-of-view of 140 deg. The modulation transfer function (MTF) is over 20% at 180 lp/mm, and relative illumination is more than 60% in the full field. Additionally, the proposed lens is designed for a 1/4” 5-megapixel complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) image sensor with a pixel size of 1.4 µm. This all-plastic lens design could help develop a high-performance disposable endoscope that prevents the risk of infection or cross-contamination with mass manufacture and low cost.
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Butler, Jennifer Johanna, Stephen Franklin White, Calvin Wint Maung Myint, and Michael William Groves. "The Feasibility of Utilizing Smartphone Flashlights as an Alternative Endoscopic Light Source in Emergency Situations." Ear, Nose & Throat Journal 100, no. 1 (August 2, 2019): NP1—NP6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0145561319862212.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Although the image quality from modern distal chip endoscopes is superior, limited mobility of the endoscopic tower prevents this technology from being used in inpatient and emergency departments. In these settings, otolaryngologists commonly use older flexible laryngoscopes with portable light sources. However, these light sources could malfunction. Smartphones are ubiquitous nowadays, and the smartphone’s flashlight may be used alternatively to provide illumination when primary light malfunctions. This study compares the ability of flashlights from various smartphone models in providing adequate illumination for flexible laryngoscopy when compared to a commercially available portable light source. White wall and mucosal images were captured using Olympus P4 flexible scope and lights from the Stryker X8000 endoscopy tower light source, Storz 11301D3 portable light source (control), iPhone 4, iPhone 6, iPhone 8, iPhone X, Galaxy S6, and Galaxy S7. ImageJ was used to quantify pixel intensities with white and black standardized as 250 and 0, respectively. Student 2-tailed t test was used for analysis. The endoscopic tower outperformed all other light sources in all categories. The iPhone 4 and iPhone 6 consistently underperformed in comparison to the Storz 11301D3 portable light source ( P < .05). Galaxy S6, Galaxy S7, and newer generation iPhone 8 and iPhone X provide comparable pixel intensities to Storz 11301D3 portable light. Smartphones incorporate different types of light-emitting diodes. Newer Galaxy and iPhone provide adequate illumination for the endoscopic assessment of the airway when compared to commercially available portable light source. However, one should always utilize the best commercially available light source in nonemergent cases.
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Carter, Lacey M., and Naina L. Gross. "Endoscopic Placement of Fourth Ventricular Catheter Using Seldinger Technique: Description of Technique and Case Series." Operative Neurosurgery 21, no. 4 (June 25, 2021): E304—E308. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ons/opab222.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Abstract BACKGROUND Neonatal intraventricular hemorrhage remains a significant source of morbidity in premature and low-weight patients. Approximately 15% of patients who require cerebrospinal fluid shunting develop trapped fourth ventricle (TFV). Surgical treatment presents challenges with short- and long-term complications. OBJECTIVE To describe a technique that applies the Seldinger technique with image-guided endoscopy for direct visualization of catheter placement. METHODS A guidewire is passed down the endoscope while it is positioned in the fourth ventricle. The endoscope is removed while the guidewire is held in place. The catheter is slid down the guidewire. The guidewire is removed and placement is confirmed with image guidance. RESULTS Three patients, all less than 14 mo old, with history of prematurity and intraventricular hemorrhage with ventriculoperitoneal shunts, presented with loculated hydrocephalus with TFV. They each underwent image-guided endoscopic fenestration of the fourth ventricle with placement of a fourth ventricular catheter performed by our described technique. All 3 patients recovered well and were discharged on postoperative day 1. Follow-up imaging showed decompression of the fourth ventricle and good placement of the fourth ventricular catheter. None have had complications from catheter placement, and one revision of a fourth ventricular catheter was needed, which was completed with the same described technique. CONCLUSION This technique is well suited for cases in which a fourth ventricular catheter or a difficult trajectory catheter is needed during endoscopic fenestration or when distorted anatomy is present that would make a straight trajectory with a pen endoscope more difficult or higher risk.
