Дисертації з теми "Economic of land and Energy"

As the energy price goes up, more and more concern has been focused on the sustainable development of residential houses. One of the best solution will be the low energy housing-passive house. The concept of passive house has been popular in Germany and whole Europe in the last 10 years, however, there is no official residential passive house standard project in China now. In this thesis, the feasibility of developing passive house in China will be analysed. Combined with the mature experience from the passive house project in Europe, a Chinese way of building the passive house will be provided. According to the previous studies, a lot of knowledge of passive house projects in Sweden have been referred to help doing the analysis about the passive house development in China. Due to the fact that there is no passive house had done before in China, the some assumptions have been made to help with the economy analysis. It is assumed that one passive house residential project will be built in Shenyang city, Liaoning Province. After the analysing and calculating, it can be concluded that it is possible and profitable to develop the passive house standard residential projects in China. It has a bright future.

A low carbon future poses the question, how will low carbon technology be integrated? One possibility is to retain back-up conventional generators. Other possibilities are technical energy storage, and for demand side management to play a more important role. With the advent of smart metering it is possible consumers could be given real-time prices from their energy supplier. If energy storage is to be implemented investors and stakeholders must have an idea of the likely revenues. Chapter 1 estimates arbitrage revenues for a small price taking store in a GB 2050 electricity market scenario. We do so by estimating equilibrium market prices, which provide us with a market based approach to valuation. It also estimates the effect that the characteristics of the store, and market concentration has on revenues. If energy storage is to be installed in enough capacity to smooth out large fluctuations in net demand then the economics of a small, price taking, store are no longer valid. An energy store would become a strategic player in the market and a Nash equilibrium between generators and the store must be reached. Chapter 2 proposes a methodology for estimating large scale energy storage strategies and revenues, and estimates them. Chapter 3 then turns to address time-of-use (TOU) tariffs. One potential threat to TOU tariffs is the fear they will lead to winners and losers and that they may be regressive or affect certain sectors of society more than others. Here we explore these issues by taking advantage of a unique data-set, the Household Electricity Survey (HES). We analyse the distributional effects of various revenue-neutral TOU tariffs which are designed to reflect the true cost of meeting electricity demand. We perform this welfare analysis under both the assumptions of no demand response and demand response respectively.

In recent years, proponents of 'green and clean fuel' have argued that the costs of overreliance on fossil fuels could be reduced through transition to biofuels such as bio-ethanol. Global biofuel discourses suggest that any transition to biofuel invariably results in significant benefits, including energy independence, job creation, development of agro-industrial centres at local level and high revenue generations for the state with minimum negative impacts on the environment. With many risks and costs associated with traditional 'dirty' fuels, it is likely that many countries, particularly African countries, will move towards the 'green and clean fuel' alternative. However, until recently research has arguably paid limited attention to the local livelihood impacts related to land acquisition for biofuel development or the policy frameworks required to maximise biofuel benefits. With regards to biofuel benefits, some recent studies suggest that the much bandied potential for greater tax revenue, lowered fuel costs and wealth distribution from biofuel production have all been perverted with relatively little payoff in wage labour opportunities in return (e.g. Richardson, 2010; Wilkinson and Herrera, 2010). Based on work done in Chisumbanje communal lands of Zimbabwe (Thondhlana, 2015), this policy brief highlights the local livelihood impacts of biofuel development and discusses policy implications of the findings. By highlighting the justifications of biofuel development at any cost by the state, the study sheds some light on the conflicts between state interests and local livelihood needs.

Planting woody biomass for energy production can be used as a mine reclamation procedure to satisfy the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 (SMCRA) and provide renewable energy for the United States.  This study examines the economic viability of bioenergy production on previously mined lands using multiple hardwood species and treatments.  Five species were planted at two densities; one-half of the trees were fertilized in year two.  Height and diameter of the trees were measured annually for five years; the first three years by cooperating researchers at Virginia Tech, the last two years specifically for this report.  Current and predicted mass of the species, effects of planting density and fertilizer application, and the land expectation value (LEV) of each treatment were summarized.  A sensitivity analysis was conducted to determine how changes in production costs, stumpage price, rotation length, and interest rate affect the economic feasibility of bioenergy production.  Renewable energy and mine reclamation policies were investigated and it was determined that woody bioenergy can be planted as a mine reclamation procedure and may receive financial incentives.  Production cost appears to have the largest impact on LEV and is often the difference between positive and negative returns for the landowner.  The extra cost of fertilization and high density planting do not increase LEV; the unfertilized, low density treatments have the best LEV in all examined scenarios.  In general, bioenergy was found to be economically viable as a mine reclamation procedure only in limited circumstances.  In low cost, high price scenarios, bioenergy crops could have the potential to reforest both active and abandoned mine lands throughout southern Appalachia.
Master of Science

Public Law 95-87, the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 (SMCRA), mandates that mined land be reclaimed in a fashion that renders the land at least as productive after mining as it was before mining. In the central Appalachian region, where prime farmland and economic development opportunities for mined land are scarce, the most practical land use choices are hayland/pasture, wildlife habitat, or forest land. Since 1977, the majority of mined land has been reclaimed as hayland/pasture or wildlife habitat, which is less expensive to reclaim than forest land, since there are no tree planting costs. As a result, there are now hundreds of thousands of hectares of grasslands and scrublands in various stages of natural succession located throughout otherwise forested mountains in the U.S. The purpose of this study is to develop a framework for understanding/calculating the economic implications of converting these reclaimed mined lands to forests under various silvicultural regimes, and to demonstrate the economic/decision-making implications of an incentive scheme on such a land use conversion. The economic feasibility of a range of land-use conversion scenarios was analyzed for both mixed hardwoods and white pine, under a set of low product prices and under a set of high product prices. Economic feasibility was based on land expectation values. Further, three types of incentive schemes were investigated: 1) lump sum payment at planting (and equivalent series of annual payments), 2) revenue incentive at harvest and 3) payment based on carbon volume.

Mixed hardwood LEVs ranged from -$2416.71/ha (low prices) to $3955.72/ha (high prices). White pine LEVs ranged from -$2330.43/ha (low prices) to $3746.65/ha (high prices). A greater percentage of white pine scenarios yielded economically feasible land-use conversions than did the mixed hardwood scenarios, and it seems that a conversion to white pine forests would, for the most part, be the more appealing option. It seems that, for both mixed hardwoods and white pine, it would be in the best interests of the landowner to invest in the highest quality sites first. For a conversion to mixed hardwood forests, a low intensity level of site preparation seems economically optimal for most scenarios. For a conversion to white pine forests, a medium intensity level of site preparation seems economically optimal for most scenarios.

Mixed hardwoods lump sum payments, made at the time of planting, ranged from $0/ha to $2416.71/ha (low prices). White pine lump sum payments, made at the time of planting, ranged from $0/ha to $2330.53/ha (low prices). Mixed hardwoods benefits based on an increase in revenue at harvest, ranged from $0/ha to $784449.52/ha (low prices). White pine benefits based on an increase in revenue at harvest ranged from $0/ha to $7011.48/ha (high prices). Annual mixed hardwood benefits, based on total stand carbon volume present at the end of a given year, ranged from $0/ton of carbon to $5.26/ton carbon (low prices). White pine benefits based on carbon volume ranged from $0/ton of carbon to $18.61/ton of carbon (high prices). It appears that, for white pine scenarios, there is not much difference between incentive values for lump sum payments at planting, revenue incentives at harvest, and total carbon payments over a rotation. For mixed hardwoods, however, it appears that the carbon payment incentive is by far the cheapest option of encouraging landowners to convert land.
Master of Science

Biofuels, including ethanol and biodiesel, are important components of energy policy in the U.S. and abroad. There is a long history of ethanol production from corn (maize) in the United States and from sugarcane in Brazil. However, there has been a push for greater use of next-generation biofuels (including those derived from cellulosic feedstocks) to mitigate many of the environmental and potential food system impacts of large scale biofuel production. Farmer willingness to grow biomass crops and ensuring adequate feedstock supply are two important challenges impeding large scale commercialization of next-generation biofuels. The costs of transporting bulky, low density biomass will be substantial. Consequently, in the near term, the economic success of next-generation biofuels will hinge on the supply of locally available biomass. As such, agricultural contracts are expected to be an important tool in overcoming the feedstock acquisition challenge. The broad objective of this study is to understand the effect of contracting for non-food energy crops (cellulosic feedstocks) on the agricultural landscape via the displacement of commodity (food) crops on productive cropland. We develop an analytical framework for evaluating the design and use of two different contract structures for securing cellulosic feedstock in a representative supply chain with a biorefinery and farmer. We study the dynamics of scarce land and indirect competition from commodity market production on a biorefinery's equilibrium pricing strategy and the resultant supply of cellulosic biomass. And we consider its sensitivity to various production characteristics and market conditions. We develop a method for quantifying the biorefinery's tradeoff between profit margins and competing for land in order to secure the requisite feedstock for biofuel production. And we characterize the loss of efficiency in the decentralized system, relative to a vertically integrated system, that can be attributed to the need to compete for the farmer's scarce land resource versus that which results from the biorefinery's desire to make a profit. Then we extend our framework to consider multi-year contracts for biomass production and evaluate the importance of land quality, yield variability and contract structure on a farmer's willingness to accept a contract to produce cellulosic feedstock as well as the resulting impact on the agricultural landscape through the displacement of commodity crops. Using switchgrass production in Tennessee as a case study, we develop feedstock supply curves for each contract structure considered and evaluate the conditions and contract prices at which land devoted to various field crops would be displaced by switchgrass based on field trials of switchgrass production in Tennessee and recent USDA data on crop prices and production.

