Статті в журналах: "Electron microscopy"

1

Schatten, G., J. Pawley, and H. Ris. "Integrated microscopy resource for biomedical research at the university of wisconsin at madison." Proceedings, annual meeting, Electron Microscopy Society of America 45 (August 1987): 594–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0424820100127451.

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The High Voltage Electron Microscopy Laboratory [HVEM] at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, a National Institutes of Health Biomedical Research Technology Resource, has recently been renamed the Integrated Microscopy Resource for Biomedical Research [IMR]. This change is designed to highlight both our increasing abilities to provide sophisticated microscopes for biomedical investigators, and the expansion of our mission beyond furnishing access to a million-volt transmission electron microscope. This abstract will describe the current status of the IMR, some preliminary results, our upcoming plans, and the current procedures for applying for microscope time.The IMR has five principal facilities: 1.High Voltage Electron Microscopy2.Computer-Based Motion Analysis3.Low Voltage High-Resolution Scanning Electron Microscopy4.Tandem Scanning Reflected Light Microscopy5.Computer-Enhanced Video MicroscopyThe IMR houses an AEI-EM7 one million-volt transmission electron microscope.

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2

Möller, Lars, Gudrun Holland, and Michael Laue. "Diagnostic Electron Microscopy of Viruses With Low-voltage Electron Microscopes." Journal of Histochemistry & Cytochemistry 68, no. 6 (May 21, 2020): 389–402. http://dx.doi.org/10.1369/0022155420929438.

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Diagnostic electron microscopy is a useful technique for the identification of viruses associated with human, animal, or plant diseases. The size of virus structures requires a high optical resolution (i.e., about 1 nm), which, for a long time, was only provided by transmission electron microscopes operated at 60 kV and above. During the last decade, low-voltage electron microscopy has been improved and potentially provides an alternative to the use of high-voltage electron microscopy for diagnostic electron microscopy of viruses. Therefore, we have compared the imaging capabilities of three low-voltage electron microscopes, a scanning electron microscope equipped with a scanning transmission detector and two low-voltage transmission electron microscopes, operated at 25 kV, with the imaging capabilities of a high-voltage transmission electron microscope using different viruses in samples prepared by negative staining and ultrathin sectioning. All of the microscopes provided sufficient optical resolution for a recognition of the viruses tested. In ultrathin sections, ultrastructural details of virus genesis could be revealed. Speed of imaging was fast enough to allow rapid screening of diagnostic samples at a reasonable throughput. In summary, the results suggest that low-voltage microscopes are a suitable alternative to high-voltage transmission electron microscopes for diagnostic electron microscopy of viruses.

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3

Ross, Frances M. "Materials Science in the Electron Microscope." MRS Bulletin 19, no. 6 (June 1994): 17–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1557/s0883769400036691.

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This issue of the MRS Bulletin aims to highlight the innovative and exciting materials science research now being done using in situ electron microscopy. Techniques which combine real-time image acquisition with high spatial resolution have contributed to our understanding of a remarkably diverse range of physical phenomena. The articles in this issue present recent advances in materials science which have been made using the techniques of transmission electron microscopy (TEM), including holography, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), low-energy electron microscopy (LEEM), and high-voltage electron microscopy (HVEM).The idea of carrying out dynamic experiments involving real-time observation of microscopic phenomena has always had an attraction for materials scientists. Ever since the first static images were obtained in the electron microscope, materials scientists have been interested in observing processes in real time: we feel that we obtain a true understanding of a microscopic phenomenon if we can actually watch it taking place. The idea behind “materials science in the electron microscope” is therefore to use the electron microscope—with its unique ability to image subtle changes in a material at or near the atomic level—as a laboratory in which a remarkable variety of experiments can be carried out. In this issue you will read about dynamic experiments in areas such as phase transformations, thin-film growth, and electromigration, which make use of innovative designs for the specimen, the specimen holder, or the microscope itself. These articles speak for themselves in demonstrating the power of real-time analysis in the quantitative exploration of reaction mechanisms.The first transmission electron microscopes operated at low accelerating voltages, up to about 100 kV. This placed a severe limitation on the thickness of foils that could be examined: Heavy elements, for example, had to be made into foils thinner than 0.1 μm. It was felt that any phenomenon whose “mean free path” was comparable to the foil thickness would be significantly affected by the foil surfaces, and therefore would be unsuitable for study in situ. However, technology quickly generated ever higher accelerating voltages, culminating in the giant 3 MeV electron microscopes. At these voltages, electrons can penetrate materials as thick as 6–9 μm for light elements such as Si and Al, and 1 μm for very heavy ones such as Au and U.

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4

Tromp, Ruud M. "Low-Energy Electron Microscopy." MRS Bulletin 19, no. 6 (June 1994): 44–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1557/s0883769400036757.

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For surface science, the 1980s were the decade in which the microscopes arrived. The scanning tunneling microscope (STM) was invented in 1982. Ultrahigh vacuum transmission electron microscopy (UHVTEM) played a key role in resolving the structure of the elusive Si(111)-7 × 7 surface. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) as well as reflection electron microscopy (REM) were applied to the study of growth and islanding. And low-energy electron microscopy (LEEM), invented some 20 years earlier, made its appearance with the work of Telieps and Bauer.LEEM and TEM have many things in common. Unlike STM and SEM, they are direct imaging techniques, using magnifying lenses. Both use an aperture to select a particular diffracted beam, which determines the nature of the contrast. If the direct beam is selected (no parallel momentum transfer), a bright field image is formed, and contrast arises primarily from differences in the scattering factor. A dark field image is formed with any other beam in the diffraction pattern, allowing contrast due to differences in symmetry. In LEEM, phase contrast is the third important mechanism by which surface and interface features such as atomic steps and dislocations may be imaged. One major difference between TEM and LEEM is the electron energy: 100 keV and above in TEM, 100 eV and below in LEEM. In LEEM, the imaging electrons are reflected from the sample surface, unlike TEM where the electrons zip right through the sample, encountering top surface, bulk, and bottom surface. STM and TEM are capable of ~2 Å resolution, while LEEM and SEM can observe surface features (including atomic steps) with -100 Å resolution.