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Duran-Sierra, Elvis, Shuna Cheng, Rodrigo Cuenca, Beena Ahmed, Jim Ji, Vladislav V. Yakovlev, Mathias Martinez, et al. "Machine-Learning Assisted Discrimination of Precancerous and Cancerous from Healthy Oral Tissue Based on Multispectral Autofluorescence Lifetime Imaging Endoscopy." Cancers 13, no. 19 (September 23, 2021): 4751. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/cancers13194751.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Multispectral autofluorescence lifetime imaging (maFLIM) can be used to clinically image a plurality of metabolic and biochemical autofluorescence biomarkers of oral epithelial dysplasia and cancer. This study tested the hypothesis that maFLIM-derived autofluorescence biomarkers can be used in machine-learning (ML) models to discriminate dysplastic and cancerous from healthy oral tissue. Clinical widefield maFLIM endoscopy imaging of cancerous and dysplastic oral lesions was performed at two clinical centers. Endoscopic maFLIM images from 34 patients acquired at one of the clinical centers were used to optimize ML models for automated discrimination of dysplastic and cancerous from healthy oral tissue. A computer-aided detection system was developed and applied to a set of endoscopic maFLIM images from 23 patients acquired at the other clinical center, and its performance was quantified in terms of the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (ROC-AUC). Discrimination of dysplastic and cancerous from healthy oral tissue was achieved with an ROC-AUC of 0.81. This study demonstrates the capabilities of widefield maFLIM endoscopy to clinically image autofluorescence biomarkers that can be used in ML models to discriminate dysplastic and cancerous from healthy oral tissue. Widefield maFLIM endoscopy thus holds potential for automated in situ detection of oral dysplasia and cancer.
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Sun, Guo-chen, Xiao-lei Chen, Yuan-zheng Hou, Xin-guang Yu, Xiao-dong Ma, Gang Liu, Lei Liu, et al. "Image-guided endoscopic surgery for spontaneous supratentorial intracerebral hematoma." Journal of Neurosurgery 127, no. 3 (September 2017): 537–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.3171/2016.7.jns16932.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
OBJECTIVEEndoscopic removal of intracerebral hematomas is becoming increasingly common, but there is no standard technique. The authors explored the use of a simple image-guided endoscopic method for removal of spontaneous supratentorial hematomas.METHODSVirtual reality technology based on a hospital picture archiving and communications systems (PACS) was used in 3D hematoma visualization and surgical planning. Augmented reality based on an Android smartphone app, Sina neurosurgical assist, allowed a projection of the hematoma to be seen on the patient's scalp to facilitate selection of the best trajectory to the center of the hematoma. A obturator and transparent sheath were used to establish a working channel, and an endoscope and a metal suction apparatus were used to remove the hematoma.RESULTSA total of 25 patients were included in the study, including 18 with putamen hemorrhages and 7 with lobar cerebral hemorrhages. Virtual reality combined with augmented reality helped in achieving the desired position with the obturator and sheath. The median time from the initial surgical incision to completion of closure was 50 minutes (range 40–70 minutes). The actual endoscopic operating time was 30 (range 15–50) minutes. The median blood loss was 80 (range 40–150) ml. No patient experienced postoperative rebleeding. The average hematoma evacuation rate was 97%. The mean (± SD) preoperative Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) score was 6.7 ± 3.2; 1 week after hematoma evacuation the mean GCS score had improved to 11.9 ± 3.1 (p < 0.01).CONCLUSIONSVirtual reality using hospital PACS and augmented reality with a smartphone app helped precisely localize hematomas and plan the appropriate endoscopic approach. A transparent sheath helped establish a surgical channel, and an endoscope enabled observation of the hematoma's location to achieve satisfactory hematoma removal.
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Katayama, O., S. Ishihama, K. Namiki, and I. Ohi. "Color Changes in Electronic Endoscopic Images Caused by Image Compression." Diagnostic and Therapeutic Endoscopy 4, no. 1 (January 1, 1997): 43–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/dte.4.43.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
In recent years, recording of color still images into magneto–optical video disks has been increasingly used as a method for recording electronic endoscopic images. In this case, image compression is often used to reduce the volume and cost of recording media and also to minimize the time required for image recording and playback. With this in mind, we recorded 8 images into a magneto-optical video disk in 4 image compression modes (no compression, weak compression, moderate compression, and strong compression) using the Joint Photographic Image Coding Experts Group (JPEG) system, which is a widely used and representative method for compressing color still images, in order to determine the relationship between the degree of image compression and the color information in electronic endoscopic images. The acquired images were transferred to an image processor using an offline system. A total of 10 regions of interest (ROls) were selected, and red (R), green (G), and blue (B) images were obtained using different compression modes. From histograms generated for these images, mean densities of R, G, and B in each ROI were measured and analyzed. The results revealed that color changes were greater for B, which had the lowest density, than for R or G as the degree of compression was increased.