The objective of this thesis is to analyze three key aspects of the long-term relationship between energy policy and overall economic policy in Mexico: (1) energy- industrialization; (2) energy-labour force; and (3) energy-foreign debt. The importance of the energy sectors in the general economy is evaluated from a historical perspective. Some of the most representative energy studies, both theoretical and empirical are reviewed. Also, the structure and specification of some general equilibrium (GE) models constructed for Mexico are compared within a SAM-type conceptual framework. The SAM approach is then used to formulate the one-period version of the model. An optimizing intertemporal GE model is constructed and implemented to analyze the interdependence between the decisions of the various economic agents, and to explore the sensitivity of optimal policies with respect to such key parameters as elasticities of substitution and world oil prices. The starting point of the model is the work by Blitzer and Eckaus (1986a). However, given the different nature of the present study, five types of improvements have been introduced: (i) the objective function and the terminal constraints are formulated in a way that leads to more attractive price structures; (ii) the model contains truly price-sensitive endogenous choices; (iii) there is a greater degree of disaggregation of the accounts; (iv) the data base is more updated; and (v) a much improved software is employed for solving the model. The following are some of the main conclusions derived from the various solutions of the model: - Both the real and dual sides of the model capture a structural adjustment process towards expansion of nonoil tradeable producing sectors. Manufacturing exports replace oil and gas revenues and external capital inflows as the main source of foreign currency. - Foreign exchange is the most serious constraint of the system, so that foreign debt reduction is considered as the most profitable way of allocating current income. - This calls for a portfolio switching effect among the assets that constitute Mexico's wealth: foreign debt reduction affects investment in real capital assets, which, in turn, means that the economy grows below the labour force growth. Moreover, in the majority of the experiments, oil and gas extraction levels are constrained by the ceilings imposed by the government. - Skilled labour force shortages also restrict the economy significantly. Yet, the economy is not constrained in its ability to absorb oil revenues.

This dissertation explores how property rights to a natural resource affect economic decisions for investment or sale, and how these decisions may in turn impact other areas of the economy. The first essay focuses on how incomplete land ownership on Indian Reservations in the United States affects landowner incentives to engage in agricultural production. The second essay explores how the transfer of water in arid regions via water right sales affects local labor markets and environmental outcomes. The third essay seeks to understand how shale-gas drilling has affected organic food production. This dissertation provides several policy implications. First, the findings suggest that the key to improving lagging agricultural development on American Indian land is to improve tribal farmers’ access to capital, so they can invest in agricultural systems (including irrigation) at the level of their neighbors enjoying fee-simple title. Second, while a potentially effective solution to reduce costly water shortfalls among high-value urban users, water sales from agricultural to urban users appear to simultaneously decrease employment and environmental quality in the water exporting region. Third, Drilling activities appear to discourage organic farming in Colorado. While farmers with mineral ownership benefit, identifying the direct causes of lost organic certification can inform policy that regulates negative externalities on organic farms caused by drilling.

In meeting the UK Government's national and international renewable energies commitments and their role in UK energy security, decarbonisation of energy use, carbon sequestration and climate change mitigation, the recognition of a potential for considerable scaling up of UK woodland coverage is emphasised. Also, UK forestry has increasingly become realigned with the global sustainability agenda encompassing issues such as native woodlands, the decline of woodland biodiversity, the Government’s quality of life indicators, and ideas of socio-cultural, ecological and economic landscape scale values. Accordingly, socio-cultural interaction with the natural world places structure and components into the landscape, the subsequent combinations of which are characterised by consequent ecological and economic conditions. As a consequence compositional, structural, spatial and temporal differences produce different value outcomes. This thesis explores these value outcomes illustrating the multi-dimensional nature of the relationships that society experience with their surrounding landscape, across a range of case study wood-fuel producing landscapes. The case study landscapes describe traditional silvo-pastoral management, Natura 2000 forest, primarily managed around ideas of ecosystem goods and services, co-operatively and commercially owned sustainable forestry. Differences in value are observed between and within landscapes, value domains and value components. These differences reflect tensions that exist between sustainability and society’s continued use of natural resources. Consequently value articulates the nature of relationships between and within multiple value components, characterised by competing socio-cultural, ecological, economic interests. Thus value, as a concept, is built through an understanding of the connected, embedded nature of society’s relationship with the natural world. Using a novel fuzzy logic modelling based approach to valuation, the consequences of land-use choices and the associated changes across socio-cultural, ecological and economic value domains are made visible. Understanding the complex nature of these interrelated and interdependent relationships can inform the political and institutional decision making and policy setting process. In this manner knowledge of interaction, interdependence and the reality of trade-offs, consistent with systems describe by finitude, can support and facilitate deliberative discourse. Where the true nature of value is considered an emergent property expressed through an appreciation of the value components and the outcomes of their relationships. Thus value is fundamentally a comparative property and not the outcome of an accumulative argument.

There is broad consensus that a transition to renewable energy and a low-carbon economy is crucial for future development and prosperity, yet there are differing perspectives on how such a transition should be achieved. The overarching goal of this dissertation, which is comprised of three interrelated studies, is to analyze and compare energy futures scenarios to achieve a renewable energy transition and low-carbon economy in the State of Vermont. In the first study, an analysis is presented of the role of energy pricing regimes and economic policy in the context of pursuing a renewable energy transition in the State of Vermont. Through the development and application of a system dynamics model, results address the limits to technological substitution due to path dependence on nonrenewable energy. The role of complementary economic policy is also highlighted to shift from a goal of quantitative growth to qualitative development in order to decouple economic welfare from energy consumption. In the second study, an analysis is presented of the impact of modeled energy transition scenarios to address energy development and land use trade-offs. Simulations with a spatio-temporal land cover change model find that Vermont could achieve a complete transition to renewable electricity using in-state resources through developing between 11,000 and 100,000 hectares of land for solar and wind, or up to four percent of state land area, including some environmentally sensitive land. This approach highlights the need for integration of energy policy and land use planning in order to mitigate potential energy-land use conflict. In the final study, trade-offs between energy, economic, environmental, and social dimensions of Vermont's renewable energy transition are explored through the use of a multi-criteria decision analysis. Energy transition alternatives were designed to reveal trade-offs at the intersection of economic growth and carbon price policy. While there were no optimal pathways to achieving Vermont's energy transition, some energy transition alternatives achieve a more socially desirable balance of benefits and consequences. Navigating the trade-offs inherent in the ongoing energy transition will require an adaptive approach to policymaking that incorporates iterative planning, experimentation, and learning.

This thesis examines Sweden’s transition towards a 100% renewable energy system in 2040, by analyzing the expansion of wind power in particular. The study applies a theoretical framework consisting of the concepts of Social Acceptance and Ladder of Participation to analyze how these can be applied on the national and local levels. As the purpose is to acknowledge the different opportunities and problems with the ongoing expansion of wind power and to identify if the “social gap” between global and local is present in Sweden, both qualitative and quantitative methods are applied. Content analysis was used to examine the role of social acceptance and citizen participation while the Pearson Correlation Analysis was conducted to identify possible connections between the public’s attitudes towards wind power and the increasing number of wind turbines on different scaling levels. The results identified differences in quality and quantity of the approach strategies used to increase social acceptance and citizen participation on the national and local levels. Strong resistance movements were also found on the local level, while no moderate nor strong relationship could be found between the public’s attitudes and the number of turbines, instead, strong support was found on all geographical levels, hence, the “social gap” is present in the Swedish context. The thesis also concludes that if implemented wrong, wind power could be considered as a “land- grabber” while the opposite is true if done right, and thus function as a local catalyst.