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5

Martone, Maryann E. "Bridging the Resolution Gap: Correlated 3D Light and Electron Microscopic Analysis of Large Biological Structures." Microscopy and Microanalysis 5, S2 (August 1999): 526–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1431927600015956.

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One class of biological structures that has always presented special difficulties to scientists interested in quantitative analysis is comprised of extended structures that possess fine structural features. Examples of these structures include neuronal spiny dendrites and organelles such as the Golgi apparatus and endoplasmic reticulum. Such structures may extend 10's or even 100's of microns, a size range best visualized with the light microscope, yet possess fine structural detail on the order of nanometers that require the electron microscope to resolve. Quantitative information, such as surface area, volume and the micro-distribution of cellular constituents, is often required for the development of accurate structural models of cells and organelle systems and for assessing and characterizing changes due to experimental manipulation. Performing estimates of such quantities from light microscopic data can result in gross inaccuracies because the contribution to total morphometries of delicate features such as membrane undulations and excrescences can be quite significant. For example, in a recent study by Shoop et al, electron microscopic analysis of cultured chick ciliary ganglion neurons showed that spiny projections from the plasmalemma that were not well resolved in the light microscope effectively doubled the surface area of these neurons.While the resolution provided by the electron microscope has yet to be matched or replaced by light microscopic methods, one drawback of electron microscopic analysis has always been the relatively small sample size and limited 3D information that can be obtained from samples prepared for conventional transmission electron microscopy. Reconstruction from serial electron micrographs has provided one way to circumvent this latter problem, but remains one of the most technically demanding skills in electron microscopy. Another approach to 3D electron microscopic imaging is high voltage electron microscopy (HVEM). The greater accelerating voltages of HVEM's allows for the use of much thicker specimens than conventional transmission electron microscopes.

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6

Youngblom, J. H., J. Wilkinson, and J. J. Youngblom. "Telepresence Confocal Microscopy." Microscopy Today 8, no. 10 (December 2000): 20–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1551929500054146.

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The advent of the Internet has allowed the development of remote access capabilities to a growing variety of microscopy systems. The Materials MicroCharacterization Collaboratory, for example, has developed an impressive facility that provides remote access to a number of highly sophisticated microscopy and microanalysis instruments, While certain types of microscopes, such as scanning electron microscopes, transmission electron microscopes, scanning probe microscopes, and others have already been established for telepresence microscopy, no one has yet reported on the development of similar capabilities for the confocal laser scanning microscope.

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7

O'Keefe, Michael A., John H. Turner, John A. Musante, Crispin J. D. Hetherington, A. G. Cullis, Bridget Carragher, Ron Jenkins, et al. "Laboratory Design for High-Performance Electron Microscopy." Microscopy Today 12, no. 3 (May 2004): 8–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1551929500052093.

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Since publication of the classic text on the electron microscope laboratory by Anderson, the proliferation of microscopes with field emission guns, imaging filters and hardware spherical aberration correctors (giving higher spatial and energy resolution) has resulted in the need to construct special laboratories. As resolutions iinprovel transmission electron microscopes (TEMs) and scanning transmission electron microscopes (STEMs) become more sensitive to ambient conditions. State-of-the-art electron microscopes require state-of-the-art environments, and this means careful design and implementation of microscope sites, from the microscope room to the building that surrounds it. Laboratories have been constructed to house high-sensitive instruments with resolutions ranging down to sub-Angstrom levels; we present the various design philosophies used for some of these laboratories and our experiences with them. Four facilities are described: the National Center for Electron Microscopy OAM Laboratory at LBNL; the FEGTEM Facility at the University of Sheffield; the Center for Integrative Molecular Biosciences at TSRI; and the Advanced Microscopy Laboratory at ORNL.

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8

McMorran, Benjamin J., Peter Ercius, Tyler R. Harvey, Martin Linck, Colin Ophus, and Jordan Pierce. "Electron Microscopy with Structured Electrons." Microscopy and Microanalysis 23, S1 (July 2017): 448–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1431927617002926.

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9

Kordesch, Martin E. "Introduction to emission electron microscopy for the in situ study of surfaces." Proceedings, annual meeting, Electron Microscopy Society of America 51 (August 1, 1993): 506–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0424820100148368.

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The Photoelectron Emission Microscope (PEEM) and Low Energy Electron Microscope (LEEM) are parallel-imaging electron microscopes with highly surface-sensitive image contrast mechanisms. In PEEM, the electron yield at the illumination wavelength determines image contrast, in LEEM, the intensity of low energy (< 100 eV) electrons back-diffracted from the surface, as well as interference effects, are responsible for image contrast. Mirror Electron Microscopy is also possible with the LEEM apparatus. In MEM, no electron penetration into the solid occurs, and an image of surface electronic potentials is obtained.While the emission microscope techniques named above are not high resolution methods, the unique contrast mechanisms, the ability to use thick single crystal samples, their compatibility with uhv surface science methods and new material-growth methods, coupled with real-time imaging capability, make them very useful.These microscopes do not depend on scanning probes, and some are compatible with pressures up to 10-3 Torr and specimen temperatures above 1300K.

