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Статті в журналах з теми "Economic conditions"

Автор: Grafiati

Опубліковано: 4 червня 2021

Оновлено: 31 липня 2024

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1

Jones, Marcus D., and Charles H. Rowell. "Economics and Economic Conditions." Callaloo 27, no. 1 (2004): 33–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/cal.2004.0011.

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2

Reutov, Viktor Yevgeniyevich, and Diana Dmitrievna Burkaltseva. "ECONOMIC CRIME: SOCIO—ECONOMIC CONDITIONS." Scientific Bulletin: finance, banking, investment., no. 3 (52) (2021): 118–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.37279/2312-5330-2020-3-118-129.

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Анотація:

Of course, in any country, including Russia, the relevance of research to prevent an increase in the level of economic crime is important. Moreover, its level is an indicator of the country’s economic security. Accordingly, in the conditions of restrictions, the consequences of the pandemic associated with an increase in unemployment, a decrease in the income of the population, the factors affecting an increase in this indicator — the level of crime in the economic sphere — are increasing. The article provides a forecast of socio-economic indicators: the development of the social sphere, the level and quality of life. The decomposition of institutionalization of preventive measures aimed at counteracting the commission of economic crime is built. A portrait of a criminal in cybercrime conditions is highlighted and the dynamics of registered crimes is considered. At the same time, in the institutional structure of the decomposition of preventive measures aimed at counteracting the commission of economic crime, a component of socio-economic conditions is highlighted, contributing to the increase in the commission or reduction of this type of economic crime.

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3

Szabó, L., and Zsarnóczai JS. "Economic conditions of Hungarian agricultural producers in 1990s." Agricultural Economics (Zemědělská ekonomika) 50, No. 6 (February 24, 2012): 249–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.17221/5198-agricecon.

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The main aims of this study are to describe how much the economic role of agriculture decreased, and this decrease comes mainly from some economic difficulties, for example weak income position of producers based on weak capital accumulation. So agricultural producers need financial supports to improve their production and favourable credit conditions. In 1990s during the last decade, the role of agriculture in the national economy decreased, which contributed to its decreasing share in GDP and real value of agricultural GDP. In 2001, in spite of the fact that the plant production considerably increased and the animal husbandry stagnated, the whole agricultural production volume was by 20 percent under its level of 1989. Finally by the end of 2001, the share of agriculture declined to 4 percent of GDP and together with food industry, their share was about 7 percent. The agricultural scissors increased considerably, namely from 126.5 percent in 1992 to 138.4 percent in 2001.The income conditions made a significant influence on the capacity of the agricultural sector in fields of investments and accumulation. The main problem was the decline of real value of investments. For example the real value of investments in 2001 had not implemented half of investments realised in 1989. This situation showed the low level of technological and technical development in the agricultural sector during a longer period, than a decade. It was important to increase different kinds of supports for agricultural producers, for example: export subsidies, interests of credits, supports for establishing new farmland structure. The share of supports for agricultural production and food industry was 12–14 percent of the two sectors’ GDP in 1990s. The development of the main factors of agricultural incomes was determined by index calculations based on the data of the APEH (Hungarian Tax and Financial Supervising Office) and EAA (Economic Accounts for Agriculture). The supports are needed, which are as follows: based on the APEH data, the profit before tax of 23 billion HUF in 1997 decreased to the loss-level of 8 billion HUF by the end of 1990s. The main aim for agricultural producers was to increase their capital accumulation to implement improvement of production in order to be competitive on the world and domestic markets. There is a difficulty that at the end of 1990s, only about 30 percent of the supports was directly provided for agricultural producers. In Hungary, without taxes and other different deprivals, the current value of production supports was over the level of incomes obtained in agricultural sector, but according to the calculation methods of the OECD, the value of PSE (PSE= Producer Support Estimate) index was at a very low level and it had a decreasing tendency, which could not ensure enough income for agricultural producers in Hungary. So the development of agricultural production cannot be realised additionally to the unfavourable background conditions for the sector. Comparing the support structure experienced in the OECD with that in Hungary, it can be declared, that within the PSE (Producer Support Estimate) during 1997–2000, the MPS (Market Price Support) declined, similarly it was in Hungary. In the OECD, the 8–9 percent share of payments based on input use has remained at same level within the PSE. The subsidy based on input use in Hungary was a main element within the overall subsidy system, and its proportion within the producer subsidy increased from 9 percent to 27 percent during the same period. The payment based on the regulation on input use (environment friendly production) also decreased and shared 2 percent within producer subsidies. In the OECD, payments based on farming income totalled only 1 percent of the total producer subsidies, as well as it was experienced in Hungary. Hungarian market price subsidies by products reveal that milk, eggs and poultry enjoyed a high Market Price Support. On the other hand, Market Price Support to beef cattle remained low.