The effectiveness of bioenergy subsidisation policy in greenhouse gas mitigation and their hypothetical effect on the increase of the agricultural commodity prices, have led to a lively debate at the international level. The issue recurred in Italy as well, as a consequence of the growing demand of green maize for biogas production in the Po Valley. Such emerging activity has been accused to increase land rents and maize price, jeopardizing, in turn, important agri-food chains. The aim of this thesis is to quantify the extent to which the rapid spread of biogas raised the maize price at regional level, increasing the demand of land for energy crops. For this purpose we built a partial-equilibrium model simulating the agricultural sector and the biogas industry in Lombardy, under two alternative subsidization schemes. Results show that policy measures implemented in 2013 – reducing the average subsidy per kWh – may contribute to enforce the sustainability of the sector and decreasing its competition with agri-food chains: Maize demand for biogas would decrease, compared to the old scheme, lessening the market clearing price and reducing land demand for energy purposes.

This study was the first to analyze the cost and energy requirements to harvest and transport wood-biomass to an off-grid community, namely Brochet, Manitoba, for the purpose of bioenergy. The study takes the unique local conditions and circumstances of a remote northern off-grid community into consideration, including: marginal forest resources and transport over winter road networks. Analysis of the forest resources within the study area using various resources found that the wood supply for a biomass facility was adequate. Under most conditions, the combined cost to harvest and transport biomass to Brochet using a variety of systems was less expensive than the combined purchase and transport cost of diesel fuel. The analysis also found that significant employment opportunities and a reduction in carbon emissions would be realized through wood biomass production.