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10

J. H., Youngblom, Wilkinson J., and Youngblom J.J. "Telepresence Confocal Microscopy." Microscopy and Microanalysis 6, S2 (August 2000): 1164–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1431927600038319.

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The advent of the Internet has allowed the development of remote access capabilities to a growing variety of microscopy systems. The Materials MicroCharacterization Collaboratory, for example, has developed an impressive facility that provides remote access to a number of highly sophisticated microscopy and microanalysis instruments. While certain types of microscopes, such as scanning electron microscopes, transmission electron microscopes, scanning probe microscopes, and others have already been established for telepresence microscopy, no one has yet reported on the development of similar capabilities for the confocal laser scanning microscope.At California State University-Stanislaus, home of the CSUPERB (California State University Program for Education and Research in Biotechnology) Confocal Microscope Core Facility, we have established a remote access confocal laser scanning microscope facility that allows users with virtually any type of computer platform to connect to our system. Our Leica TCS NT confocal system, with an interchangeable upright (DMRXE) and inverted microscope (DMIRBE) set up,

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11

Graef, M. De, N. T. Nuhfer, and N. J. Cleary. "Implementation Of A Digital Microscopy Teaching Environment." Microscopy and Microanalysis 5, S2 (August 1999): 4–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1431927600013349.

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The steady evolution of computer controlled electron microscopes is dramatically changing the way we teach microscopy. For today’s microscopy student, an electron microscope may be just another program on the desktop of whatever computer platform he or she uses. This is reflected in the use of the term Desktop Microscopy. The SEM in particular has become a mouse and keyboard controlled machine, and running the microscope is not very different from using a drawing program or a word processor. Transmission electron microscopes are headed in the same direction.While one can debate whether or not it is wise to treat an SEM or a TEM as just another black-box computer program, it is a fact that these machines are here to stay, which means that microscopy educators must adapt their traditional didactic tools and methods. One way to bring electron microscopes into the classroom is through the use of remote control software packages, such as Timbuktu Pro or PC-Anywhere. The remote user essentially opens a window containing the desktop of the microscope control computer and has all functions available. On microscopes with specialized graphics boards, integration of the image and control display for remote operation may not be straightforward, and often requires the purchase of additional graphics boards for the remote machine.

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12

Gauvin, Raynald, and Steve Yue. "The Observation of NBC Precipitates In Steels In The Nanometer Range Using A Field Emission Gun Scanning Electron Microscope." Microscopy and Microanalysis 3, S2 (August 1997): 1243–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1431927600013106.

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The observation of microstructural features smaller than 300 nm is generally performed using Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) because conventional Scanning Electron Microscopes (SEM) do not have the resolution to image such small phases. Since the early 1990’s, a new generation of microscopes is now available on the market. These are the Field Emission Gun Scanning Electron Microscope with a virtual secondary electron detector. The field emission gun gives a higher brightness than those obtained using conventional electron filaments allowing enough electrons to be collected to operate the microscope with incident electron energy, E0, below 5 keV with probe diameter smaller than 5 nm. At 1 keV, the electron range is 60 nm in aluminum and 10 nm in iron (computed using the CASINO program). Since the electron beam diameter is smaller than 5 nm at 1 keV, the resolution of these microscopes becomes closer to that of TEM.

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13

Isoda, Seiji, Kimitsugu Saitoh, Sakumi Moriguchi, and Takashi Kobayashi. "Application of Imaging Plate to High-Voltage Electron Microscopy." Proceedings, annual meeting, Electron Microscopy Society of America 48, no. 1 (August 12, 1990): 168–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0424820100179592.

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On the observation of structures by high resolution electron microscopy, recording materials with high sensitivity and high quality is awaited, especially for the study of radiation sensitive specimens. Such recording material should be easily combined with the minimum dose system and cryoprotection method. Recently a new recording material, imaging plate, comes to be widely used in X-ray radiography and also in electron microscopy, because of its high sensitivity, high quality and the easiness in handling the images with a computer. The properties of the imaging plate in 100 to 400 kV electron microscopes were already discussed and the effectiveness was revealed.It is demanded to study the applicability of the imaging plate to high voltage electron microscopy. The quality of the imaging plate was investigated using an imaging plate system (JEOL EM-HSR100) equipped in a new Kyoto 1000kV electron microscope. In the system both the imaging plate and films can be introduced together into the camera chamber. Figure 1 shows the effect of accelerating voltage on read-out signal intensities from the imaging plate. The characteristic of commercially available imaging plates is unfortunately optimized for 100 to 200 keV electrons and then for 600 to 1000 keV electrons the signal is reduced. In the electron dose range of 10−13 to 10−10 C/cm2, the signal increases linearly with logarithm of electron dose in all acceralating volatges.

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14

Watson, John H. L. "In the beginning there were electrons." Proceedings, annual meeting, Electron Microscopy Society of America 50, no. 2 (August 1992): 1068–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0424820100129978.

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Electrons have undoubtedly been around since the beginning of time, but not until the first quarter of the twentieth century, following the work of deBroglie on the dual nature of the electron, Busch's hypothesis that an electron beam could be focussed by an axially symmetric magnetic field, and Davisson & Germer's and Thomson's independent demonstrations of electron diffraction, did microscopists take seriously the possibility of a microscope utilizing electrons and magnetic fields. The first attempts at building electron microscopes were made in Europe but the resolution in the often blurred and distorted electron images was not much better than that achieved by light microscopy, so that a general opposition to funding the development of electron microscopes began to emerge. In 1935 E.F. Burton, Chairman of the Department of Physics at the University of Toronto began a program of electron optical research with his graduate student Cecil E. Hall, building emission microscopes.

