Дисертації з теми "Emotional and Behaviour Difficulties (EBD)"

In the socio-ecological perspective, human behaviour is regarded as determined by the characteristics of an individual, the characteristics of his/her environment and their reciprocal interactions. This perspective assumes that situational factors play a significant part in these interactions. The present study was based on this perspective and sought to investigate environmental factors associated with EBD (emotional and behavioural difficulties). It aimed to provide evidence of the need to take EBD seriously in Korea and to find out environmental factors in families and schools which are associated with EBD. The low agreement usually found between parents' and teachers' ratings of children's EBD has been explained in terms of the 'situation-specificity' of EBD. Another aim was, therefore, to explore the extent of the situation-specificity of EBD. Two studies were carried out. The first study was to investigate the prevalence rate of EBD through an epidemiological approach in Korean primary school children and to examine the relationships of EBD to structural factors in family and school. The second study examined relationships of EBD to family and classroom psychosocial functioning in conjunction with the exploration of the low agreement between parents' and teachers' ratings. There were 840 children aged from 7 to 12 in the first study and 448 12-year-old children in the second study. Children's behaviour was rated by their parents and teachers using Rutter's Child Behaviour Questionnaire (CBQ) in the first study, using a Korean version of CBQ in the second study. Family functioning was assessed by children and their mothers using a Korean version of Family Adaptability and Cohesion Evaluation Scale-III. Classroom functioning was assessed by children and their teachers using a Korean short version of Classroom Environment Scale. The Korean versions of CBQ, FACES-III and CES were developed in the pilot study for the second study. A significant number of Korean children were screened as having EBD: 29% with English cut-off points, 17% with Korean cut-off points. However, children with EBD pervasively in both settings were relatively few: 4.3% and 2.1% respectively. More boys showed EBD than girls. EBD was associated with children's academic achievements, existence of siblings, family style, fathers' education, parents' involvement in their child's education, and class size. EBD tended to be higher with lower levels of family cohesion, adaptability and classroom interpersonal relationships; and the relationships appeared to be stronger when EBD was severe or environmental functioning was extreme. However, no relationship was found between EBD and classroom control. Teachers' behaviour ratings were more consistently and highly related to family functioning as well as classroom functioning in comparison with mothers' ratings. This finding supports the concept of open systems, which assumes that what happens in one context may affect behaviour in other systems, and the view that there may be some continuity across situations as well as some specificity to a certain situation in children's behaviour. Furthermore, this finding calls into question a strong version of situationspecificity in regard to the low agreement between teachers' and parents' behaviour ratings. It might be due partly to the difference in the validity of ratings rather than due only to the 'situation-specificity' of EBD. The possibility of higher validity of teachers' ratings was also found in the first study: the percentage of children who were identified as having EBD on CBQ and as needing professional help was much higher by teachers than parents. Compared with adults, children's perceptions of environmental functioning were more consistently and highly associated with EBD. This finding may suggest that how children perceive their environment is as important for their emotional and social development as the actual functioning. Children with EBD would like their families to be more cohesive than non-EBD children. This study leads to further questions about the validity of FACES-III and CES as instruments to assess family and classroom functioning in Korea. The necessity of investigating whether there are other aspects of family and classroom psychosocial functioning which are more related to children's EBD than the affective and control aspects was also suggested. In addition, the results indicate the importance of examining the threshold of EBD when an instrument is used in different cultures. This study also underlines the need to examine environmental factors associated with EBD jointly in both family and school settings.

In most epidemiological studies, one in every five children and adolescents are said to display Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties (EDB), with greater risk of school and wider social exclusion (Brauner & Stephens 2006; Costello, Egger & Angold 2005). Although no formal statistics are currently available with regards EBD in Brunei, there was a formal report stating that quite a number of young people are now being referred to professionals for assistance and support for EBD. There is currently no assessment tool for EBD in Brunei and no ‘Brunei Malay’ translation for most of the Western design measures. Although some of these measures have Malay translations, it was formally back-to-back translated among professionals from Malaysia, who are known to speak slightly different standard Malay language than those Malays who reside in Brunei. Despite the differences in some technical language, Malays in Brunei and Malaysia share a very similar culture and geography. The aim of this study was twofold, to explore the responses of parents, teachers and adolescents in Brunei using the translation of the Western designed assessment tool for EBD as well as to determine how useful the original subscales of those measures are in reporting problems associated with EBD in Brunei Darussalam, a Malay speaking country based in the South East Asian region. A single phase cross sectional survey of 11-16 year-old adolescents attending mainstream public (i.e. government) schools in Brunei was carried out. Responses of parents and teachers were measured using the Strength and Difficulties Questionnaires (SDQ) and a subsample of the participants received a second copy of Child Behaviour Checklist (CBCL) and Teacher Report Form (TRF) of Achenbach measures. Responses from adolescents were measured using the Youth Self Report (YSR) of Achenbach measure. In total, responses were obtained from 396 parent version SDQ and 92 parent version of CBCL; 329 teacher version of SDQ and 71 teacher version of TRF; and 282 adolescent Youth Self Report (YSR) were obtained for analyses. Results indicated that there are some differences in the three different groups of respondents in Brunei in relation to the identification of EBD and that this differed somewhat from Western population studies. It is suggested that this may be due to differences in interpreting behavioural norms and that this might be linked to cultural differences. It was found that the YSR did not produce factor structure like that of the original study and this might indicate necessary refinement to ensure better fit as revealed by the psychometric analyses. Teachers’ responses to the SDQ items were more similar to those of teachers in other evaluation of the SDQ, whilst parents differed more in their responses when compared to those of Western respondents. Despite the clear differences in their responses when describing EBD using these Western measures, exploration of other statistical tests offered some possible reasons for continuing using the measures to report the prevalence of the problems. Previous studies have also highlighted some critical insights into the use of the measures in other cultures, which are discussed in the finding of this study. Some age and gender differences also appeared in responses, and there were a tendency for parents and adolescents in Brunei to report higher Total Difficulties Score (TDS) among girls than boys. The cut-off scores that were adjusted based on the criteria advocated by the founder of these measures indicated slight differences in the level of point describing the clinical range. This again served to highlight the possible cultural behavioural expectation that varies from one country to another. This exploratory study suggests that reporting a prevalence rate of a given culture using a measure that was designed elsewhere might pose risk of wrongly describing problems of a particular nature without investigating the way in which it has been understood by the respondent. The study stresses that it is important to understand cultural determinants of respondents when reporting EBD of adolescents and points out the necessity of planning and networking across social context to meet young people mental health needs.