Biofuels started to raise interest almost 40 years ago, when the Arab oil embargo pushed oil prices up and therefore spurred the research towards new forms of energy. Nevertheless, biofuel production has not really taken off until recently, when the combination of high oil prices, concern about greenhouse gas emissions, and the progressive reduction of oil reserves induced many countries across the world to implement policies encouraging biofuels production. At the beginning of the 2000s, biofuels were seen as a panacea for energy security (domestic energy source, highly reliable), economic stability (energy price stability, rural development, employment generation, reduce supply-demand gap for agricultural commodities), and for environment protection (better waste utilization, GHG emissions reduction), especially after the drawing up of the Kyoto protocol, according to which signatory countries had to reduce their GHG emissions by about 5% from their 1990 levels, by 2012. Biofuels are currently produced from agricultural commodities, therefore their repercussions on the agricultural and food sector might be substantial. In this framework it is clear that the responsibility that big countries (those able to affect world prices) have is substantial. Countries like the US, Brazil, and the EU have been encouraging biofuel production in recent years and ended up artificially creating a new market for agricultural commodities without fully understanding, a priori, the possible negative consequences of such decision. They decided to subsidize renewables because of the increased pressure by the public opinion towards greenhouse gas emissions reduction, reduce dependency on oil imports, and the need to meet the targets set by both the Kyoto protocol. Biofuel expansion took place not only in a controversial manner, without coordination at international level, but also in a critical historical moment. The past two decades have been characterized by a strong increase in world food demand, mainly due to economic expansion in emerging economies like China, India, Brazil, and some South East Asian countries. The strong increase in demand faces an agricultural supply that in the short period is inevitably inelastic, which results in higher prices and higher volatility (due to reduced stocks). Much of the initial enthusiasm towards biofuels has been declining in the last few years. First of all, biofuel expansion has increased the demand for many agricultural commodities, which, in a framework of increasing food demand in the world, triggered a sharp increase in agricultural prices with strong negative implications for poor people especially in developing countries. Many doubts have also been raised concerning the real effectiveness of biofuels in reducing GHG emissions. Emission-computing methodologies are not always accurate and sometimes are difficult to put in practice. Agriculture intensification and land use changes, both consequences of biofuel expansion, are two of the factors more likely to have increased GHG emissions rather than reduced. Furthermore, biofuel policies have been designed and implemented by countries on an individual basis, without the coordination at international level that would have been needed to avoid the numerous side-effects that biofuels have been having on international food markets and on the environment. My doctorate research analyzes all aspects of the biofuel sector at world level with special emphasis on its sustainability under an economic, environmental, and ethical point of view. The research starts with a description of what biofuels are and in which sub-categories they can be divided. Then, it provides a review of biofuel policies around the world and data on production, prices and trade. The work also provides figures on production, prices and trade of the main agricultural commodities used for biofuel production and the evolution of cropped and forest areas worldwide in the last twenty years. Main biofuel producers are the US, Brazil and the EU. In the first two countries is ethanol the main biofuel produced (obtained from corn in the US and from sugarcane in Brazil), while in the EU the leasing biofuel is biodiesel (from vegetable oils). In 2011, 51.8% of Brazilian sugarcane production and 42.2% of US corn production were used to produce ethanol. Areas cropped with sugarcane and corn, in the two countries were 4.2 and 15.5 million hectares in 2011, which correspond to 1.5% and 16% of total agricultural area respectively. By 2021 ethanol production will absorb almost 61% of Brazilian sugarcane production and 57% of US corn production, ceteris paribus. In 2021 the amount of land needed to grow all sugarcane needed to produce ethanol in Brazil will be more than 8 million hectares, almost equal to the entire current sugarcane area in the South American country. In the US the area that will be needed to cultivate corn for ethanol production will grow to slightly less than 20 million hectares, equal to 53% of current corn area in the US and 20% of current total agricultural area. These data highlight the different impact sugarcane- and corn-based ethanol have on agricultural production. Brazilian and American ethanol production was 22.9 and 52.8 million m3 in 2011 respectively, implying an “ethanol yield” of 5.5 m3/hectare for sugarcane ethanol and of 3.4 m3/hectare for corn-ethanol. This means that producing ethanol from sugarcane is more efficient and less consuming in terms of land than corn-ethanol. Considering also biodiesel, the amount of land needed to crop biofuel feedstocks, in Brazil and the US grows to 3 and 18.4% of total agricultural land. These areas are forecasted to increase to 6.3 and 23% by 2021, implying an increasing competition for land. In 2011 the EU used 5.4 million tons of domestically produced rapeseed oil and at least 3.9 million tons of imported palm oil to make biodiesel. The amount of land needed to grow rapeseed within the Union and oil palm in third countries (mainly Indonesia and Malaysia) was 5.2 and 1.3 million hectares respectively. The area needed to crop rapeseed for biodiesel production, in the EU, was equal to 5.2% of total agriculture area. Assuming that the percentage of rapeseed oil on total vegetable oil production in the EU will remain the same of 2011 and that the share of it employed in the food sector will also remain unchanged, it is possible to forecast that, in 2021, the EU will need 6.6 million tons of rapeseed oil and at least 10 million tons of palm oil from third countries to meet its consumption targets. This means that at least 3.4 million hectares of land, in South East Asia will be needed to produce palm oil destined to the EU. The core of the thesis is the analysis of the sustainability of biofuels on one hand, and of biofuels’ implications on food production on the other. The sustainability of biofuel production is analyzed through a literature review and re-interpretation of the existing literature on the topic, encompassing effects of mass biofuel production on the environment, GHG emissions, land use changes, water availability, and implications for developing countries. One of the most important aspects of biofuel sustainability is their effects on agricultural production and agricultural prices. The empirical part of this thesis employs econometric tools to assess the degree of integration between energy and agricultural markets in the main biofuel producing countries and price transmission elasticity between international and EU agricultural markets before and after the last reform of the CAP. In the US and in Brazil energy and agricultural prices move together in the long-run and the influence of oil prices has been growing over time. This means that policy-makers, in the future, will have to pay great attention to the mutual influence energy and agricultural policies can have on each other. In Europe this close relationship between energy and agricultural prices was not detected, however European agricultural markets have been influenced by biofuel policies in the US, and to a lesser extent Brazil, indirectly, through their effects on international commodity prices. What emerges from this work is that biofuels, in the current political, economic demographic, situation are, for many aspects, not sustainable. Side-effects of biofuel production are many and often even difficult to quantify. Solutions provided are often utopic or, even if good in theory, very difficult to implement. Biofuel production has been having negative effects on food production and prices, biodiversity and social welfare in the last decade, inside and outside the countries of production. The “original sin” was the initial lack of coordination between policies issued unilaterally by different countries, something that now seems extremely difficult to fix. Governments should, as it has been recently suggested by the United Nations, consider the option of modifying their biofuel programs because of their negative consequences on food security in many low-income countries. Also the promotion and implementation of biofuel policies in developing countries should be avoided as a measure for fostering development. It is very unlikely that rural poor will benefit from policies subsidizing the biofuel sector since most of the land in developing countries is owned by big multinational companies or by foreign states (land grabbing). The development of the biofuel sector would also increase food prices even in countries where such increase has been marginal so far because of scarce price transmission from the world market. Poor people living in urban areas would be worse off by higher food prices as well as small farmers who, in developing countries, are often net-purchasers of food. It has been suggested by many scholars and international organizations that, in order to become sustainable, biofuel production should shift from first-generation to second-generation technologies (those that allow the use of non-food crops or wastes for biofuel production). This will not be easy to achieve. Current second-generation biofuel production is still very small and will not grow substantially unless major investments are made by governments and, under the right conditions, private companies. Moreover it is not governments nor policy-makers who decides whether is profitable to put marginal land under cultivation and to crop non-food biofuel crops on it. Farmers are those making such decisions and they will not do it unless it is profitable. Current record-high agricultural commodity prices raise many doubts on the fact that farmers will shift from food to non-food crops without substantial government subsidies. An increase in subsidies to the agricultural sector, even just for energy crops, is unlikely to happen anytime soon because of the financial and economic crisis that hit many countries around the world and because of pressure by the WTO and other international organizations to reduce the degree of protection. In case it will be decided to keep subsidizing biofuels, new polices will have to be designed and implemented at world level, needing a very high degree of coordination between countries and flexibility, which is difficult to imagine can be reached in the short or even the medium term. An emblematic case, in this sense, is GHG emission accounting mechanisms that currently are based on life-cycle assessment analysis and that are often incomplete (i.e. limited to a single country or region) or unable to take all factors into account (i.e. indirect land-use changes). Research, in the next years, will have to focus on two main topics. On one hand second- and third-generation techniques for biofuel production will have to be refined and made economically (but also environmentally and socially) viable, possibly together with progressive reduction in the support in favor of first-generation biofuels. On the other hand, a better definition of the methodologies to assess the environmental, economic and social impacts of biofuel production will be crucial in order to correctly evaluate the sustainability of biofuel programs. In particular, the development of reliable methodologies to assess the environmental impact of biofuel production is very important since, in the future, subsidies could be calculated in a way to reward the production of biofuels able to provide (proved) positive externalities to the environment as well as increase social welfare.
Di biocarburanti si iniziò a parlare circa 40 anni fa, in concomitanza con la crisi petrolifera determinata dall’embargo da parte dei paesi OPEC. Il conseguente forte aumento del prezzo del petrolio stimolò infatti la ricerca nel campo delle forme di energia alternative. La produzione di biocarburanti è tuttavia decollata solo di recente, grazie all’azione combinata di molteplici fattori: elevate quotazioni del petrolio, necessità di contenere le emissioni di gas serra e la riduzione delle scorte di combustibili fossili; tutte cose che hanno indotto molti paesi a mettere a punto programmi volti allo sviluppo del settore dei biocarburanti. All’inizio degli anni 2000 i biocarburanti venivano considerati la soluzione ideale per risolvere i problemi dell’approvvigionamento energetico, della stabilità economica (stabilizzazione dei prezzi dell’energia, sviluppo rurale, creazione di posti di lavoro, aumento della domanda di materie prime agricole) e della protezione dell’ambiente (utilizzazione più efficiente dei rifiuti e riduzione delle emissioni di gas serra). Un impulso decisivo allo sviluppo delle politiche fu dato dalla stipula del Protocollo di Kyoto nel quale i paesi firmatari si impegnavano a ridurre le proprie emissioni di gas serra del 5% rispetto ai livelli del 1990 entro il 2012. Al momento attuale i biocarburanti vengono in larga parte prodotti a partire da materie prime agricole, quindi le ripercussioni della loro produzione sul settore agricolo possono essere rilevanti. In tale àmbito appare chiara la forte responsabilità, in termini di effetti sui mercati agricoli mondiali, che hanno i paesi che più di tutti hanno sovvenzionato il settore: Stati Uniti, Brasile e Unione Europea. Tali paesi, tramite le loro politiche, hanno creato un nuovo mercato di sbocco per molte materie prime agricole, senza capire a fondo, a priori, le conseguenze di tale azione. Le principali motivazioni addotte dai decisori politici per giustificare le sovvenzioni al settore dei biocarburanti furono la necessità di ottemperare ai dettami del Protocollo di Kyoto, aumentare l’indipendenza energetica, creare nuovi posti di lavoro, migliorare il reddito degli agricoltori e stabilizzare i prezzi dell’energia. L’espansione del settore dei biofuel è avvenuta non solamente in maniera quantomeno controversa, senza coordinazione a livello internazionale, ma anche in un momento storico molto delicato. Gli ultimi venti anni sono stati infatti caratterizzati da un grande aumento della domanda mondiale di cibo, soprattutto a causa della forte crescita economica dei cosiddetti paesi emergenti: Cina, India, Brasile e paesi del Sud-Est asiatico. Il forte aumento della domanda si scontra contro un’offerta di materie prime agricole giocoforza rigida nel breve termine, cosa che genera forti aumenti di prezzo e della volatilità delle quotazioni (soprattutto a causa del forte ridimensionamento delle scorte). Negli ultimi anni gran parte dell’entusiasmo iniziale nei confronti dei biocarburanti è andato scemando. Per prima cosa l’espansione del settore dei combustibili “verdi” ha aumentato la domanda per molte materie prime agricole che, in un contesto contraddistinto da un forte aumento della domanda mondiale, ha generato un sensibile aumento dei prezzi alimentari, con ripercussioni particolarmente negative per le fasce più povere della popolazione, soprattutto nei paesi meno sviluppati. Anche l’effettiva efficacia dei biocarburanti nel ridurre le emissioni di gas serra è stata fortemente messa in dubbio. Le metodologie utilizzare per il conteggio delle emissioni non sono sempre accurate o di facile attuazione. L’intensivizzazione dei processi agricoli e i cambiamenti d’uso dei suoli, entrambi conseguenza dell’aumento della produzione agricola, sono due fattori che molto probabilmente hanno causato un aumento delle emissioni di gas serra invece che una diminuzione. Inoltre, le politiche a favore del settore delle energie rinnovabili sono state progettate e messe in pratica in maniera spesso unilaterale da parte dei vari paesi, senza quella coordinazione a livello internazionale che sarebbe stata essenziale a evitare le conseguenze negative sui mercati agricoli e sull’ambiente. La mia ricerca di dottorato analizza tutti gli aspetti del settore dei biocarburanti a livello mondiale con particolare attenzione a quelli della sostenibilità: economica, ambientale e sociale. La ricerca inizia con una descrizione delle varie tipologie di biocarburanti attualmente prodotti a livello mondiale e prosegue con una rassegna delle politiche a favore dei biocarburanti nei principali paesi. In séguito vengono analizzate le produzioni, i prezzi e il commercio internazionale di biocarburanti e delle materie prime dalle quali sono ottenuti. I principali paesi produttori di biocarburanti sono gli Stati Uniti, il Brasile e l’Unione Europea. Nei primi due viene prodotto principalmente etanolo (a partire dal mais negli Stati Uniti e dalla canna da zucchero in Brasile), mentre nell’Unione Europea è il biodiesel il biocarburante di riferimento (prodotto a partire da oli vegetali). Nel 2011, il 51,8% della produzione brasiliana di canna da zucchero e il 42,2% di quella statunitense di mais sono state usate per produrre etanolo. Le superfici necessarie, nei due paesi, per la coltivazione della materia prima per la produzione del biocarburante sono state pari a 4,2 e 15,5 milioni di ettari, che rappresentano l’1,5 e il 16% della superficie agricola totale dei due paesi. Nel 2021, ceteris paribus, la produzione di etanolo assorbirà circa il 61% della produzione brasiliana di canna da zucchero e il 57% di quella statunitense di mais. Sempre nel 2021, in Brasile, le superfici necessarie per coltivare canna da zucchero destinata la settore dell’etanolo raggiungeranno gli 8 milioni di ettari, pari a tutta l’area attualmente coltivata a canna da zucchero nel paese sudamericano. Negli Stati Uniti le superfici necessarie a coltivare il granturco per la produzione di etanolo cresceranno fino a sfiorare i 20 milioni di ettari, un’estensione pari al 53% dell’area attualmente investita a mais e al 20% della superficie agricola totale del 2011. Da questi dati è possibile osservare la forte differenza, in termini di impatto sulle produzioni agricole, tra la produzione di etanolo brasiliana (imperniata sulla canna da zucchero) e quella statunitense (basata sul mais). La produzione brasiliana e statunitense di etanolo, nel 2011, è stata rispettivamente di 22,9 e 52,8 milioni di metri cubi, implicando una “resa” in etanolo di 5,5 e 3,4 metri cubi a ettaro. Ciò significa che la produzione di etanolo a partire dalla canna da zucchero è più efficiente in termini di superfici necessarie alla coltivazione della materia prima. Tenendo in considerazione anche il biodiesel, in rapida espansione in entrambi i paesi (dove viene ottenuto a partire dall’olio di soia), l’incidenza percentuale delle superfici utilizzate per coltivare la materia prima per la produzione di biocarburanti (etanolo e biodiesel) cresce fino a raggiungere il 3% del totale della superficie agricola in Brasile e il 18,4% negli Stati Uniti. Tali percentuali sono destinate a raggiungere il 6,3 e il 23% entro il 2021. Nel 2011 l’Unione Europea ha impiegato 5,4 milioni di tonnellate di olio di colza (prodotto all’interno dell’Unione) e almeno 3,9 milioni di olio di palma (importato da Indonesia e Malesia) per produrre biodiesel. Le superfice necessaria, all’interno dell’UE, per la coltivazione della colza usata nel settore dei biocarburanti è stata di 5,2 milioni di ettari nel 2011, mentre quella impiegata per la produzione di olio di palma nei paesi terzi di almeno 1,3 milioni di ettari. Sempre nel 2011, il 5,2% della superficie agricola totale dell’Unione è stato utilizzato per la coltivazione di colza da destinare alla produzione di biocarburanti. Assumendo che la percentuale di olio di colza impiegata nel settore alimentare nell’Unione Europea rimarrà la stessa anche negli anni a venire, è possibile prevedere che, nel 2021, l’UE avrà bisogno di 6,6 milioni di tonnellate di olio di colza e di almeno 10 milioni di tonnellate di olio di palma (importato da paesi terzi) per raggiungere i suoi obiettivi di consumo in materia di biodiesel. Ciò implica che almeno 3,4 milioni di ettari di terreni, presumibilmente in Indonesia e Malesia, saranno necessari per produrre tutto l’olio di palma di cui il settore del biodiesel comunitario avrà bisogno. Il fulcro di questa tesi è l’analisi della sostenibilità della produzione di biocarburanti e le sue conseguenze sulla produzione di materie prime agricole. La sostenibilità dei biocarburanti viene esaminata attraverso una revisione della letteratura esistente sull’argomento, con particolare enfasi sugli effetti della forte espansione del settore dei carburanti “verdi” sull’ambiente, sulle emissioni di gas serra, i cambiamenti d’uso del suolo, la disponibilità idrica e le implicazioni per i paesi in via di sviluppo. In termini di sostenibilità, uno degli aspetti più importanti riguarda gli effetti del forte aumento della produzione di biofuel sulla produzione e sui prezzi delle materie prime agricole. Questa tesi, nella sua parte empirica, utilizza tecniche econometriche per misurare il livello di integrazione tra i mercati energetici e quelli agricoli nei principali paesi produttori. Viene inoltre anche stimata l’elasticità di trasmissione dei prezzi tra il mercato mondiale e quello comunitario nel caso delle principali materie prime agricole, prima e dopo l’ultima riforma della Politica agricola comune (Riforma Fischler). Negli Stati Uniti e in Brasile i prezzi agricoli e quelli dell’energia (petrolio ed etanolo) condividono il medesimo trend di lungo periodo, con l’influenza del prezzo del petrolio che è andata crescendo negli ultimi anni. Ciò implica che i decisori politici dovranno, in futuro, prestare grande attenzione agli effetti che le politiche energetiche hanno sui mercati agricoli e viceversa. In Europa non è stato possibile dimostrare la presenza di una relazione diretta tra prezzi agricoli e prezzo del petrolio, tuttavia è possibile affermare che i mercati agricoli europei subiscano le conseguenze delle politiche a favore dei biocarburanti di altri paesi, in particolare degli Stati Uniti, in maniera indiretta, cioè tramite l’effetto di tali politiche sui prezzi internazionali. Ciò che merge da questo lavoro è che i biocarburanti, nella situazione economica, politica e demografica attuale, sono, per molti aspetti, non sostenibili. Gli effetti collaterali della produzione di biofuel sono numerosi e spesso difficili da quantificare. Le soluzioni proposte dalla letteratura sono spesso utopiche o, seppur corrette dal punto di vista teorico, molto difficili da applicare. L’espansione del settore dei biocarburanti sta avendo effetti negativi sulla produzione e sui prezzi delle materie prime agricole, sulla biodiversità e sul benessere sociale, sia all’interno dei principali paesi produttori che all’esterno di essi. Il “peccato originale” è stato la mancanza di coordinazione iniziale tra le varie politiche, progettate e messe in pratica in maniera unilaterale dai vari paesi; una cosa alla quale, oggi, è molto difficile porre rimedio. I governi dovrebbero, come è stato recentemente raccomandato dalle Nazioni Unite, considerare la possibilità di modificare in maniera sostanziale i propri programmi di sviluppo del settore dei biocarburanti a causa soprattutto delle pesanti conseguenze che hanno sulla sicurezza alimentare nei paesi a basso reddito. Per questa ragione l’utilizzo dei biocarburanti come misura volta a stimolare lo sviluppo nei paesi poveri dovrebbe essere evitata. È altamente improbabile che i poveri nelle zone rurali traggano alcun beneficio dallo sviluppo del settore dei biocarburanti nei loro paesi poiché gran parte della terra è posseduta da grandi compagnie multinazionali o, in alcuni casi, da paesi terzi (land grabbing). Lo sviluppo del settore dei biocarburanti nei paesi in via di sviluppo contribuirebbe, dall’interno, a mantenere elevati i prezzi dei generi alimentari anche dove finora tale effetto, a causa del basso livello di trasmissione dei prezzi agricoli mondiali, è stato marginale. L’aumento dell’inflazione alimentare causato dalla produzione di biocarburanti avrebbe effetti negativi sia sui poveri delle aree urbane che sue quelli delle aree rurali poiché in molti casi i piccoli coltivatori, nei paesi in via di sviluppo, sono compratori netti di generi alimentari. Molti studi, anche da parte di organizzazioni governative internazionali, mettono in risalto il fatto che la produzione di biocarburanti possa diventare sostenibile solo attraverso lo sviluppo delle cosiddette tecnologie di seconda o terza generazione (cioè quelle che permettono l’uso di materia prima non-food per la produzione di biocarburanti) e l’uso di terreni degradati e marginali per la coltivazione delle materie prime. Tuttavia, tutto ciò è di difficile realizzazione. Attualmente i biocarburanti di seconda o terza generazione sono ancora in fase di sviluppo e la loro produzione non crescerà in maniera sostanziale se non tramite forti investimenti da parte dei vari governi e, in determinate circostanze, di investitori privati. Va ricordato che non sono i governi quelli che decidono se la coltivazione di materia prima per la produzione di biocarburanti in aree degradate o marginali sia economicamente conveniente: sono infatti i coltivatori quelli che prendono le decisioni ed essi non lo faranno se non vi troveranno alcun beneficio economico. L’attuale livello, molto elevato, dei prezzi agricoli pone seri dubbi sul fatto che i coltivatori siano disposti a passare dalla produzione di materie prime food a quelle non-food in assenza di forti incentivi pubblici in tal senso. Tuttavia, un aumento del livello di supporto all’agricoltura, anche solo nel caso delle colture energetiche, difficilmente avverrà nel breve termine, a causa soprattutto della crisi economica, che ha ristretto i budget di spesa di molti paesi, e le pressioni, in sede WTO, per una riduzione del livello di protezione dei mercati. Nel caso in cui si decida di mantenere gli aiuti di stato al settore dei biocarburanti, sarà necessario progettare e sviluppare nuove politiche, questa volta a livello sovranazionale, cosa che implicherebbe un elevato livello di coordinazione e di flessibilità tra i vari paesi, oltre che difficile da raggiungere nel breve o medio termine. Un caso emblematico, in tal senso, è rappresentato dalle metodologie di conteggio delle emissioni di gas serra che sono attualmente basate sull’analisi del ciclo di vita e che sono molto spesso incomplete (limitate, ad esempio, a determinati paesi o regioni) o ancora non in grado di considerare il ruolo di tutti i fattori (es. cambiamenti indiretti d’uso del suolo). La ricerca, negli anni a venire, dovrà focalizzarsi su due argomenti principali. Da una parte, le tecniche di produzione dei biocarburanti di seconda e terza generazione dovranno essere raffinate, rese economicamente convenienti e sostenibili dal punto di vista sociale e ambientale. Possibilmente ciò dovrà avvenire di pari passo con la progressiva riduzione del livello di supporto ai biocarburanti di prima generazione. Dall’altra parte, sarà necessario definire meglio le metodologie di quantificazione dell’impatto dei biocarburanti in termini ambientali, economici e sociali, in modo da determinare con certezza la loro sostenibilità e da consentire lo sviluppo di politiche più appropriate. In particolare, la messa a punto di metodologie affidabili per la valutazione dell’impatto dei vari biocarburanti è molto importante poiché, in futuro, le sovvenzioni potrebbero essere calcolate in maniera tale da premiare la produzione di quei biocarburanti in grado di fornire esternalità positive per l’ambiente e il benessere sociale.