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15

Chen, Xiaodong, Bin Zheng, and Hong Liu. "Optical and Digital Microscopic Imaging Techniques and Applications in Pathology." Analytical Cellular Pathology 34, no. 1-2 (2011): 5–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2011/150563.

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The conventional optical microscope has been the primary tool in assisting pathological examinations. The modern digital pathology combines the power of microscopy, electronic detection, and computerized analysis. It enables cellular-, molecular-, and genetic-imaging at high efficiency and accuracy to facilitate clinical screening and diagnosis. This paper first reviews the fundamental concepts of microscopic imaging and introduces the technical features and associated clinical applications of optical microscopes, electron microscopes, scanning tunnel microscopes, and fluorescence microscopes. The interface of microscopy with digital image acquisition methods is discussed. The recent developments and future perspectives of contemporary microscopic imaging techniques such as three-dimensional and in vivo imaging are analyzed for their clinical potentials.

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16

Nagata, Tetsuji. "Application of electron microscopic radioautography to clinical electron microscopy." Medical Electron Microscopy 27, no. 3-4 (December 1994): 191–212. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02349658.

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17

KOMOTO, Tadashi. "Electron Microscopy." Journal of the Japan Society of Colour Material 69, no. 3 (1996): 191–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.4011/shikizai1937.69.191.

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18

HODSON, N. P., and J. A. WRIGHT. "Electron microscopy." Journal of Small Animal Practice 28, no. 5 (May 1987): 381–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-5827.1987.tb01430.x.

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19

Pan, M., K. Ishizuka, C. E. Meyer, O. L. Krivanek, J. Sasakit, and Y. Kimurat. "Progress in Computer Assisted Electron Microscopy." Microscopy and Microanalysis 3, S2 (August 1997): 1093–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1431927600012356.

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All the lenses, deflectors and stigmators of contemporary electron microscopes are controlled digitally by an internal computer. Control through RS232 serial interface by an external computer has also become a standard feature. This external control has made so-called computer assisted electron microscopy (CAEM) possible and practical. We are developing a CAEM system with two objectives: (1) to free inexperienced microscopists from technical details of operating an electron microscope, especially transmission electron microscopes (TEM); (2) to assist experienced microscopists to operate their microscopes with higher accuracy and efficiency. The features include automated and/or assisted standard operations in focusing, stigmating, and aligning the microscope, and also sophisticated tuning that requires the evaluation of subtle changes in image features such as aligning the incident electron beam direction in the presence of 3-fold astigmatism in objective lens. CAEM can further assist operators in selecting areas or objects and taking images/diffraction/energy spectrum with all the parameters well controlled and catalogued together, thus not only enabling ease-of-use and high accuracy in operation but also yielding more information on the specimen.

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20

Ruska, Ernst. "The development of the electron microscope and of electron microscopy." Reviews of Modern Physics 59, no. 3 (July 1, 1987): 627–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1103/revmodphys.59.627.

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21

Ruska, Ernst. "The development of the electron microscope and of electron microscopy." Bioscience Reports 7, no. 8 (August 1, 1987): 607–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf01127674.

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22

Frank, L., Š. Mikmeková, Z. Pokorná, and I. Müllerová. "Scanning Electron Microscopy With Slow Electrons." Microscopy and Microanalysis 19, S2 (August 2013): 372–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1431927613003851.

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23

Martone, Maryann E., Andrea Thor, Stephen J. Young, and Mark H. Ellisman. "Correlated 3D Light and Electron Microscopy of Large, Complex Structures: Analysis of Transverse Tubules in Heart Failure." Microscopy and Microanalysis 4, S2 (July 1998): 440–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1431927600022327.

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Light microscopic imaging has experienced a renaissance in the past decade or so, as new techniques for high resolution 3D light microscopy have become readily available. Light microscopic (LM) analysis of cellular details is desirable in many cases because of the flexibility of staining protocols, the ease of specimen preparation and the relatively large sample size that can be obtained compared to electron microscopic (EM) analysis. Despite these advantages, many light microscopic investigations require additional analysis at the electron microscopic level to resolve fine structural features.High voltage electron microscopy allows the use of relatively thick sections compared to conventional EM and provides the basis for excellent new methods to bridge the gap between microanatomical details revealed by LM and EM methods. When combined with electron tomography, investigators can derive accurate 3D data from these thicker specimens. Through the use of correlated light and electron microscopy, 3D reconstructions of large cellular or subcellular structures can be obtained with the confocal microscope,

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24

Sujata, K., and Hamlin M. Jennings. "Advances in Scanning Electron Microscopy." MRS Bulletin 16, no. 3 (March 1991): 41–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1557/s0883769400057390.

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Scanning electron microscopes offer several unique advantages and they have evolved into complex integrated instruments that often incorporate several important accessories. Their principle advantage stems from the method of constructing an image from a highly focused electron beam that scans across the surface of a specimen. The beam generates backscattered electrons and excites secondary electrons and x-rays in a highly localized “spot.” These signals can be detected, and the results of the analysis are displayed as a specific intensity on a screen at a position that represents the position of the electron spot. As with a television image, after a given period, information about the entire field of view is displayed on the screen, resulting in a complete image. If the specimen is thin, the same type of information can be gathered from the transmitted electrons, and a scanning transmission image is thus constructed.The scanning electron microscope is highly versatile and widely used. The quality of the image is related to its resolution and contrast, which, in turn, depend on the diameter of the focused beam as well as its energy and current. Because electron lenses have inherently high aberrations, the usable aperture angles are much smaller than in a light microscope and, therefore, the electron beam remains focused over a relatively large distance, giving these instruments a very large depth of focus.Scanning electron microscopes are versatile in their ability to detect and analyze a lot of information. As a result, modern versions of these instruments are equipped with a number of detectors. Developments are sometimes related to placing the detectors in a geometrically attractive position close to the specimen.