Area of focus/rationale for the study: This study is an evaluation of an intervention, named Thrive, which is designed to promote the emotional development of children with Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties (EBD). The focus is to investigate the extent to which Thrive is effective in improving certain emotional and behavioural outcomes for children as well as exploring the experiences of those who are involved with the programme. The study is set out in two papers. Paper one assesses changes in pupil emotional well being over time using two subscales designed to measure specific aspects of resiliency, namely, ‘emotional reactivity’ and ‘sense of relatedness’. It also uses an assessment to measure changes in emotional and social skills which are considered important in order for pupils to engage in learning in a mainstream classroom environment (readiness to learn). Paper one also looks at the possible association between the Thrive training and staff attitudes towards pupils with EBD. Paper two explores, in depth, the experiences of the Thrive approach from the perspective of a small sample of school staff, pupils and parents. This process of exploration serves to better understand the outcomes from paper one by identifying a number of factors which may contribute to the successful or unsuccessful implementation of Thrive in a particular educational context. Context, Background and Research Objectives: Broad labels of ‘Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties’ (EBD) and’ Behavioural Emotional and Social Difficulties’ (BESD) tend to encompass behaviour which interferes with a child’s own or other’s learning; signs of emotional turbulence; and difficulties in forming and maintaining relationships. SEBD is used interchangeably with BESD (Behavioural, Emotional and Social Difficulties) in policy documents and theoretical writing (Evans, 2010). Schools tend to use the term EBD and this will generally refer to children whose behaviour and emotions prevent them and others from learning to their potential (DCSF, 2008). For ease and consistency I will use the term EBD throughout this study. The Special Needs and Disability Act (2001) sets out the right for children with EBD to be educated in mainstream schools. Due to the disruptive impact on learning for self and others, this group of children have been cited as one of the most difficult groups to include (Evans & Lunt, 2002). Behaviour management continues to be high on the education policy and practice agenda in England and the rest of the UK. Schools are faced with the challenge of finding ways of ensuring children with EBD are included in the ordinary classroom with their peers and to ensure that the needs of this vulnerable group of children are adequately met. Alongside this, Government Policy (e.g. NICE Guidelines, 2007) now requires schools to promote the emotional well-being of children who exhibit signs of emotional and behavioural disturbance. There is a demand for evidence based approaches to support children with EBD in mainstream schools from which professionals, such as Educational Psychologists, can draw on in order to make positive changes (see literature review in Appendix B.9 for more details). Thrive is a trademarked programme developed by a multidisciplinary team named ‘Fronting the Challenge’ (ftc). The programme is described as a ‘dynamic developmental approach to working with vulnerable and challenging children whose behaviour interrupts their own and others learning’. The Thrive programme borrows from a range of research and theory around neuroscience, child development, attachment theory and the role of creativity and play (for example Sunderland, 2006; Hughs, 2004; Illsey- Clarke & Dawson, 1989; Stern, 2003). It can be described as a school based intervention which is informed by a psychotherapeutic model as it aims to support children by addressing core relational and developmental features (Evans et al., 2003). Similar to nurture groups, Thrive is based on the understanding that for a child to develop a healthy ability to adapt to his or her social environment they must have experienced a sensitive, responsive and caring relationship with a significant carer/parent (Stern, 2003; Sunderland, 2006). But additional to a nurture group approach, the intervention draws on a concept from Transactional Analysis (Berne, 1964; Levin, 1982; Illsley Clarke & Dawson, 1998) which assumes that a child moves through a number of clearly defined stages of emotional development. The Thrive approach uses a computer based assessment, which relies on pupil observations, to identify specific ‘interruptions’ in this development; and targeted relational experiences, i.e., experiences of being in relationship with another human being, are recommended to promote further development. This will be discussed in more detail within the introduction of this thesis. As part of a wave two pathfinder for the Targeted Mental Health in Schools (TaMHS) Project under DCSF, in 2009, Thrive training was delivered to staff working with children and young people in three learning communities within a local authority in the South West of England. This included staff from approximately forty schools (including primary schools, secondary schools, a PRU and a special school) as well as multi-disciplinary staff such as CAMHS, Educational Psychologists and Behaviour support staff. At the time of beginning this study, thirty eight primary schools within the local authority had already been trained in Thrive and were implementing the intervention with some of their pupils. There was much testimony from staff working with children and young people that the training was highly valued and influential on their professional practice. Furthermore, there were a number of claims suggesting that pupils involved in Thrive were experiencing a whole range of positive outcomes attributable to the programme. For example, that the most disruptive pupils were calmer and making fewer visits to the Head Teacher’s office; that emotionally vulnerable children had become more confident and more trusting; that attendance had improved; and that the number of fixed term exclusions had diminished. Although there were a small number of detailed case studies prepared by schools themselves, the claims were, in the main, based on anecdote. Where schools had made some attempt to measure the impact of Thrive the methodology lacked basic rigour and findings were susceptible to bias; pre and post measurements were very limited and control measures were absent in all cases. The project lead for TaMHS reported ‘emerging’ data in relation to reduced numbers of fixed term exclusions, reductions in referrals to other services and referrals for statutory assessment. However, the source of this data was also said to be unreliable. Despite all of this, a general positive ‘vibe’ about the intervention based on a melange of potentially unreliable evidence was persuasive enough for the local authority to consider further investment into the intervention. Further details of current evidence related to the impact of Thrive can be found in Appendix A.1. Objectives of this study: • To provide a more reliable understanding of the effectiveness of the Thrive programme in supporting children with EBD within mainstream primary schools. More specifically: - To find the extent to which Thrive reduces pupil ‘emotional reactivity’, improves pupil ‘sense of relatedness’ and improves ‘readiness to learn in a mainstream classroom’. - To find whether there is an association between the Thrive training and staff attitudes towards the inclusion of children with EBD in mainstream primary schools. • To explore how a small sample of pupils, parents and staff experience Thrive.