This thesis explores the microeconomics of bioenergy with focus on Brazil. The three chapters are interconnected by this thread. The first chapter investigates empirically land use patterns for liquid biofuels production in Brazil using the neoclassical land use model. It analyzes the determinants of sugarcane and soybean production location. The second chapter inquire empirically, using regional variables, location and capacity decision drivers for ethanol and biodiesel mills in Brazil. The third chapter proposes a microeconomic framework for modeling several types of bioenergy production. It provides a definition of bioenergy clusters and tests it employing statistical cluster analysis considering three different bioenergy production chains.
Questa tesi esplora la microeconomia della bioenergia con un focus nel Brasile. I tre capitoli sono interconnessi da questo filo. Il primo capitolo analizza empiricamente i modelli di uso del suolo per la produzione di biocarburanti liquidi in Brasile utilizzando il modello neoclassico d'uso del suolo, analizzando le determinanti di localizzazione della produzione di canna da zucchero e soia. Il secondo capitolo investiga empiricamente i meccanismi alla base delle decisioni di localizzazione e di capacità per impianti d'etanolo e biodiesel in Brasile utilizzando variabili regionali. Il terzo capitolo propone un quadro microeconomico per modellare diversi tipi di produzione di bioenergia e fornisce una definizione di cluster bioenergetico validata usando l'analisi statistica di cluster considerando tre differenti catene di produzione di bioenergia.