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25

Kondo, Y., K. Yagi, K. Kobayashi, H. Kobayashi, and Y. Yanaka. "Construction Of UHV-REM-PEEM for Surface Studies." Proceedings, annual meeting, Electron Microscopy Society of America 48, no. 1 (August 12, 1990): 350–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0424820100180501.

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Recent development of ultra-high vacuum electron microscopy (UHV-EM) is very rapid. This is due to the fact that it can be applied to variety of surface science fields.There are various types of surface imaging in UHV condition; low energy electron microscopy (LEEM) [1], transmission (TEM) and reflection electron microscopy (REM) [2] using conventional transmission electron microscopes (CTEM) (including scanning TEM and REM)), scanning electron microscopy, photoemission electron microscopy (PEEM) [3] and scanning tunneling microscopy (STM including related techniques such as scanning tunneling spectroscopy (STS), atom force microscopy and magnetic force microscopy)[4]. These methods can be classified roughly into two; in one group image contrast is mainly determined by surface atomic structure and in the other it is determined by surface electronic structure. Information obtained by two groups of surface microscopy is complementary with each other. A combination of the two methods may give images of surface crystallography and surface electronic structure. STM-STS[4] and LEEM-PEEM [3] so far developed are typical examples.In the present work a combination of REM(TEM) and PEEM (Fig. 1) was planned with use of a UHV CTEM. Several new designs were made for the new microscope.

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26

Thomas, G. "Electron Microscopy of inorganic materials." Proceedings, annual meeting, Electron Microscopy Society of America 52 (1994): 558–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0424820100170529.

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Over the past two decades tremendous progress has been made in the use of advanced transmission electron microscopy techniques to solve complex materials problems. This is especially true in the case of inorganic materials, such as multicomponent metal oxides. The inherent complexity of the crystal structure and microstructure of these ceramic materials as well as the interdependence of the final properties on microstructure and processing mean that detailed characterization of the effect of processing variables on the structure and microstructure is imperative. Electron microscopy has become firmly established as a powerful tool to explore the structure and microstructure of these materials. Due to the various types of interactions of electrons with materials, the electron microscope is unique in that it can provide morphological, structural, compositional and in the case of materials such as ferroelectrics information on the domain and domain wall configurations. This is illustrated and summarized in Fig. 1. In this review, some typical examples of the applications of advanced transmission electron microscopy techniques to solving problems in ferroelectric materials will be discussed.

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27

Liu, J., and J. R. Ebner. "Nano-Characterization of Industrial Heterogeneous Catalysts." Microscopy and Microanalysis 4, S2 (July 1998): 740–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1431927600023825.

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Catalyst characterization plays a vital role in new catalyst development and in troubleshooting of commercially catalyzed processes. The ultimate goal of catalyst characterization is to understand the structure-property relationships associated with the active components and supports. Among many characterization techniques, only electron microscopy and associated analytical techniques can provide local information about the structure, chemistry, morphology, and electronic properties of industrial heterogeneous catalysts. Three types of electron microscopes are usually used for characterizing industrial supported catalysts: 1) scanning electron microscope (SEM), 2) scanning transmission electron microscope (STEM), and 3) transmission electron microscope (TEM). Each type of microscope has its unique capabilities. However, the integration of all electron microscopic techniques has proved invaluable for extracting useful information about the structure and the performance of industrial catalysts.Commercial catalysts usually have a high surface area with complex geometric structures to enable reacting gases or fluids to access as much of the active surface of the catalyst as possible.

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28

O’Keefe, M. A., J. Taylor, D. Owen, B. Crowley, K. H. Westmacott, W. Johnston, and U. Dahmen. "Remote On-Line Control of a High-Voltage in situ Transmission Electron Microscope with A Rational User Interface." Proceedings, annual meeting, Electron Microscopy Society of America 54 (August 11, 1996): 384–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0424820100164386.

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Remote on-line electron microscopy is rapidly becoming more available as improvements continue to be developed in the software and hardware of interfaces and networks. Scanning electron microscopes have been driven remotely across both wide and local area networks. Initial implementations with transmission electron microscopes have targeted unique facilities like an advanced analytical electron microscope, a biological 3-D IVEM and a HVEM capable of in situ materials science applications. As implementations of on-line transmission electron microscopy become more widespread, it is essential that suitable standards be developed and followed. Two such standards have been proposed for a high-level protocol language for on-line access, and we have proposed a rational graphical user interface. The user interface we present here is based on experience gained with a full-function materials science application providing users of the National Center for Electron Microscopy with remote on-line access to a 1.5MeV Kratos EM-1500 in situ high-voltage transmission electron microscope via existing wide area networks. We have developed and implemented, and are continuing to refine, a set of tools, protocols, and interfaces to run the Kratos EM-1500 on-line for collaborative research. Computer tools for capturing and manipulating real-time video signals are integrated into a standardized user interface that may be used for remote access to any transmission electron microscope equipped with a suitable control computer.

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29

Tivol, Bill. "Automated Functions in Electron Microscopy." Microscopy Today 12, no. 6 (November 2004): 14–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1551929500065913.