L'émotion et le comportement impulsif des élèves peuvent créer de nombreuses difficultés aux enseignants. Les attitudes des enseignants à l'égard de ces élèves couvrent un large spectre, allant du positif au désagréable. Les enseignants expriment leur épuisement à devoir faire face aux élèves présentant des problèmes émotionnels et comportementaux (ou EBD pour « Emotional-Behavioral Difficulty » en anglais). Parallèlement, les enseignants des écoles spécialisées manifestent leur grande confiance dans leur capacité à gérer les besoins particuliers de ces élèves. Pour expliquer les différences entre ces deux styles, notre recherche analyse de manière critique les rôles de médiation des styles explicatifs des enseignants. Notre travail repose sur deux études complémentaires. La première est une étude quantitative visant à traduire et à valider une nouvelle échelle adaptée aux élèves et enseignants chinois. Les résultats issus de cette première étude démontrent que la nouvelle échelle adaptée aux élèves et enseignants chinois semble fiable. La deuxième étude repose sur une approche méthodologique mixte pour vérifier les hypothèses de recherche afin de répondre aux trois questions de recherche présentées ci-dessous. Pour le volet de recherche qualitative de la deuxième étude, neuf enseignants de deux écoles classiques et d'une école spécialisée ont participé. Leurs opinions sur leurs expériences d'enseignement ont été explorées lors d’entretiens individuels. Sept d'entre eux ont également été observés in situ dans leur classe, durant leurs activités pédagogiques. Pour la partie quantitative de la recherche, un échantillon de 198 enseignants a été recruté dans des écoles primaires et secondaires classiques, ainsi que dans des écoles primaires et secondaires spécialisées de Hong Kong. Nos résultats montrent que les enseignants ont un faible niveau de détresse concernant leur travail et leur vie, y compris lorsqu'ils enseignent à des élèves ayant des problèmes émotionnels et comportementaux (EBD). Il n'y a pas de différence entre les différents types d'écoles. Le niveau d'anxiété des enseignants est faible et les enseignants des écoles spécialisées présentent des niveaux d'anxiété significativement plus faibles que ceux des écoles classiques lorsqu'ils enseignent à des élèves atteints de troubles du comportement. Les styles explicatifs des enseignants, qui sont des facteurs internes, ont été analysés et présentent de fortes corrélations positives avec leurs anxiétés. La dimension interne et externe des styles explicatifs est un bon intermédiaire entre les différentes anxiétés des enseignants
The explicit emotion and behaviour of students can create a lot of challenges and difficulties for teachers. Teachers’ attitudes toward these students cover a wide spectrum, from positive to struggling. Teachers have expressed their exhaustion of having to cope with the students with emotional and behavioural difficulties (EBD). Meanwhile, the teachers from special schools have indicated their high level of confidence in managing students’ special needs. To explain the differences between these two styles, this research critically examines the mediation roles of teachers’ explanatory styles. The project involved two studies. Study One was a quantitative study aimed at translating and validating a new Chinese scale. The new Chinese measurement was with good reliabilities. Study Two used a mixed methods approach to test the research hypotheses in order to address the three research questions. For the qualitative research aspect of Study Two, nine teachers from two ordinary schools and one special school took part. Their opinions about their teaching experiences were explored through individual interviews. Seven were also observed in their classroom. The findings reveal that behavioural and emotional problems of students were marked more in special schools than in ordinary schools. Teachers from all schools have optimistic explanatory styles about the difficulties and challenges they face. For the quantitative research part, a sample of 198 teachers was recruited from ordinary primary schools, ordinary secondary schools, special primary schools and special secondary schools in Hong Kong. It was found that teachers had low helplessness levels concerning their work and life, and low helplessness levels when teaching EBD students. There were no differences found amongst the different types of schools. Teachers’ anxiety levels were low. Teachers from special schools had significantly lower levels of anxiety than those from ordinary schools when teaching EBD students. Teachers’ explanatory styles, which were internal factors, were examined with strong positive correlations to their anxiety emotions. The Internality-Externality dimension of explanatory styles was a good mediator of teachers’ different anxieties

This study contributes to the existing literature on treatment integrity (TI) by presenting TI findings across interventions aimed at the development of social emotional skills in learners with emotional and behavioural disorders. Social and emotional skills were selected as the target for our investigation given the significance of these skills in relation to the academic and behavioural success of learners and the challenges most often faced in these skill areas by students with emotional and behaviour disorders (E/BD). The study analysed single-subject experimental studies from 2000 to 2009 in two leading journals in the field of emotional and behaviour disorders: Behavior Disorders and The Journal of Emotional Behavioral Disorders. The degree to which studies operationally defined independent variables and evaluated and reported measures of treatment integrity and associated risk factors is reported. Thirty-three studies met the inclusion criteria for the present study and TI was evaluated across six variables (1) year published, (2) dependent variable(s), (3) independent variables(s), (4) participant characteristics, (5) treatment agent and (6) assessment of TI. Results indicated that approximately 49% of the studies monitored and reported TI, meaning that they provided a description of the TI procedure and resultant data. Findings from the study point to the need for attention to TI both in the description of methods used and in the reporting of TI data.