This research investigates the role of land titling and registration in economic development with the aim of adding knowledge by: (i) extending economic analysis from a sector to a macro level and across many countries; (ii) establishing the feasibility of applying a cost-benefit analysis to public investment in land registration; and (iii) deepening understanding of government regulations that restrict land transactions and, consequently, limit potential economic benefits of land registration. It addresses three questions: (i) whether land registration affects financial development; (ii) whether land registration affects economic growth; and (iii) whether public investment in land registration generates an economic rate of return higher than the opportunity cost of capital. The first two questions are addressed inconclusively with cross sectional regression techniques, due to econometric problems. The third question is addressed, with positive findings, using a case study of the Thailand land titling programme. In addition to the three questions, the study reviews government regulations on land transactions, using Cambodia and Philippines as case studies, and finds that they are considerable in number and, at least in the Philippines where they are enforced, are found to restrict land transactions with adverse effects on the potential economic benefits of land registration.

Building energy renovation is one of the pillars upon which the 2050 European low-carbon goals are based. Simultaneously, building energy renovation is widely recognized as the trump card for the new start of European economy. However, at present the renovation rate of the existing building is very low throughout Europe (approximately 1%) and investments in high performing buildings are generally mistrusted by stakeholders, due to their high capital costs. In this context, this PhD thesis dedicated its efforts to investigate from the energy and financial perspective the consequences of buildings renovation in the European scene. Particularly, the research boundaries were delineated by focusing on non-residential, multi-functional buildings, that are nowadays poorly studied due to their heterogeneous nature. In this view, the thesis’ contributions were addressed at three levels: a) multi-functional buildings as archetypes to input in energy models for long-term energy analysis; b) multi-functional buildings used to test the financial viability of energy efficiency projects, in view of reaching the nearly Zero Energy performance level. As these analyses necessarily require case studies, the attention was directed towards a specific type of multi-functional buildings, hotels; c) multi-functional buildings as test-bed to assess the impact of co-benefits on the financial performances of energy efficiency projects. Once again, hotel buildings were selected for the development of the detailed analyses. To include archetypes of multi-functional buildings in bottom-up building energy models, a new modelling method was proposed. The method provides a rationale for the classification of energy end-uses into typical and extra, so that the modeling problem is simplified and a coherent use of well-established Reference Buildings modelling methods is allowed. Then, the focus of the research was narrowed to the hotel sector, which was found to lack of reliable energy performance benchmarks and effective performance-based greens labels. Case study buildings were object of energy and financial evaluations. On one side, real hotels were analyzed to test the application of the EU imposed cost-optimal methodology as a support tool to guide private investors’ investment decisions. On the other side, an Italian Reference Hotel was modelled and the cost-optimal methodology was applied to investigate the existing energy and financial gaps between cost-optimal and Nearly Zero Energy performance level in Italy. From both perspectives, findings converged to similar conclusions: high performing retrofit are not financially viable, if avoided energy costs are the only operational benefits accounted for. Starting from these outcomes, the thesis investigated how valuation procedures could be exploited to make NZEB retrofit solutions appealing for private investors. Based on a literature review of the co-benefits of energy efficiency projects, 2 different strategies were pursued and tested on the Italian Reference Hotel. The first approach proposed to monetize co-benefits of energy efficiency interventions based on literature and to include them in the well-established cost-optimal methodology. Results highlighted that co-benefits related to the market appreciation of a retrofitted hotel can drastically change the perception of the financial convenience of an ambitious retrofit project. In the latter strategy, the issue of monetizing non-energy benefits was faced directly: a technique to value non-market goods was applied to monetize comfort. Findings proved that hotels guests’ willingness to pay for comfortable indoor conditions is higher than the hoteliers’ extra costs for providing them. Due to the context-dependent nature of co-benefits, the findings of the 2 applications do not represent generally applicable quantitative benchmarks. Nonetheless, they confirm the leading role that literature attribute to co-benefits in the success of energy efficiency projects.

This thesis investigates the relationship between land administration and economic development. More specifically, it assesses the role of land tenure security in productivity and that of land administration services in revenue generation. The empirical part of the study was undertaken in Nepal, Bangladesh and Thailand. A mixed method approach was employed for data collection, analysis and interpretation. The information was gathered using questionnaires, interviews, observations, informal discussions and documentation analysis. This study demonstrates that land administration plays a crucial role in providing security of land tenure. It also evidences that the use value, collateral value and exchange value of land is increased after registration which has benefitted the occupation, investment and finance sectors of the case study economies. Specifically, it was found that land use activity became more productive. With regard to financial services, banks more readily accepted land as loan security for debt finance and did so at an interest rate that was lower than that offered by private lenders. Land-related investment and income also increased and these effects are found to be positively correlated with tenure security. However, access to credit is not enough to increase investment unless it is communicated properly. This study demonstrates that quality of land administration services affects on tenure security and revenue generation. Poor land administration, improper land valuation and inefficient and unscrupulous employees threaten tenure security and reduce the amount of revenue that can be generated from land. The establishment of land administration systems and security of land tenure is beneficial for the government as it supports economic development by increasing production and generating revenue to some extent. It may also enhance efficient use of scarce resources, increase household income and play an important role in maintaining distributive justice and reducing poverty. The findings of this study indicate a need for further research on the contribution of land administration in the real estate sector as well as changes to the livelihoods of civilians.

The urban population of the Nepal, like most of the Asian countries, is increasing rapidly owing to an influx of migrants from other parts of the regions who come to the capital in search of employment, education, better health services and security. The decade long conflict not only triggered rapid urbanization of cities by migration from rural parts of the country but also hindered the development of new cities and towns. Today, Nepal is in a transition phase and political transformation will take place sooner or later and there will be opportunities for development of new towns and cities as the country is progressing towards federal system. For the past few decades Kathmandu, the capital city has seen unprecedented changes in terms of urbanization. Kathmandu recorded the highest population growth rate in a decade with 60.93 percent and a population density of 4408/sq.km (CBS, 2011). In the absence of a strong planning and regulating body, lack of proper housing facilities and development of economic and social activities, degradation of environment and the undesirable urban sprawl is ever spreading. Houses are being built with no proper provision of road, water supply, drainage, electricity and telephone facility. From private led to government led projects, there have been a lot of land developments in the city to meet the land and housing demands. Land pooling or land readjustment scheme is regarded as one of the most successful tools for land development as it is a public private partnership scheme and involves community in the planning process. However, there are a number of issues and problems that exist in the land pooling areas as well. So far, there are no studies done to measure or evaluate the socio-economic impacts of such projects on the community and the neighborhood. In this context, this study aims to delve on the socio-economic impacts of land pooling projects on the community. The study has been carried out taking an example of Nayabazar land pooling project, which has been considered as one of the successful and fastest in implementation. The research has been carried out to measure different indicators of socio-economic impact assessment mainly change in demography, change in aesthetic quality of neighborhood, change in employment, income, change in retail/housing markets etc. The research has been carried out by conducting questionnaire surveys, interviews from key informants, informal focus group meetings and secondary data sources. The study recognized the issues behind the impacts of land pooling on the community both socially and economically. The literature framework and analysis facilitated to generate recommendations for to mitigate such impacts, which are taking place in Nayabazar land pooling area. One of the major findings of the study has been the lack of strong and decisive institution to take charge of management and further development of the study area.
published_or_final_version
Urban Planning and Design
Master
Master of Science in Urban Planning