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4

Chugunov, Igor, Valentyna Makohon, and Tetiana Кrykun. "Budget strategy in the conditions of economic globalization." Problems and Perspectives in Management 17, no. 3 (July 30, 2019): 101–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.21511/ppm.17(3).2019.08.

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Анотація:

Economic changes create a strong need for the reconsideration of the system of financial and budgetary knowledge and paradigms already created in developed countries regarding the possibility of their use in the countries with developing economies. In this article, the authors clarify that the process of formation of the efficient and mutually agreed budget policy with strategic tasks of the social and economical development of countries requires development of the budget strategy. Its essence is the dynamic realization of the system of goals, principles, directions, tasks of state authorities, co-ordination and adequacy of their long-term regulatory measures to internal and external changes in the economic environment and social transformations aimed at ensuring macroeconomic stability, accelerating economic growth and improving the well-being of the population. The principles of budget strategy development have been clearly defined: scientific substantiation; integrity; efficiency; systematic approach; adaptability; variability; interdependence; purposefulness; sociality; legitimacy. The share of government expenditures, budget deficit and public debt in the gross domestic product in the EU and Ukraine has been estimated. The priority directions of budget strategies in the conditions of economic transformations have been defined, in particular, regarding the increase of efficiency of public expenditures and establishment of restrictions on their level of growth; improvement of the mechanism for managing budget deficits, public debt and guarantees and reduction of their limits. The research has demonstrated a huge influence of the budget strategy on the social and economical processes and on the development of the social relations.

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5

Blomberg, S. Brock, Gregory D. Hess, and Akila Weerapana. "Economic conditions and terrorism." European Journal of Political Economy 20, no. 2 (June 2004): 463–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2004.02.002.

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6

PETERSEN, K. "ECONOMIC CONDITIONS IN NORWAY." Bulletin of the Oxford University Institute of Economics & Statistics 8, no. 4 (May 1, 2009): 112–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0084.1946.mp8004003.x.

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7

Egger, Garry. "Economic Conditions and Obesity." JAMA 301, no. 24 (June 24, 2009): 2546. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2009.869.

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8

Farry, Kristin. "Economic Conditions and Obesity." JAMA 301, no. 24 (June 24, 2009): 2546. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2009.870.

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9

Lichtenstein, Alice H. "Economic Conditions and Obesity." JAMA 301, no. 24 (June 24, 2009): 2546. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2009.871.

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10

Niekamp, Paul. "Economic conditions and sleep." Health Economics 28, no. 3 (December 20, 2018): 437–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/hec.3849.

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11

Bernanke, Ben S. "Current Economic and Financial Conditions." Business Economics 43, no. 4 (October 2008): 8–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.2145/20080401.

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12

Ellman, Michael, J. Cornwall, and M. E. Sharpe. "The Conditions for Economic Recovery." Canadian Journal of Economics 18, no. 1 (February 1985): 208. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/135124.