This is an ethnographic study exploring interactions between adults and children within the Early Years Department of a primary school for children described as having social emotional and behavioural difficulties. The study is based on an interpretation of the children’s needs which recognises that there may be mismatches between child and adult perceptions of the environment within which they operate. This interpretation arises from an awareness that each child’s unique constellation of difficulties relate to core skills, including language and communication. Video observation was used to record interactions between children and adults. Linguistic ethnographic analysis was used to interrogate the resultant data. These data showed evidence of collaborative problem solving techniques which built on Post-Vygotskian concepts of learning. The identified patterns of language and communication brought about the notion of behaviour supportive learning; that is symmetry in interaction which contributes to children’s ability to evolve situation appropriate behaviour. Similarities between behaviour supportive learning and dialogic teaching are observed.

Introduction: Children's social, emotional, and behavioural difficulties are associated with reduced academic performance, stressed teacher-child relationships, and other negative academic and life outcomes. The Incredible Years Teacher Classroom Management (IY TCM) programme is one intervention developed to address problematic behaviours via training teachers to use positive and proactive management strategies. The overall aim of this DPhil is to use the Incredible Years Teacher Classroom Management programme as a case study for applying mixed methods at the systematic review level to ascertain what is known about both the programme's effectiveness and how people experience the course, and subsequently to use the systematic review's findings as a springboard (rather than as an end goal) for more exploratory research into 'for whom' the programme might work. Method: Study One is a mixed methods systematic review of IY TCM. It applied multilevel meta-analysis to RCT outcome data and grounded theory meta-synthesis to interview and focus group data on stakeholders' experiences of IY TCM. Quantitative and qualitative findings were cross-synthesised and mapped using an integrative grid. Study Two moves the field forward by filling a gap in the evidence base, as identified in Study One. Semi-structured telephone interviews were conducted with special educational needs coordinators (SENCos) across Devon, exploring the acceptability and appropriateness of expanding IY TCM to the subgroup of children with special educational needs (SEN) in mainstream schools. Data were analysed thematically and mapped onto IY TCM content. Results: In Study One, nine studies reported across 14 papers met inclusion criteria for either quantitative or qualitative strands of this systematic review. Multilevel meta-analysis of RCTs (n=4) indicated that the programme produced teacher- and child-level results in the desired directions. Clear trends across all measured outcomes favoured the intervention group over the treatment-as-usual comparison. Qualitative meta-synthesis (n=5) illuminated a cyclical learning process and broader conceptualisation of teacher and child outcomes than was evident in the quantitative evidence. Notably, RCT data on teacher outcomes were limited to self-reported or observed behaviours, while teachers described other benefits from IY TCM including increased knowledge and emotional well-being. Cross-synthesis of findings from the two review strands highlighted harmony across the RCT and qualitative evidence but also a number of areas in which constructs that were prioritised by one type of research were not integrated into the other. Study Two generated classroom management strategies from SENCos, which aligned closely with strategies taught in IY TCM, indicating that IY TCM would be both acceptable and applicable (if not sufficient) for use when working with children identified with SEN and behavioural difficulties in schools. Discussion: Based on the positive effects of implementing IY TCM despite very few studies to power analyses, the programme appears to offer tangible benefits to both teachers and children. It is possible that results are underestimated due to limited types of outcomes measured and absence of experiential data from additional stakeholders (e.g., parents). Depending on current provision of special educational needs services, schools operating inclusion models are likely to find these strategies beneficial for children identified with SEN, and this subgroup should be explicitly examined in future IY TCM studies.

This study further defines the relationship between difficulties in emotion regulation and problem eating behavior. A total of 403 psychology undergraduate students completed measures of emotion regulation, disordered eating patterns, depression, and anxiety. Results from correlational and regression analyses suggest that difficulties in emotion regulation are related to problem eating behavior (r = .360, p< .001) and that overt problem eating behaviors and attitudes may be impacted more directly by symptoms of mood disorders rather than difficulties in emotion regulation (R2 = .190, F(4, 368) = 18.647, p< .001). Nonacceptance of emotional experience showed a significant impact on problem eating behavior above and beyond mood (R2 = .193, F(2, 370) = 44.162, p< .001; MOOD, β = .339, p< .001; nonaccept, β = .143, p = .014). The results of this study may have implications for prevention and treatment of problem eating behavior.

The study aimed to develop innovative and exploratory research strategies for harnessing the pupil voice amongst young people who have received the Behavioural, Emotional and Social Difficulties (BESD) label. As such the study sought to locate the pupil at the heart of the data collection and to examine how specific turning points can impact upon the educational experiences of young people labelled with BESD. The study attempted to move away from traditional research methods which have worked to silence the voices of this group of young people. In order to achieve this aim the researcher set out on a journey of discovery alongside the pupils to develop participatory and engaging methods of data collection. The study aimed to track the educational journeys experienced by young people who have received the BESD label. In addition to being a vehicle for the voice of the young person the thesis draws together the perspectives of the adults surrounding the pupil namely their parents and teachers. The results revealed the BESD label to be complex and difficult to operationalise. The current education system continues to remove these "challenging" pupils and this leads to them experiencing extremely chaotic educational journeys. The findings indicate that the current system is not working from the perspective of the pupil, parent or teacher. Encouragingly pupils were able to offer intelligent and insightful responses to the antecedents to BESD development. The study therefore advocates the importance of "hearing" the pupil voice. It is questionable however the extent to which the study achieved its aim of "true participation". This is due to the position occupied by young people both within society and the confines of their educational journey. The study critically reflects on the challenge of unleashing the pupil voice. It is hoped the findings will provide recommendations for educational professionals and research practitioners engaging and supporting this group of young people.