In 1982 the governments of Honduras and the United States signed a contract that established the Proyecto de Titulación de Tierras, or land titling project. This project was initiated primarily to provide titles to small coffee farmers on State-owned land. Among the expected consequences of the project were increased access to resources, especially credit, for small farmers and increased on-farm investment due to this access to credit and increased security. It was hoped that a greater use of credit and investment would increase farm production and therefore the income and well-being of the farmers involved. In this dissertation, the land titling project is placed within the context of the history of agrarian reform in Honduras. The titling project called for a baseline study and final evaluation. These were carried out in 1983 and 1988, respectively. The author was able to obtain these data and re-interview the same farmers in 1993. These farmers are from two regions, one of which was titled and another which was not. The interviews gathered data on production, credit, use of inputs, investments, income and general socio-economic indicators. These data are used to determine the extent to which the goals of the tiding project have been met. A stochastic frontier production function is used to estimate farm-level technical efficiency. Following this, these technical efficiency scores are regressed on various factors such as education, credit and technical assistance to estimate their possible effects on technical efficiency. Finally, simultaneous equations are used to estimate the relationships among these variables. In general, ten years after the start of the project, the original goals have not been achieved. This analysis found that titling does not affect technical efficiency, access to credit, or the use of inputs. Education and technical assistance are the two factors that are consistently the most significant in meeting the project's stated goals. This analysis suggests that basic education and technical assistance, rather than expensive land titling projects, should be promoted to enhance access to credit, the use of inputs and increased technical efficiency.

Three different, but related studies on conservation in North Dakota were completed. Expansion of Devil?s Lake over the past 20 years has flooded farmland, towns, and roads, causing economic damage and distress. Retirement of private land into conservation could play a role in ameliorating damages to citizens, while simultaneously improving and protecting wildlife habitat. The objective of the first study is to investigate the supply of agricultural land that might be available for conservation use at various purchase prices. It was expected that increasingly frequent flooding over the past decades would have increased the supply of land available for conservation. This was verified to be the case for the most vulnerable lands in Devil?s Lake Basin?areas below 1,460 ft. elevation and within 300 ft. of surface waters. The Conservation Reserve Program is comprised of lands that were previously farmed and have been converted into grassland. The landowners are compensated by the US government for retiring this farmland because it provides environmental benefits. Current commodity prices are giving farmers less incentive to renew their CRP contracts and many are deciding to instead farm those lands. The second study aims to identify and quantify the factors that affect a landowner?s decision to renew an expiring CRP contract or not in the Sheyenne River basin. The economic factors examined were crop prices and CRP payments. The ecological factors were slope of the land, distance to the nearest stream, and soil texture. The purpose of the final study is to estimate the increase in sediment loading due to changes in CRP enrollment, and then value the cost to society of the increased sedimentation. This will be accomplished by creating a SWAT model of the Sheyenne River. Future and hypothetical land use datasets will be substituted into the model. Every ton of sediment entering the river costs society an estimated $2.40. The model estimated 1,218.36 tons of sediment entered the river from the study area in 2005. Using the landcover conditions present in 2014, an estimated 1,661.4 tons of sediment would have entered the river across the study area, an increase of 36%.

Geography
M.A.
This study is an exploration of land acquisition for Special Economic Zones (SEZs) in India. Land acquisition has become one of the most well known problems confronting the SEZ policy and other policies that encourage private investment in infrastructure. Land acquisition for SEZs has caused widespread popular mobilizations and resistance, which have in turn led to cost overruns, delays, and project failures. This study examines India's land acquisition framework, particularly the evolution of the Land Acquisition Act 1894, in order to understand the factors contributing to acquisition problems when the state uses its power of eminent domain, as well as when private developers attempt to acquire land through consensual market transactions. It uses two SEZs spanning over 14,000 hectares of land near Mumbai--Navi Mumbai SEZ and Mumbai SEZ--as cases through which to examine the land acquisition process.
Temple University--Theses

Thesis (M.S.)--Wichita State University, Dept. of Electrical and Computer Engineering.
"May 2006." Title from PDF title page (viewed on October 31, 2006). Thesis adviser: Ward Jewell. Includes bibliographic references (leaves 47-49).

At this stage of the Ukrainian economy development the problem of energy shortages has escalated, as a result of resources of energy-intensive production, inefficient use of fuel and energy resources (FER), reducing own sources and increasing prices for imported ones. Economic growth in Ukraine depend on the amount of own available resources, potential of energy efficiency and energy intensity of leading industries.

This thesis is concerned with the study of land use pattern, and landscape value in terms of ecological and economic components, using Classification And Regression Tree analysis and a choice experiment to quantify the ecological and economic values of land use pattern respectively. The Chiltern Hills and the Red Kite (Milvus milvus) are chosen for study, as they are an important landscape and species within the UK, as recognised by various legislations, and are readily identifiable. A Classification Tree model of the Red Kite nest occurrence in the Chiltern Hills in the UK is determined and applied to future land use scenarios, derived from Reading University’s Land Use Allocation Model (LUAM). A Model Tree model of the Red Kite nest abundance is determined and applied to the same scenarios. The population is deemed to be stable in the face of divergent land use scenarios, and the reestablishment is thus opined to be successful, having created a sustainable population. A questionnaire survey of Chiltern Hills users is conducted to determine the characteristics of the users, and features of the landscape deemed important in making a day trip. The results are used to inform the creation of the variables and levels of those variables for use within a choice experiment. A choice experiment is conducted to determine the values of site features in terms of landscape, species, and available facilities for the recreational use of the countryside. The Red Kite, hilltops, and woodlands are valued by the public. Willingness to Travel estimates of the attributes are plotted to a map, which may be the first time this has occurred from choice experiment estimates. Willingness to Pay estimates are also derived, and used to suggest that the re-establishment has recouped its costs.

Thesis (M.C.P.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Urban Studies and Planning, 2004.
Includes bibliographical references (leaves 84-87).
Few social arrangements have affected so many people for so long in human history, as the laws and customs governing the ownership and use of land. Taking Romania as a case study, this thesis focuses on the institutional changes that accompany land reform (e.g., property rights, market services, rural financial services) and the role the state plays in the implementation process. The main hypothesis is that in developing countries, unsatisfactory forms of agrarian structure, and in particular the systems of land tenure, tend in a variety of ways to impede economic development. The results of this study illustrate that in Romania improper implementation of land reform had negative effects on development - further deterioration in the standard of living for the rural population, decline in real productivity, and lower production. Hence, one main conclusion is that the distribution of property rights in land is a necessary but not a sufficient condition for creating the basis for development. Redistribution of property rights in land has to be complemented with technical advice and more integrated cross-sector policies such as easy access to credit and agricultural inputs, production and social infrastructure. State involvement is crucial for supporting these services.
by Georgeta Vidican.
M.C.P.

The aim of this diploma thesis is to point out European Union´s goals such as low carbon economy, mainly future increasing the use of renewable sources as a potential source of energy. Slovak republic has due to its position in central Europe, rich in natural healing sources of water, which are considered as the most perspective sources of renewable energy in this country. The problem was solved as energy, economic and environmental analysis of Balneotherapy at Slovak Heath Spa Piešťany a.s. This analyzation was provided by real experimental measurement of temperature and flow rate and computational simulation of technological devices in opened natural healing water system. Experimentally measured data were afterwards use for elaboration conceptual design of new technological devices in order to increase efficiency of collection energy from potential renewable source of energy. The research shows that with help of new design technological devices connected to existing ones will be possible to cool down temperature of hot natural healing water from 67 °C to 21 °C, which decrease operation costs of Balneotherapy for more than 1 414 € per day. By Slovak republic entering to European Union it was necessary to accept global goals of low carbon economy. This diploma thesis provides an attention on potential energy in natural healing sources of water as renewable source of energy and helps Slovak Health Spa Piešťany to decrease amount of green-house gases released to atmosphere by efficient increasing the use of energy potential in natural healing source of water.