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13

Duan, Wenqi, Joseph David Madasi, Adnan Khurshid, and Dan Ma. "Industrial structure conditions economic resilience." Technological Forecasting and Social Change 183 (October 2022): 121944. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2022.121944.

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14

KALINENKO, N. "GLOBALIZATION IN CURRENT ECONOMIC CONDITIONS." CULTURE AND SAFETY 8, no. 81 (2021): 47–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.25257/kb.2021.1.47-51.

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15

Styapshin, Alexander. "ECONOMIC SECURITY IN MODERN CONDITIONS." Industrial Economics, no. 3 (2020): 6–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.47576/2712-7559_2020_3_6.

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16

Borodin, Matvey. "ECONOMIC SECURITY IN MODERN CONDITIONS." Industrial Economics, no. 3 (2020): 53–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.47576/2712-7559_2020_3_53.

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17

Rosenbaum, Dan T., and Sheldon H. Danziger. "Economic Conditions and Welfare Reform." Southern Economic Journal 68, no. 1 (July 2001): 204. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1061526.

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18

CHAMLIN, MITCHELL B., and JOHN K. COCHRAN. "CAUSALITY, ECONOMIC CONDITIONS, AND BURGLARY*." Criminology 36, no. 2 (May 1998): 425–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1998.tb01254.x.

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19

Blumstein, Alfred. "Economic Conditions and Minority Violence." Criminology & Public Policy 9, no. 4 (October 6, 2010): 659–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9133.2010.00659.x.

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20

Prokopovic, Borivoje, Miloje Jelic, and Gojko Velickovic. "Implication of better economic conditions." Ekonomika 63, no. 3 (2017): 25–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.5937/ekonomika1703025p.

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21

Mapulanga, Patrick. "Changing economic conditions for libraries." Bottom Line 26, no. 2 (August 16, 2013): 59–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/bl-12-2012-0035.

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22

Partin, Randall W. "Economic Conditions and Gubernatorial Elections." American Politics Quarterly 23, no. 1 (January 1995): 81–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1532673x9502300104.

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23

Duszczyk, Maciej. "Poland under Economic Crisis Conditions." Perspectives on European Politics and Society 15, no. 3 (May 7, 2014): 370–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15705854.2014.912404.

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24

Inekwe, John Nkwoma, Yi Jin, and Maria Rebecca Valenzuela. "Financial conditions and economic growth." International Review of Economics & Finance 61 (May 2019): 128–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.iref.2019.02.001.

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25

Ruhm, Christopher J. "Economic conditions and alcohol problems." Journal of Health Economics 14, no. 5 (December 1995): 583–603. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0167-6296(95)00024-0.

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26

Carson, Scott Alan. "Biological Conditions and Economic Development." Human Nature 26, no. 2 (June 2015): 123–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12110-015-9231-x.

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27

Hosek, James, and Shelley MacDermid Wadsworth. "Economic Conditions of Military Families." Future of Children 23, no. 2 (2013): 41–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/foc.2013.0009.

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28

Ahmed, Parvez, and Larry J. Lockwood. "Economic Conditions and Stock Pricing." Journal of Alternative Investments 3, no. 3 (December 31, 2000): 47–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.3905/jai.2000.318966.

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29

Ludwig, David S. "Economic Conditions and Obesity—Reply." JAMA 301, no. 24 (June 24, 2009): 2546. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2009.872.

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30

Douch, Mohamed. "Asset Returns and Economic Conditions." International Advances in Economic Research 24, no. 2 (March 1, 2018): 201–2. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11294-018-9677-9.

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31

Nour, A. M. "Peculiarities of socio-economic conditions of Ukrainian families under conditions of market economic development." Ukrainian Society 2005, no. 4 (October 10, 2005): 93–102. http://dx.doi.org/10.15407/socium2005.04.093.