Consultation is an increasingly common model of delivery in psychology services (Leadbetter, 2006; Sheridan et al., 2017). It provides group members with a chance to discuss, reflect and learn about shared hopes and concerns for an identified child (Farouk, 2004). While teachers' positive ratings of consultations are consistent across much of the research (O'Farrell and Kinsella, 2018), there is a limited evidence indicating that group consultations impact positively on the focus child or reduce disruptive behaviours (Wilkinson, 2005; Garbacz et al., 2008; Upshur, Wenz-Ross & Reed, 2009; and Sheridan et al., 2012; Sheridan et al., 2017). However, much of the research that exists focused on the impact of consultation for children as a group rather than discussing its impact on the individual child (O'Farrell & Kinsella, 2018). The aim of this current study is, therefore, to investigate whether a series of group consultations, including parents and school staff, could improve the behaviour of three primary school children with social, emotional and behavioural difficulties. A case study design, incorporating a multiple baseline single case experimental design (SCED) was implemented. Repeated observational measures were taken to assess if there was an "indirect" impact of the consultations on the individual children's classroom behaviour. The data was triangulated with pre-and post-measures of teacher perceptions of behaviour, assessed using Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ; Goodman, 1997) and Child Behaviour Rating Scale (CBRS; Bronson et al., 1990). Following the conclusion of the consultations, interviews were held with members of staff and two of the pupils to offer supplementary qualitative data. This was analysed using thematic analysis in an attempt to explore how the consultations may have influenced the outcomes observed in each case. Drawing on the repeated observation measure, the results of the SCED demonstrated improvements in aspects of classroom behaviour for all three participants. In addition, this was supported by a positive change in SDQ and CBRS scores for two of the participants. School staff interviewed, also perceived there to have been a reduction in challenging behaviour. Staff also reported that the consultation process was helpful as a collaborative and supportive process. The study concluded that key school staff attending a series of group consultations can have a positive impact on classroom behaviour.

Background: This study aims to investigate the relationship between health, anxiety, depression and quality of life of young males with severe emotional and behaviour difficulties in a residential setting. In addition to provide the benchmark from which to monitor the interventions experienced by children and adolescents in Public Care Measures: The following assessment instruments were used in this study; PedsQL, PedsQL `in care' module (QOLIC), SF36, Birleson depression self rating scale, Multidimensional anxiety scale for children (MASC), Health Assessments and case file review. The study was undertakeni n a Scottish residential establishmentw ith threed istinct groups: day, residential and secure care to assess at the time of admission the quality of life, depression, anxiety and health of 196 males, 13-16 years old. These measures were repeated at 12 and 24 weeks. There was a single observation of a control group n= 115 males in 3rd and 4t' year in a mainstream secondary school who were also administered PedsQL, SF36, Birleson and MASC. Results: The PedsQL had a Cronbach alpha greater than 0.7 (except for subscale `emotional functioning' a 0.65,0.6 at 12 and 24 weeks respectively). The SF36 Cronbach alpha was greatert han 0.7 in all domainse xcept for subscales` social functioning' (a < 0.7 at 3 observations), and `vitality' (a < 0.66 and 0.65 at first and second observations). The QOLIC Cronbach alpha was greater than 0.7 in all three observations. There were significant differences between the groups in terms of their quality of life. The 4 results between the groups were found in the PedsQL subscales `physical functioning' where secure > control (p=0.04): secure > residential (p= 0.008); and PedsQL subscale `social functioning' day > control (p=0.026); secure > control (p=0.037). SF36 subscales `role physical secure > residential (p<0.001); day > residential (p<0.001). SF36 `role mental functioning' day > residential (p=0.001). There were a number of significant differences observed between the groups in the subscales of PedsQL and SF36. MASC did not identify the 3% of young people with a clinical diagnosis of anxiety. The Birleson failed to identify the 2% of the young people who had a clinical diagnosis of depression. The Birleson failed to identify 30% of the young people with current suicidal ideation and 27% of the young people with current suicidal behaviours. On the MASC the control group scored significantly higher on `social anxiety: humiliation and rejection', and `social anxiety: performance fear'. The control and secure group had significantly higher depression scores than the young people in residential and day care. The data on this large sample of participants for this study confirmed these LAAC come from greatly disadvantaged backgrounds and have poor physical, lifestyle and mental health in comparison to their peers. Conclusion: The results revealed were complex and counterintuitive. Although there were no differences between groups using self reported measures in the broad domains of Quality of Life, there were significant differences noted in the subscales of the measurement instruments. This study identified concerns about the sensitivity of both the 5 MASC and Birleson in identifying anxiety and depression in this LAAC population. In addition it has been highlighted that the Birleson did not identify almost one third of the young people who are considered to be most at risk of suicidal ideation and behaviours. 6