У першому розділі розглядаються передумови та останні світові тенденції прогресу бізнесу із зеленою енергетикою, а також національні схеми економічної підтримки, що використовуються для управління розвитком відновлюваної енергії. Другий розділ охоплює питання оцінки ліванського потенціалу відновлюваної енергетики та стану його використання, визначення поточних економічних та організаційних стимулів для розвитку національної зеленої енергетики та аналіз економічних результатів їх реалізації. У третьому розділі для вдосконалення управління бізнесом із зеленої енергетики в Лівані проводиться економічне обгрунтування реалізації розподілених сонячних фотоелектричних проектів, а також пропонуються рекомендації щодо вдосконалення економічної та організаційної підтримки бізнесу із зеленої енергетики в країні щодо виявив проблеми його адміністрування.
The first chapter examines the prerequisites and the world's latest trends in green energy business advancement as well as the national economic support schemes used to manage renewable energy development. The second chapter covers issues on evaluating the Lebanese renewable energy potential and the state of its use, identifying current economic and organizational incentives for national green energy business advancement, and analyzing the economic results of their implementation. In the third chapter, for improving the management of green energy business in Lebanon, the economic substantiation of implementing distributed solar photovoltaic projects is conducted as well as recommendations on improving economic and organizational support of green energy business in the country are offered with regard to the revealed problems of its administration.

Modification of land use/land cover in South Florida has posed a major challenge in the region’s eco-hydrology by shifting the surface-atmosphere water and energy balance. Although drainage and development in South Florida took place extensively between the mid- and late- 20th century, converting half of the original Everglades into agricultural and urban areas, urban expansion still accounts for a dominant mode of surface cover change in South Florida. Changes in surface cover directly affect the radiative, thermophysical and aerodynamic parameters which determine the absorption and partitioning of radiation into different components at the Earth surface. The alteration is responsible for changing the thermal structure of the surface and surface layer atmosphere, eventually modifying surface-induced convection. This dissertation is aimed at analyzing the extent and pattern of land cover change in South Florida and delineating the associated development of urban heat island (UHI), energy flux alteration, and convective rainfall modification using observed data, remotely sensed estimates, and modeled results. Urban land covers in South Florida are found to have increased by 10% from 1974 to 2011. Higher Landsat-derived land surface temperatures (LST) are observed in urban areas (LSTu-r =2.8°C) with satisfactory validation statistics for eastern stations (Nash-Sutcliffe coefficient =0.70 and R2 =0.79). Time series trends, significantly negative for diurnal temperature range (DTR= -1°C, p=0.005) and positive for lifting condensation level (LCL > 20m) reveal temporal and conspicuous urban-rural differences in nocturnal temperature (ΔTu-r = 4°C) shows spatial signatures of UHI. Spatially higher (urban: 3, forest: 0.14) and temporally increasing (urban: 1.67 to 3) Bowen’s ratios, and sensible heat fluxes exceeding net radiation in medium and high-intensity developed areas in 2010 reflect the effect of urbanization on surface energy balance. Radar reflectivity-derived surface-induced convective rainfall reveals significantly positive mean differences (thunderstorm cell density: 6/1000 km2and rain rate: 0.24 mm/hr/summer, p < 0.005) between urban and entire South Florida indicating convective enhancement by urban covers. The research fulfils its two-fold purposes: advancing the understanding of post-development hydrometeorology in South Florida and investigating the spatial and temporal impacts of land cover change on the microclimate of a subtropical city.

Climate change is expected to increase the frequency, intensity and duration of droughts in all parts of the United States (US). Snow packs are disappearing earlier in the spring and summer, with reduced stream-flow. Lower reservoir levels, higher temperatures, and greater precipitation variability have been observed. Drought events in the US have threatened drinking water supplies for communities in Maryland and Chesapeake Bay as observed in 2001 through September 2002; Lake Mead in Las Vegas in 2000 through 2004; Peace River and Lake Okeechobee in South Florida in 2006; and Lake Lanier in Atlanta, Georgia in 2007. ENSO influences the climate of Florida; where El Nino years tend to be cooler and wetter, while La Nina years tend to be warmer and drier than normal in the fall through the spring, with the strongest effect in the winter. Both prolonged heavy rainfall and drought potentially have impacts on land uses and many aspects of Florida's economy and quality of life. Drought indices could integrate various hydrological and meteorological parameters and quantify climate anomalies in terms of intensity, duration, and spatial extent, thus making it easier to communicate information to diverse users. Hence, understanding local ENSO patterns on regional scales and developing a new land use drought index in Florida are critical in agriculture and water resources planning and managements. Current drought indices have limitations and drawbacks such as calculation using climate data from meteorological stations, which are point measurements. In addition, weather stations are scarce in remote areas and are not uniformly distributed. Currently used drought indices like the PDSI and the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) could not fully demonstrate the land use effects. Other limitations include no single index that addresses universal drought impact. Hence, there is a renewed interest to develop a new "Regional Land Use Drought Index (RLDI) that could be applied for various land use areas and serve for short term water resources planning. In this study, the first and second research topics investigated water and energy budgets on the specific and important land use areas (urban, forest, agriculture and lake) in the State of Florida by using the North American Regional Reanalysis (NARR) reanalysis data. NARR data were used to understand how drought events, EI Nino, La Nina, and seasonal and inter-annual variations in climatic variables affect the hydrologic and energy cycle over different land use areas. The results showed that the NARR data could provide valuable, independent analysis of the water and energy budgets for various land uses in Florida. Finally, the high resolution land use (32km x 32km) adapted drought indices were developed based on the NARR data from 1979 to 2002. The new regional land use drought indices were developed from normalized Bowen ratio and the results showed that they could reflect not only the level of severity in drought events resulting from land use effects, but also La Nina driven drought impacts.
ID: 031001561; System requirements: World Wide Web browser and PDF reader.; Mode of access: World Wide Web.; Title from PDF title page (viewed August 26, 2013).; Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Central Florida, 2012.; Includes bibliographical references.
Ph.D.
Doctorate
Civil, Environmental, and Construction Engineering
Engineering and Computer Science
Civil Engineering

Thesis--Norges Landbrukshøgskole, Institutt for økonomi og samfunnsfag, 2003.
Title from title screen (viewed June 1, 2004). Includes bibliographical references (p. 200-204). Also issued in print format.

Includes bibliographical references
Ethiopia is one of the few countries in Africa to implement large-scale land titling programmes aiming to improve land related-investments. Since 1995, Ethiopia also has partially liberalised rural land rental markets with the aim of improving the functioning of these markets. Evidence on whether these reforms resulted in improved land access by the poor and increased land-related investments though are scarce and inconclusive. This thesis investigates empirically the relationship between land tenure issues on one hand, and land-related investments and the functioning of rural land and labour markets on the other. It also analyses the relationship between participation in land rental markets and household welfare. Detailed descriptive data analysis and various econometric models were used to examine these issues. The data source for the study is the Ethiopian Rural Household Survey (ERHS), which consists of a panel of 1477 sample households covering four regions in the country. Findings from the study show that factor, input, and financial markets are poorly developed in rural Ethiopia. In addition, land title ownership does not give farmers additional rights other than the rights provided in the federal and regional legislation. This has particular ramifications. For instance, despite having a land title, farmers in Ethiopia are not allowed by law to sell or use their land as collateral in credit markets. There are also various limitations on land rental transactions. These findings suggest that the preconditions for economic effectiveness of land titling are not satisfied in the case of Ethiopia. Furthermore, in contrast to earlier studies, this study finds no significant link between farmers' perceptions of tenure insecurity and their land-related investment and factor market participation decisions. Instead, it establishes that poverty in faming resources and market failures in the credit and factor markets are the major binding constraints that adversely affect farmers' land-related investment and factor market participation decisions in rural Ethiopia. The results reveal that asset rich households were more likely to get access to more land and labour through factor markets, and they were also more likely to invest on their land, while female-headed and/or asset poor households were more likely to lease out their land and remain poor. The findings of this study do not necessarily suggest that the existing land tenure system in Ethiopia is satisfactory for farmers' intensification efforts. It is widely argued that past and current land polices in the country have led to reduced and fragmented land size holdings in rural areas. As a result, there is limited room for farm intensification. For instance, data from this study show that among sample households who did not grow tree crops on their land, 40% of them reported that land shortage is the first major problem. In this regard, the existing land tenure system can be equally restrictive for most farmers. Therefore, the results of the study suggest that, without reforming the existing land policy and addressing problems in factor and credit markets, land titling is expected to play a very limited role in improving tenure security, investment, and land access for the rural poor.