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32

Eremicheva, Tat'yana V. "INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC RELATIONS IN CONDITIONS OF INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC INTEGRATION." Science and art of management / Bulletin of the Institute of Economics, Management and Law of the Russian State University for the Humanities, no. 4 (2021): 97–113. http://dx.doi.org/10.28995/2782-2222-2021-4-97-113.

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Анотація:

During recent years the modern World Economy has undergone colossal changes, which were influenced not only by unexpected situations like a pandemic, but also by various factors and trends. The research is intended to make an attempt for considering the long-established trends in international economic relations in a new aspect of current events and economic integration and the overall economic integration of the labour, industries and capital. Now, in the context of a global pandemic, all states and entire regions are subject to integration. Thus, the purpose of the article is to determine the main forms and current trends in international economic relations. In the process of this work were used such a research method as the induction, synthesis, analysis.

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33

Guziur, Janusz F., and Konrad Turkowski. "Economic aspects of table carp production under various management conditions." Acta Ichthyologica et Piscatoria 20, no. 2 (December 31, 1990): 109–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.3750/aip1990.20.2.09.

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34

Lošonc, Alpar. "The Conditions of Critical Knowledge on Capitalism or." Synthesis philosophica 34, no. 1 (2019): 29–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.21464/sp34103.

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Анотація:

Beginning with a presentation of the asymmetry between philosophical and economic reflection, the article assesses the possible effects of practical philosophy in relation to the critical analysis of the independent economic domain. The article emphasizes the importance of political genealogy of capitalism which explains conceptual mutations leading to a) autonomisation of economic reflection, b) self-hegemonic economic reflection, c) domination of “real abstraction” that reflects not mental operations but social practice in capitalism. It is necessary to conceive differences between economics, the economy and economic domain, as well as to establish mediation between these domains. It is important not to perceive theoretical production as passive reflection in relation to reality, but to consider the theory as a constitutive-practical factor, as the condensation of certain social relationships. For economics (“dismal science”), this means that it is co-constitutive in relation to “economic reality”. Practical philosophy can contribute to the self-awareness of economic reflection in three domains: a) the relevance of ideology in relation to the autonomy of the economic sphere, b) the importance of the measure for the economizing, c) the form–substance problem. Based on the effects in the mentioned domains, practical philosophy could evoke the fact that the core of the economy is something that transcends the phenomenon of economy. The foundation of the economy is based on non-economic categories.

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35

Agamagomedova, Saniyat A. "State Economic Control and Supervision in the Economic Integration Conditions." Administrative law and procedure 9 (September 9, 2021): 44–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.18572/2071-1166-2021-9-44-47.

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Анотація:

In the field of economic relations in the context of economic integration. Recognizing the impact of integration processes on legal development, the author states the transformation of legal regulation and supervision in the field of the single economy of the Eurasian Economic Union. The conclusion is made about the gradual formation of a single Eurasian control and supervisory space. Uneven development of control and supervisory phenomena in relation to the principle of regulation; national and supranational competence in the field of control and supervision; combination of expanding supranational legal regulation with national traditions of control and supervisory activities; control and supervisory authorities and their control and supervisory competence; the influence of emerging transnational markets on the regulation of their functioning.

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36

Bondarev, Sergey Aleksandrovich. "Economic security in the conditions of the Eurasian Economic Union." Lizing (Leasing), no. 3 (March 1, 2021): 21–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.33920/vne-03-2109-03.

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Анотація:

The article provides an analysis on topical issues considering the economic security concept in the framework of the Eurasian Economic Union. The author analyses contingency models of the economic security concept within the EEU member countries to undertake the necessary measures to ensure economic security in the EEU member countries representing an integration association.

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37

Mamutov, V. K. "Codification of Ukrainian Economic Legislation under the New Economic Conditions." Problems of Economic Transition 37, no. 9 (January 1, 1995): 57–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.2753/pet1061-1991370957.

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38

Wosinski, Marek, and Maria Pietras. "Economic socialization of Polish children in different macro-economic conditions." Journal of Economic Psychology 11, no. 4 (December 1990): 515–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0167-4870(90)90032-5.