This PhD study makes an original contribution to to current research by examining through case study the impact of animal assisted activities for children and young people with Behaviour, Emotional and Social Difficulties (BESD). The thesis presents data, which supports that where contact with animals is offered as an alternative to traditional classroom based learning, children and young people with BESD are supported therapeutically, and enabled to build key relationship skills, thus enabling greater chance of success in learning. The primary motivation for the research was a commitment to better understand and thereby contribute, to a body of literature which seeks to explain and develop solutions and interventions for children and young people with a special need described as BESD alongside a curiosity for the world of nature and animals. Literature in this field includes consideration of frameworks which underpin work with BESD, such as research into trauma and its implications, leading to theories of attachment and in some cases, other psychodynamic concepts. Studies in Animal-Assisted Therapy and E.O.Wilson’s (2003) Biophilia Hypothesis support the consideration of animals as facilitators for mental and emotional health. The study employs a qualitative constellation methodology looking at three main case study contexts and utilising four additional smaller case studies to triangulate the findings. Psychosocial research tools were employed in order to understand the participants ‘story’, given the complexity of working with a vulnerable and challenging group. The main findings of the study show that animals have therapeutic potential as a conduit for relationships, being both social facilitators and taking the role of ‘the common third’ (Cameron and Moss, 2011). In a natural environment, with positive staff facilitation and purposeful activity, interventions with animals can support the development of key relationship skills such as trust, identification, empathy, nurture, understanding and self control. Further, the study shows there maybe educational impact, emotional impact, language and communication support and even health benefits. The study concludes with a discussion of the findings and makes recommendations for further empirical long-term research in the field of BESD and animal assisted activities.

This thesis investigates the effect of three separate interventions of social skills, cooperative learning and self-talk (positive self-referent verbal statements - PSRVS) on the self-esteem, behaviour and other affective variables on a small group of children in a Local Education Authority residential special school who have emotional and behavioural difficulties (EBD). The study examines two main research questions: What impact do three different types of intervention have on the children's self-rated self esteem and behaviour as observed in a free-time session. Secondly, what impact do the three interventions have on the children's self-rated locus of control, self-rated peer relationships, overt self-esteem and overt behaviour as rated by teachers and care staff. The first chapter introduces definitions of self-esteem and emotional and behavioural difficulties and the significance of the study. The prognosis for children with emotional difficulties and the dearth of research is then discussed. The focus of the study is explained and the two key research questions are stated. Chapter two consists of three main sections. The first section examines the history of the classification of children with emotional and behavioural difficulties and is followed by a discussion on the problems of the definition of these children. The second section examines the history of the concept of self, followed by the theoretical importance of the self-concept. The third section examines the evidence for children with emotional and behavioural difficulties having low self-concept. Chapter three is the literature review and is divided into three main sections, social skills training, co-operative teaming and cognitive behavioural interventions. Each section examines in turn the rationale, definitions and historY of the three interventions. A discussion of the theories of social competence and social skills are also included. Chapter four examines the value of multiple interventions and multiple measurements for children with emotional and behavioural difficulties, contending that it is unwise to employ a single intervention, or a single set of assessment measures-we need a variety. Initially, we examine the problems encountered in the measurement of the affective states of children with emotional and behavioural difficulties due to multiple definitions and unsatisfactory descriptions of their characteristics. We then examine the utility of rating scales, followed by the theoretical problems associated with the measurement of self-esteem. Whether children with emotional and behavioural difficulties actually do have low self-esteem, or whether they have what is termed 'positive illusory bias' or 'false-self behaviour' in reporting and assessment is then examined. Problems encountered when trying to access the false self are discussed. Chapter five describes the methodology employed in the current study whereby each self-contained intervention was sequentially applied in order to ascertain the effects on the children's self-esteem, locus of control, peer relationships, overt self-esteem, and overt behaviour. After a small pilot study all children in both the experimental and comparison groups rated their self-esteem, completed a measure of their locus of control and a measure of who they would like to 'play with' and 'work with'. Teachers and care-staff rated the children's overt behavioural self-esteem and their overt emotional and behavioural disturbance. All these measures were obtained for both experimental and comparison groups before and after each intervention and at a four month follow-up. Each intervention lasted for thirty minutes, three mornings a week for a total of approximately seven weeks. Teacher aides carried out behavioural observations during interventions and edible reinforcers (sweets) were given for compliance. The comparison group received the same average level of edible reinforcers but these were not given contingent upon their performance. A baseline of the experimental group's 'naturalistic' behaviours in a controlled free time setting was obtained. This occurred every Friday afternoon and lasted for thirty minutes and took place throughout the duration of the three interventions in order to provide a measure of appropriate peer interaction. In chapter six the results of the research questions are addressed in turn commencing with the results of global self-esteem for the fourteen children in the experimental and comparison groups. The lie scores are then presented. This is followed by the graphs of behavioural observations on the experimental group (only) that took place on each Friday afternoon, monitoring and recording 'positive', 'negative' and 'alone' social behaviours in a free-time half-hour session. The results for locus of control, the peer preferences questionnaire, Coopersmith's Behaviour Rating Form for overt self-esteem. and finally the results of Rutter's B2 Behaviour Questionnaire are presented. Both the experimental and comparison group completed all measures stated above at pre-test, after the first social skills intervention '1', after the second co-operative learning intervention '2', after the third intervention '3' and at a four-month follow-up '4'. Overall the findings provide little support for the effects of the three interventions on any of the measures taken with the exception of the behavioural observations taken on Friday afternoons. The final chapter discusses the findings from the current study in relation to the two research questions and the issues of measurement that pervade the whole study in the light of previous research found in the literature on children with emotional and behavioural difficulties. It is concluded that the existing literature may provide a somewhat erroneous picture of the self-esteem and affective variables of these children. Also the existing literature may provide a somewhat erroneous picture of how easy it is to impact on their self-esteem and other affective variables. The chapter ends with a discussion of the major weaknesses of the current study, areas for future research and implications for practitioners.