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The newest generation of computer-controlled electron microscopes incorporates the ability to perform adjustments to microscopy conditions by comparing pairs of images and altering the conditions accordingly. Automation of electron microscope adjustments offers the advantages of accuracy, precision, efficiency, the ability to incorporate the adjustments into other automated procedures, and, for radiation-sensitive specimens, minimal exposure to the beam.At present, automated functions include determination of eucentric height, focus, astigmatism, orientation and location of the stage tilt axis, centering of an image feature, and rotation center alignment. It is possible to automate other functions, so this list may be incomplete. In general, these functions are accomplished by induced image shifts, and, in many cases, the automated functions are completely analogous to the corresponding manual ones.

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30

Sun, Cheng, Erich Müller, Matthias Meffert, and Dagmar Gerthsen. "On the Progress of Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy (STEM) Imaging in a Scanning Electron Microscope." Microscopy and Microanalysis 24, no. 2 (March 28, 2018): 99–106. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1431927618000181.

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AbstractTransmission electron microscopy (TEM) with low-energy electrons has been recognized as an important addition to the family of electron microscopies as it may avoid knock-on damage and increase the contrast of weakly scattering objects. Scanning electron microscopes (SEMs) are well suited for low-energy electron microscopy with maximum electron energies of 30 keV, but they are mainly used for topography imaging of bulk samples. Implementation of a scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) detector and a charge-coupled-device camera for the acquisition of on-axis transmission electron diffraction (TED) patterns, in combination with recent resolution improvements, make SEMs highly interesting for structure analysis of some electron-transparent specimens which are traditionally investigated by TEM. A new aspect is correlative SEM, STEM, and TED imaging from the same specimen region in a SEM which leads to a wealth of information. Simultaneous image acquisition gives information on surface topography, inner structure including crystal defects and qualitative material contrast. Lattice-fringe resolution is obtained in bright-field STEM imaging. The benefits of correlative SEM/STEM/TED imaging in a SEM are exemplified by structure analyses from representative sample classes such as nanoparticulates and bulk materials.

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31

Dvorachek, Michael, Amnon Rosenfeld, and Avraham Honigstein. "Contaminations of geological samples in scanning electron microscopy." Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie - Monatshefte 1990, no. 12 (January 16, 1991): 707–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1127/njgpm/1990/1991/707.

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32

van der Krift, Theo, Ulrike Ziese, Willie Geerts, and Bram Koster. "Computer-Controlled Transmission Electron Microscopy: Automated Tomography." Microscopy and Microanalysis 7, S2 (August 2001): 968–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1431927600030919.

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The integration of computers and transmission electron microscopes (TEM) in combination with the availability of computer networks evolves in various fields of computer-controlled electron microscopy. Three layers can be discriminated: control of electron-optical elements in the column, automation of specific microscope operation procedures and display of user interfaces. The first layer of development concerns the computer-control of the optical elements of the transmission electron microscope (TEM). Most of the TEM manufacturers have transformed their optical instruments into computer-controlled image capturing devices. Nowadays, the required controls for the currents through lenses and coils of the optical column can be accessed by computer software. The second layer of development is aimed toward further automation of instrument operation. For specific microscope applications, dedicated automated microscope-control procedures are carried out. in this paper, we will discuss our ongoing efforts on this second level towards fully automated electron tomography. The third layer of development concerns virtual- or telemicroscopy. Most telemicroscopy applications duplicate the computer-screen (with accessory controls) at the microscope-site to a computer-screen at another site. This approach allows sharing of equipment, monitoring of instruments by supervisors, as well as collaboration between experts at remote locations.Electron tomography is a three-dimensional (3D) imaging method with transmission electron microscopy (TEM) that provides high-resolution 3D images of structural arrangements. with electron tomography a series of images is acquired of a sample that is tilted over a large angular range (±70°) with small angular tilt increments.

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33

Henken, Deborah B., and Garry Chernenko. "Light Microscopic Autoradiography Followed by Electron Microscopy." Stain Technology 61, no. 5 (January 1986): 319–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/10520298609109960.

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34

Brama, Elisabeth, Christopher J. Peddie, Gary Wilkes, Yan Gu, Lucy M. Collinson, and Martin L. Jones. "ultraLM and miniLM: Locator tools for smart tracking of fluorescent cells in correlative light and electron microscopy." Wellcome Open Research 1 (December 13, 2016): 26. http://dx.doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.10299.1.

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In-resin fluorescence (IRF) protocols preserve fluorescent proteins in resin-embedded cells and tissues for correlative light and electron microscopy, aiding interpretation of macromolecular function within the complex cellular landscape. Dual-contrast IRF samples can be imaged in separate fluorescence and electron microscopes, or in dual-modality integrated microscopes for high resolution correlation of fluorophore to organelle. IRF samples also offer a unique opportunity to automate correlative imaging workflows. Here we present two new locator tools for finding and following fluorescent cells in IRF blocks, enabling future automation of correlative imaging. The ultraLM is a fluorescence microscope that integrates with an ultramicrotome, which enables ‘smart collection’ of ultrathin sections containing fluorescent cells or tissues for subsequent transmission electron microscopy or array tomography. The miniLM is a fluorescence microscope that integrates with serial block face scanning electron microscopes, which enables ‘smart tracking’ of fluorescent structures during automated serial electron image acquisition from large cell and tissue volumes.

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35

Carmichael, Stephen W., and Jon Charlesworth. "Correlating Fluorescence Microscopy with Electron Microscopy." Microscopy Today 12, no. 1 (January 2004): 3–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1551929500051749.