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39

BELІANSKA, Yu V. "ECONOMIC ESSENCE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF INNOVATIONS IN MODERN ECONOMIC CONDITIONS." REVIEW OF TRANSPORT ECONOMICS AND MANAGEMENT, no. 4(20) (November 30, 2020): 55–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.15802/rtem2020/209406.

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Анотація:

Goal. Determining the economic essence of innovation based on the analysis of legislative and literary sources. Characterization of scientists' views and highlighting the main approaches to understanding the essence of innovation. Formulation of own vision of economic essence of innovations as a factor of development and competitiveness in modern conditions of dynamic changes. Method. To achieve this goal, a systematic approach, deductive method, comparison, grouping, generalization, analysis and synthesis are used. Results. Innovations are the introduction of new - new technologies, products, services, organizational solutions, business models that provide results in the form of economic, scientific and technical, social, informational, environmental effects and competitive advantages. Innovation is seen as an idea, a creative source of creating new, better, original, more effective, as a special means of adapting to the market and consumer needs. Innovation as a process reflects the need for innovation in today's competitive environment. Indicates the existence of life cycles of innovation from the origin of the idea and its justification to implementation and practical use. Innovation reflects development, emphasizing its dialectical connection with economic fluctuations. Scientific novelty. The definition of innovation as a result of the idea in the form of introduction of new or improved technologies, products, services that have economic, social and other effects in the process of development and gaining competitive advantage. The formulated definition includes selected approaches to the consideration of innovation as a technology, product or service (introduction of a new one); as an effect, a result; as ideas; as a process; as development. Practical importance. A comprehensive understanding of the essence of innovation on the basis of key aspects of its sources and impact on the competitiveness of economic entities will better identify the types of innovations, their characteristics, evaluation of efficiency.

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40

Bakhtizin, A. R. "The challenges of forecasting under current conditions." Economic Revival of Russia, no. 2 (76) (2023): 44–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.37930/1990-9780-2023-2-76-44-53.

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Анотація:

The issues of forecasting in modern conditions using mathematical models, the development of which is the main specialization of the Central Economics and Mathematics Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences, are considered. A comparative analysis of forecasting methods (IMF and Central Bank) using mathematical tools is given. The bias of the providers of economic forecasts using these forecasts to manipulate public opinion is shown. Their inadequacy during periods of perturbations in economic systems is substantiated. Alternative methods for the analysis of economic systems are proposed. The fundamental importance of compensatory measures that help reduce the negative effect of sanctions and promote economic development is noted. The main task of Russian forecasters is to actively counter the aggressive information flow.

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41

Bakhtizin, A. R. "The challenges of forecasting under current conditions." Economic Revival of Russia, no. 2(76) (May 25, 2023): 53–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.37930/1990-9780-2023-2(76)-53-62.

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Анотація:

The paper analyzes the forecasting issues under modern conditions using mathematical models, the development of which is the main specialization of the Central Economics and Mathematics Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences. The author presents a comparative analysis of forecasting methods (by IMF and Central Bank) using mathematical tools. The bias of the providers of economic forecasts using these forecasts to manipulate public opinion is shown. Their inadequacy during periods of disturbances in economic systems is substantiated. The author proposes alternative methods for the analysis of economic systems. The fundamental importance of compensatory measures that help reduce the negative effect of sanctions and promote economic development is noted. The main task of Russian forecasters is to actively counter the aggressive information flow.

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42

HIMSHIKHA, HIMSHIKHA, and CHARAN SINGH. "Socio-economic conditions of the farmers." AGRICULTURE UPDATE 12, no. 1 (February 15, 2017): 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.15740/has/au/12.1/1-8.

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43

Erikson, Robert S. "Economic Conditions and the Presidential Vote." American Political Science Review 83, no. 2 (June 1989): 567–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1962406.