Thesis (MEdPsych (Educational Psychology)--University of Stellenbosch, 2009.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Bowlby (1969) described infant attachment as the emotional bond that ties the infant to one or a few figures across time and distance. He claimed that internal working models are shaped by early experiences and that attachment behaviour is programmed within these models. According to Bowlby, internal working models are carried forward and have an effect on the development of personality, emotion regulation characteristics and behaviour later in life (Goldberg, 2000). Attachment Theory and emotion regulation are closely linked. The parent-child relationship plays an important role in the development of emotion regulation skills. According to research and subsequent literature, children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have difficulty with emotion regulation. A limited number of studies have focused on the emotion regulation characteristics of children with ADHD, using Attachment Theory as lens. In this study, Attachment Theory was applied to explore the emotion regulation characteristics of a ten-year-old girl with ADHD. A series of observations were central to the process of producing data, as observation plays an eminent role in the history of attachment research. Within the series of observations, together with three semi-structured interviews, the child‟s emotion regulation characteristics were identified. The parent-child relationship and the parents‟ level of reflective functioning played a significant role to identify the characteristics of emotion regulation. A literature review and information from documents (e.g. reports from multi-disciplinary professionals) contributed to the validity of the findings. It was found that the girl with ADHD was significantly insecure in her general functioning. The themes that emerged elicited the interface and interaction between attachment behaviour, emotion regulation and ADHD. Future research should focus on Attachment Theory and ADHD. Parents, teachers and multi-disciplinary professionals who have or work with children diagnosed with ADHD will benefit from Attachment Theory.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Bowlby (1969) het gehegtheid of binding beskou as die emosionele band wat tussen die jong baba aan een of meer versorgers gevorm word. Hy het beweer dat hierdie band mettertyd „n interne model van gehegtheid vorm, en dat latere gedrag volgens hierdie modelle uitgeleef word. Volgens Bowlby word interne werksmodelle oorgedra van die primere versorger na die kind. Hierdie modelle het n uitwerking op spesifieke aspekte van die persoonlikheid, op die regulering van emosies en op gedrag binne verhoudings asook tydens konflik later in die lewe (Goldberg, 2000). 'n Noue verbintenis bestaan tussen gehegtheidsteorie en die regulering van emosie. Die ouer-kind-verhouding speel 'n belangrike rol in die ontwikkeling van vaardighede om emosie te reguleer. Volgens navorsing vind kinders met aandagtekort-hiperatiwiteitversteuring (ATHV) dit moeilik om emosies te reguleer. 'n Beperkte aantal studies gebruik gehegtheidsteorie om die regulering van emosies by kinders met ATHV na te vors. In hierdie studie is gehegtheidsteorie toegepas om die eienskappe van emosie – regulering by 'n tienjarige dogter wie met ATHV gediagnoseer is, te verken. 'n Reeks observasies was sentraal tot die proses van dataversameling, omdat observasie 'n besondere rol in die geskiedenis van gehegtheidsnavorsing speel. Binne „n reeks van waarnemings, tesame met drie semi-gestruktureerde onderhoude, is die eienskappe van die kind se regulering van emosies geïdentifiseer. Die ouer-kind-verhouding en die ouers se vlak van reflektiewe funksionering speel 'n belangrike rol in die identifisering van eienskappe om emosie te reguleer. 'n Literatuuroorsig en inligting uit dokumente (bv. verslae van multidissiplinêre professionele persone) het bygedra tot die geldigheid van die bevindings. Dit is gevind dat die dogter met ATHV beduidend onveilig in haar algemene funksionering was. Die temas wat na vore gekom het, het die skakeling en interaksie tussen gehegtheidsgedrag, die regulering van emosie en ATHV aan die lig gebring. Ouers, onderwysers en multidissiplinêre professionele persone wat kinders het of wat werk met kinders wat met ATHV gediagnoseer is, sal baat vind by gehegtheidsteorie.

I have worked my whole career with children presenting with what is now refer to as ‘social, emotional and behavioural difficulties’ (SEBD) and I feel I have gained much expertise in this field. One of the ongoing problems of working in the field is that although much good work is done with the children and many strategies, that seem to work well, are intuitively used by experienced teachers, there is little research to back this experiential approach. Therefore there is a lack of evidence- based practice as to what works with these young people and even less evidence about what the children think works for them. Researchers in the field, Cooper and Jacobs (2011, p3) state ‘The paucity of literature was in itself significant given not only the current widespread concern about addressing emotional and behavioural difficulties within schools in England but also the ready acceptance of a relatively small number of initiatives, which have an identifiable structure in terms of training courses and anecdotal evidence of efficacy but negligible support in terms of research studies’. They conclude their ‘International Review’ suggesting, ‘There is relatively little independent research and evaluation on curriculum provision for permanently excluded pupils below key stage 4. Apart from notable examples such as Hayden and Ward (1996) the experiences of such pupils also do not feature in recent literature’ (Cooper and Jacobs, 2011,p.23). Fletcher-Campbell and Wilkin (2003,p.3) concur that, ‘ the sources upon which this review draws were limited to post-1994 literature. It became apparent that a considerable number of the post-1994 sources identified focused on statistical trends, causes, and preventative work in mainstream schools, rather than on provision for excluded pupils.’ Working in this area gives me a great opportunity to study some aspects that may add to the current research on the provision for excluded pupils. The other interest I have is to explore if the same approaches work for or can change behaviours in Looked After Children. This vulnerable group of young people are growing in numbers and schools are often ill equipped to manage the emotional and behavioural fallout of being a Looked After Child. Dowling et al. (2012,p.4) would suggest, ‘with the exception of a few important local studies, there remains a noticeable lack of research knowledge regarding the numbers, characteristics and experiences of this vulnerable group of children looked after by social services. In our school the number of looked after children is growing year on year and I thought it timely that we investigate if what we do not only helps change behaviours in children with SEBD but in children with SEBD who are also Looked After. According to VOIPIC (2012,p.2) ‘There is a gap in research, investment and services which leave Looked After Children/Care Leavers in Northern Ireland doubly disadvantaged.’ In a school such as ours we are in a prime position to help fill this research gap and improve the life chances of this very vulnerable group of young people.