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The use of fluorescent probes is becoming more and more common in cell biology. It would be useful if we were able to correlate a fluorescent structure with an electron microscopic image. The ability to definitively identify a fluorescent organelle would be very valuable. Recently, Ying Ren, Michael Kruhlak, and David Bazett-Jones devised a clever technique to correlate a structure visualized in the light microscope, even a fluorescing cell, with transmission electron microscopy (TEM).Two keys to the technique of Ren et al are the use of grids (as used in the TEM) with widely spaced grid bars and the use of Quetol as the embedding resin. The grids allow for cells to be identified between the grid bars, and in turn the bars are used to keep the cell of interest in register throughout the processing for TEM. Quetol resin was used for embedding because of its low auto fluorescence and sectioning properties. The resin also becomes soft and can be cut and easily peeled from glass coverslips when heated to 70°C.

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36

Perkins, J. M., D. A. Blom, D. W. McComb, and L. F. Allard. "Functional Collaborative Remote Microscopy: Inter-Continental Atomic Resolution Imaging." Microscopy Today 16, no. 3 (May 2008): 46–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1551929500059277.

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In recent years the development of remote microscopy, specifically in electron microscopes, has begun to emerge as a useful research tool rather than simply an educational or teaching aid. Scientists have long been able to work collaboratively at a distance; however, it is often in terms of receiving data or sending some instructions where there may be a delay in receipt of the information. When defining remote control it is important to note that electron microscopy requires instantaneous control and receipt of the feedback (in most cases via images on a screen). Without realtime control it is impossible to conduct high resolution imaging and analysis work. In terms of electron microscopy, there are several reasons for conducting experiments remotely: With sub-Ångström aberration-corrected scanning transmission electron microscopes, the environment within which the microscope itself sits is of utmost importance.

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37

Lamvik, M. K. "The Role of Temperature in Limiting Radiation Damage to Organic Materials in Electron Microscopes." Proceedings, annual meeting, Electron Microscopy Society of America 48, no. 2 (August 12, 1990): 404–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0424820100135629.

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The intensity of the electron beam in an electron microscope is at once the basis for progress as well as the ultimate limitation in electron microscopy of organic materials. Gabor noted that the highest intensity available for light optics comes from sunlight, which produces an energy density of 2,000 watts/cm2-steradian. The electron sources in early microscopes could produce a million times that amount, and modern sources even more. While the high intensity made good images possible (because numerical apertures used for electron microscopes are less than 1% of the size used in light microscopy) early microscopists feared that such a high flux of charged particles would destroy most specimens, especially organic ones. Although it was soon found that biological specimens could survive observation by electron microscopy, the introduction of double-condenser illumination systems revealed the problem of specimen contamination. In time it became clear that radiation damage was more fundamental than the gross increases or decreases in specimen mass observed in contamination and etching.

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38

Hassander, H. "Electron microscopy methods for studying polymer blends—comparison of scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy." Polymer Testing 5, no. 1 (1985): 27–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0142-9418(85)90029-7.

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39

Tinti, G., H. Marchetto, C. A. F. Vaz, A. Kleibert, M. Andrä, R. Barten, A. Bergamaschi, et al. "The EIGER detector for low-energy electron microscopy and photoemission electron microscopy." Journal of Synchrotron Radiation 24, no. 5 (August 9, 2017): 963–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/s1600577517009109.

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EIGER is a single-photon-counting hybrid pixel detector developed at the Paul Scherrer Institut, Switzerland. It is designed for applications at synchrotron light sources with photon energies above 5 keV. Features of EIGER include a small pixel size (75 µm × 75 µm), a high frame rate (up to 23 kHz), a small dead-time between frames (down to 3 µs) and a dynamic range up to 32-bit. In this article, the use of EIGER as a detector for electrons in low-energy electron microscopy (LEEM) and photoemission electron microscopy (PEEM) is reported. It is demonstrated that, with only a minimal modification to the sensitive part of the detector, EIGER is able to detect electrons emitted or reflected by the sample and accelerated to 8–20 keV. The imaging capabilities are shown to be superior to the standard microchannel plate detector for these types of applications. This is due to the much higher signal-to-noise ratio, better homogeneity and improved dynamic range. In addition, the operation of the EIGER detector is not affected by radiation damage from electrons in the present energy range and guarantees more stable performance over time. To benchmark the detector capabilities, LEEM experiments are performed on selected surfaces and the magnetic and electronic properties of individual iron nanoparticles with sizes ranging from 8 to 22 nm are detected using the PEEM endstation at the Surface/Interface Microscopy (SIM) beamline of the Swiss Light Source.

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40

Prabhakar, Neeraj, Markus Peurla, Olga Shenderova, and Jessica M. Rosenholm. "Fluorescent and Electron-Dense Green Color Emitting Nanodiamonds for Single-Cell Correlative Microscopy." Molecules 25, no. 24 (December 13, 2020): 5897. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules25245897.

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Correlative light and electron microscopy (CLEM) is revolutionizing how cell samples are studied. CLEM provides a combination of the molecular and ultrastructural information about a cell. For the execution of CLEM experiments, multimodal fiducial landmarks are applied to precisely overlay light and electron microscopy images. Currently applied fiducials such as quantum dots and organic dye-labeled nanoparticles can be irreversibly quenched by electron beam exposure during electron microscopy. Generally, the sample is therefore investigated with a light microscope first and later with an electron microscope. A versatile fiducial landmark should offer to switch back from electron microscopy to light microscopy while preserving its fluorescent properties. Here, we evaluated green fluorescent and electron dense nanodiamonds for the execution of CLEM experiments and precisely correlated light microscopy and electron microscopy images. We demonstrated that green color emitting fluorescent nanodiamonds withstand electron beam exposure, harsh chemical treatments, heavy metal straining, and, importantly, their fluorescent properties remained intact for light microscopy.