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Elhadi, Ali M., Hasan A. Zaidi, Douglas A. Hardesty, Richard Williamson, Claudio Cavallo, Mark C. Preul, Peter Nakaji, and Andrew S. Little. "Malleable Endoscope Increases Surgical Freedom Compared With a Rigid Endoscope in Endoscopic Endonasal Approaches to the Parasellar Region." Operative Neurosurgery 10, no. 3 (September 1, 2014): 393–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1227/neu.0000000000000411.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Abstract BACKGROUND: One challenge when performing endoscopic endonasal approaches is the surgical conflict that occurs between the surgical instruments and endoscope in the crowded nasal corridor. This conflict decreases surgical freedom, increases surgeon frustration, and lengthens the learning curve for trainees. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the impact a malleable endoscope has on surgical freedom for endoscopic approaches to the parasellar region. METHODS: Uninostril and binostril endoscopic transsphenoidal approaches to the pituitary gland and cavernous carotid arteries were performed on 8 silicon-injected, formalin-fixed cadaveric heads using both rigid and flexible 3-dimensional endoscopes. Surgical freedom to targets in the parasellar region was assessed using an established technique based on image guidance. Results are presented as 3 measurements: area of surgical freedom for a point target, area for the surgical field (cavernous carotids and sella), and angular surgical freedom (angle of attack). RESULTS: Point target surgical freedom, exposed area surgical freedom, and angle of attack were all significantly greater in approaches using the malleable endoscope compared with the rigid endoscope (P values .06 to <.001), with values varying between 17% and 28%. The improved surgical freedom noted with the malleable endoscope was due to the minimization of instrument-endoscope conflict at the back end (camera) and front end (tip) of the endoscope. CONCLUSION: This study demonstrates that application of a malleable endoscope to transsphenoidal approaches to the parasellar region decreases instrument-endoscope conflict and improves surgical freedom.
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Furnari, Manuele, Andrea Telese, Alexander Hann, Andrea Lisotti, Ivo Boškoski, and Leonardo Henry Eusebi. "New Devices for Endoscopic Treatments in Gastroenterology: A Narrative Review." Current Drug Metabolism 21, no. 11 (December 29, 2020): 850–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1389200221666200722145727.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
: Endoscopy is in a period of continuous innovations in terms of image quality, endoscopes, post-processing software and lastly, application of Artificial Intelligence. Therapeutic boundaries have expanded, widening the grey zone between endoscopy and surgery, and increasing endoscopic approaches in clinical scenarios where, until a few years ago, surgery was the only option. New scopes and accessories have made it easier to access critical areas such as the biliary tree and the small bowel intestine. In the field of hepato-pancreato-biliary endoscopy (HPB), it is now possible to directly access the biliary ducts or cystic lesions though dedicated stents and scopes, rather than having to rely only on fluoroscopy and ultrasound, increasing the diagnostic and therapeutic options by applying a three-dimensional approach. This narrative review will give an overview of some of the most relevant emerging fields in luminal and HPB endoscopy, highlighting advantages and main limitations of the techniques, and providing considerations for future development.
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Sharma, Manoj Kumar, Vikram Bhatia, and Pankaj Tyagi. "An ‘double tumor image’ rectal endoscopic ultrasound image." Indian Journal of Gastroenterology 31, no. 3 (June 2012): 151–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12664-012-0207-z.
Повний текст джерела
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Yanagisawa, Eiji. "The Use of Video in ENT Endoscopy: Its Value in Teaching." Ear, Nose & Throat Journal 73, no. 10 (October 1994): 754–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/014556139407301006.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Videography is the most practical and effective method of documenting and teaching ENT endoscopy. Videography allows: (1) documentation of anatomy, physiology and pathology of deep structures of the ear, nose and throat; (2) teaching of delicate surgical procedures such as functional endoscopic sinus surgery (FESS), laryngeal surgery, and other endoscopic procedures; (3) instantaneous production of high quality hard copies of video images for teaching and patient records; (4) instant replay and repeated viewing by a slow motion or frame-by-frame analysis; (5) simultaneous viewing by a small or large audience; and (6) image digitalization for storage in the computer for later analysis. The author describes the value of videography in ENT endoscopy, namely video-otoscopy, video rhinoscopy and video-laryngoscopy. The use of video in endoscopy will continue to play a vital role in Continuing Medical Education (CME).
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Satava, Richard M., and Richard A. Robb. "Virtual Endoscopy: Application of 3D Visualization to Medical Diagnosis." Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments 6, no. 2 (April 1997): 179–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/pres.1997.6.2.179.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Virtual endoscopy is a diagnostic technique in which a three-dimensional imaging technology (CT scan, MRI scan, ultrasound) is used to create a computer-generated representation of a specific patient's anatomy or organ, and then the virtual organ is “flown through,” giving the same visual impression and image as if the corresponding real organ had a video or fiberoptic endoscopic procedure performed. The potential is to provide a computer diagnosis to replace an endoscopic procedure, not only for conventional endoscopy such as bronchoscopy, colonoscopy, sinusoscopy, or hysteroscopy, but also for areas where traditional endoscopy is not possible, such as the inner ear, spleen, lymphatic tissues. With sophisticated signal processing and computational analysis, it may be possible in the future to perform a “numerical biopsy,” that is, make a tissue diagnosis based upon spectral or other information contained in the images.