For students with emotional and behavioural issues the bridge from middle years to senior years can be particularly challenging. This transition is especially problematic if the students are moving from self-contained or specialized programming supports in middle years to inclusive senior years environments. This qualitative research study examined the perspectives and experiences of four principals and three student services personnel regarding the transition of students from specialized middle years placements to inclusive senior years schools. Each participant was asked their opinions on what strategies, structures, policies and supports assisted with the transition process as well as those that detracted from successful transitioning. Qualitative analysis of the data suggested that students need to connect with a positive adult upon transitioning to senior years, and they need to perceive that their senior years school is a safe and positive place for them to attend.

Adolescents with behavioral difficulties and emotional and behavior disorders (EBD) or other health impairment (OHI) have demonstrated deficits in reading, and these deficits appear to remain stable or worsen over time. Reading fluency is an essential skill for overall reading achievement, yet relatively few studies have addressed reading fluency intervention for adolescents, particularly adolescents with behavioral difficulties. This study used a multiple baseline across participants design to evaluate the effect of a repeated reading intervention on the reading fluency and comprehension skills of middle school students with reading difficulties and behavioral difficulties and EBD or OHI. The intervention involved repeated reading combined with an audio-recorded model and cues to read for comprehension. Working independently at a classroom computer, participants received six to nine minutes of daily supplemental fluency instruction over a four-week period. Instruction involved listening to an audio recording of a model reading a passage, receiving cues to read for understanding, reading the passage aloud while using the computer to record the reading, listening to the recording, and reading the passage aloud again while recording. Results indicated no functional relation between the intervention and the number of words correct per minute or the percentage of comprehension questions answered correctly. However, on-task behavior did improve during study session when compared with on-task behavior during regular classroom instruction. The findings of the study have implications for addressing the needs of adolescents with behavioral difficulties who have reading difficulties.

This thesis describes an investigation of a model of support for students with emotional/behavioural disorder (EBD) that involves neurologically based behaviour (NBB). Students with EBD that may involve NBB do not consistently respond to the behavioural interventions typically offered in schools. Organic neurological differences and executive functioning deficits may be implicated in neurologically based behaviour. Students who present with neurologically based behaviour characteristics often are said to have a developmentally delayed or undeveloped recognition of cause and effect. Thus, logical consequences and school wide behaviour support systems tend to be ineffective. Some direct service providers now advocate “working from the bottom up” (Nunley, 2005; Deak, 2005; Solomon & Heide, 2005) to address students with violent or aggressive behaviour. In this study, such a bottom up approach involved the use of environmental modification, body awareness, somatic understanding, and various calming techniques and meditative strategies to quiet the physiological responses, triggered from the bottom and mid areas of the brain (Nunley, 2005; Deak, 2005; Solomon & Heide, 2005). Once the midbrain is calmed, higher order interventions, such as cognitive behavioural therapy, conflict resolution, mediation, and others were used to help students process information, put appropriate language to behavioural events, and reframe and redefine their needs in more acceptable terms (Garbarino, 2001, Nunley, 2005; Charles, 2008a). The education system has a legal obligation to educate students with neurologically based behaviour despite the extreme behavioural issues they raise. Educators need to develop additional strategies and techniques to address students with severe behaviour. This thesis highlights a theoretical framework for a model of support for students with emotional/behavioural disorder that involves neurologically based behaviour.

The changing structures of families and the increase in the number of child headed families are progressively becoming noticeable both nationally and internationally. Reviewed literature has confirmed that the increasing trend in orphan status among school going age over the period 2002-2009, is of major concern. A growing body of literature also indicates that child headed families and orphan hood are becoming common phenomena in many African countries in general and South Africa in particular. This scenario presents certain challenges especially on the orphaned children‘s learning and schooling experiences as well as their behavioural and social interaction patterns. The phenomenon calls for greater educational support for such learners at school and home. Increasingly, teachers and schools world over are expected to respond to the changing educational environment and contextual realities of schooling that include the orphaned learners who head households. The aim of this thesis was to address the behavioural challenges that orphaned learners who head household experience and to develop a psycho-educational programme to support their learning. A qualitative instrumental case study research design was used with a study sample of 30 orphaned learners living in child headed household aged 10 to 16 years, ten Life Orientation Teachers, four members of School Management Team, eight members of School Based Support Team (SBST) and four Social Workers who were purposively sampled to participate in the study. The study was conducted in 15 classes located at four schools (3 secondary, 1 primary) in Taledi Area, Mamusa Circuit located in Ipelegeng Township of Schweizer Reneke town under Dr R.S. Ruth Momphati District-North West Province, South Africa. In order to answer the research question, data was collected using a variety of data collection techniques. These were semi structured interviews, observations and documentary analysis. Data obtained was analysed using the interpretational analysis method to determine the common themes and sub themes describing the behavioural challenges that the orphaned learners experience during schooling in the playgrounds and in the classroom. Data analysed revealed that although orphaned learners are socially strong with regard to interaction with their peers, they experience learning difficulties in the classroom leading to underperformance and grade repeating. The study also noted that orphaned learners exhibit negative conduct behaviours and negative social interaction patterns with their LO teachers and members of the school management team. The study also revealed that emotional problems and lack of material support are common phenomena amongst these learners. The study arrived at the recommendation that a psycho-educational programme to address the behavioural challenges be developed to enhance the academic performance of the learners.
Psychology of Education
D. Ed. (Psychology of Education)