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41

Urchulutegui, M. "Scanning Electron-Acoustic Microscopy: Do You Know Its Capabilities?" MRS Bulletin 21, no. 10 (October 1996): 42–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1557/s0883769400031638.

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Characterization of materials usually requires microscopy techniques. Some of the most useful are based on a scanning microscope and involve scanning the sample surface with a focused beam (e.g., photons, electrons, ions, etc.). For example, photoacoustic microscopy uses a laser beam, acoustic microscopy uses an ultrasound beam, and scanning electron microscopy uses an electron beam. The interaction between the material and the beam produces a signal that can be used to generate a two-dimensional image.In scanning photoacoustic microscopy (SPAM), an intensity-modulated light beam is used to produce oscillations in the surface temperature of the sample. These oscillations induce changes in the pressure of a fluid in the photoacoustic cell as a consequence of the periodic heat conduction from the surface to the cell fluid. Subsequently many material-characterization methods have employed the same philosophy as SPAM, using a modulated beam as an excitation probe. The breadth of such techniques is due to the large number of possible excitation sources and signal detectors that have been proposed to probe the specimen response. In particular, scanning electron-acoustic microscopy (SEAM), also referred to as thermal wave microscopy, is a technique based on the utilization of a scanning electron microscope developed in 1980 and applied in recent years to material characterization. It can be considered an additional mode of scanning electron microscopy (SEM), which uses the generation of acoustic waves in the sample. Most reviews have concentrated on the application of SEAM to metals and semiconductors. However many other possibilities exist.

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42

Prutton, M., M. M. El Gomati, J. C. Greenwood, P. G. Kennyr, I. R. Barkshire, and J. C. Dee. "Multispectral Surface Analytical Microscopy: A Third-Generation Scanning Auger Electron Microscope." Proceedings, annual meeting, Electron Microscopy Society of America 48, no. 2 (August 12, 1990): 384–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0424820100135526.

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The quantitative interpretation of scanning Auger electron microscope (SAM) images has been shown to require the use of multi-spectral imaging of the surface under study. In a multi-spectral analytical microscope (MULSAM) a set of maps (bands) is acquired from the same area of a sample using scattered electrons with different kinetic energies as well as other signals from the sample such as current flowing to ground, the conventional SEM signal and characteristic x-rays. The resulting set of bands is a multi-spectral image which can be processed using models of the electron scattering in the sample and statistical transforms well known in LANDSAT imaging technology. The processed images can separate the mixed effects of topography, surface chemical inhomogeneity and bulk chemical composition fluctuations occurring in the bands of raw data.A computer controlled, UHV, energy analysing, scanning electron SEM will be described in this paper. The microscope contains facilities for collecting up to 23 256 by 256 pixel image bands from the same area of the sample.

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43

Baba-Kishi, K. Z. "Scanning reflection electron microscopy of surface topography by diffusely scattered electrons in the scanning electron microscope." Scanning 18, no. 4 (December 6, 2006): 315–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/sca.1996.4950180408.

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44

Schwarzer, Robert. "Orientation Microscopy Using the Analytical Scanning Electron Microscope." Practical Metallography 51, no. 3 (March 17, 2014): 160–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.3139/147.110280.

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45

Hetherington, Craig L., Connor G. Bischak, Claire E. Stachelrodt, Jake T. Precht, Zhe Wang, Darrell G. Schlom, and Naomi S. Ginsberg. "Superresolution Fluorescence Microscopy within a Scanning Electron Microscope." Biophysical Journal 108, no. 2 (January 2015): 190a—191a. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bpj.2014.11.1054.

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46

Dingley, David J. "Orientation Imaging Microscopy for the Transmission Electron Microscope." Microchimica Acta 155, no. 1-2 (June 6, 2006): 19–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00604-006-0502-4.

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47

Battistella, Florent, Steven Berger, and Andrew Mackintosh. "Scanning Optical Microscopy via a Scanning Electron Microscope." Journal of Electron Microscopy Technique 6, no. 4 (August 1987): 377–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jemt.1060060408.

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48

Wortmann, F. J., and G. Wortmann. "Quantitative Fiber Mixture Analysis by Scanning Electron Microscopy." Textile Research Journal 62, no. 7 (July 1992): 423–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/004051759206200710.

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Labeling textile blends requires identification and quantification of their fibrous components. Blends of specialty animal fibers with sheep's wool are of special, practical importance; for these the light microscope is the traditional tool of analysis. To investigate the actual applicability of light microscopy for analyzing such blends as an alternative to the scanning electron microscope (SEM), we analyzed in detail the results of round trials conducted in the seventies. The results confirm that light microscopy, in general, is neither an objective nor a reproducible method for analyzing wool/specialty fiber blends. Though there was substantial progress with subsequent round trials, the data suggest that there is a fundamental statistical limit to the pass/fail rate, i.e., the ratio of correct versus incorrect analyses in a round trial that can be achieved by light microscopy. Even allowing for generous error limits, this effect leaves an intolerable element of chance for the correctness of analysis. Such performance is in pronounced contrast to that of the SEM method, where round trials have shown that laboratories that perform well reach analysis errors for specialty fiber/wool blends that are within or close to the natural error limits of microscopic analyses.

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49

Chapman, George B., P. W. Hawkes, and U. Valdre. "Biophysical Electron Microscopy." Transactions of the American Microscopical Society 111, no. 2 (April 1992): 167. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3226674.

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50

Dyukov, V. G. "Scanning electron microscopy." Uspekhi Fizicheskih Nauk 152, no. 6 (1987): 357. http://dx.doi.org/10.3367/ufnr.0152.198706q.0357.

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