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Анотація:

This analysis demonstrates that the relative growth of per capita income change is an important determinant of post-World War II presidential election outcomes. Per capita income change is even a better predictor of presidential election outcomes than the electorate's relative attraction to the Democratic and Republican candidates as calibrated in National Election Study surveys. The significance of this finding is discussed.

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44

Makhmudova, M. M., A. M. Koroleva, and I. V. Denisova. "Social Differentiation Under Complex Economic Conditions." EUROPEAN RESEARCH STUDIES JOURNAL XXI, Issue 3 (November 1, 2018): 530–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.35808/ersj/1081.

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45

AKULIUSHYNA, Maryna, and Mariia CHEKYRTA. "Strategic planning in modern economic conditions." Economics. Finances. Law, no. 11/1 (November 27, 2020): 21–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.37634/efp.2020.11(1).4.

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Анотація:

Introduction. The article considers the main elements of strategic planning as a final function that helps to determine ways to obtain the results of the enterprise in achieving its main goal. It is the basis for management decisions, determines their prospects, prudence, makes them motivated and timely. The urgency of the topic is due to the fact that the development and implementation of effective strategic planning provides the company with the opportunity to develop its own activities in a highly competitive environment. One of the tools to achieve the main goal of any company – to make a profit – and is the result of strategic planning, which allows the company to use its own competitive advantages to capture more market share or new markets in the future. The purpose of the paper is to determine the nature and methods of implementing strategic planning in the activities of enterprises of different forms of ownership and scale of activity in order to ensure their competitiveness in the market. Results. Strategic planning is the ultimate function that helps to identify ways to get results when achieving the ultimate goal. It is the basis for management decisions, determines their prospects, prudence, makes them motivated and timely. Strategic planning, as it is clear from the definition, is planning for 3-5 years, with the possibility of adjustment, because the dynamics of the market and constant crises require a rapid, even reactive response to changes in the environment. Thus, the main purpose of planning – to maximize profits from the activities and performance of its most important functions: marketing planning, productivity, innovation and more. To the extent that a group of related firms in a market segment can define similar goals and coordinate individual actions in such a way as to improve overall performance for selected overall goals (or work towards a common «mission» subsector), they can also collectively increase their efficiency and productivity in the way they conduct business. The result should ideally include a reduction in internal costs, an improvement in the services provided and thus an increase in their competitiveness. Conclusion. Strategic planning in the real economy is not just a necessity – it is an effort to constantly monitor change and play «ahead». Only in this way can the company withstand competition and survive in the market. According to the study, a number of scientists propose to assess and plan not the entire organization but its sub-sectors, which allows you to identify «bottlenecks» and respond to changes in a timely manner, preventing large financial losses.

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Kerimbekova, B. U. "MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING IN MODERN ECONOMIC CONDITIONS." Statistika, učet i audit 85, no. 2 (April 16, 2022): 6–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.51579/1563-2415.2022-2.01.

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In the new conditions, the creation of a management system, first of all, indicates the need to increase its information base, which is accounting. In the situation on the market, the traditional concept of accounting is changing, in particular, the production segment is changing. Under these circumstances, it is important to ensure the normal development and functional development of the production accounting system, study the requirements of production management structures, study and find ways to study and adapt them.

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Farzin, Y. Hossein. "Conditions for Sustainable Optimal Economic Development." Review of Development Economics 10, no. 3 (August 2006): 518–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9361.2006.00338.x.

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Evensky, J. "The Moral Conditions of Economic Efficiency." History of Political Economy 35, no. 3 (September 1, 2003): 575–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1215/00182702-35-3-575.

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Matsumoto, Yasumi. "Necessary conditions for constructing economic policy." Global Business and Economics Review 17, no. 3 (2015): 268. http://dx.doi.org/10.1504/gber.2015.070305.

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French, A. "Economic Conditions in Fourth-Century Athens." Greece and Rome 38, no. 1 (April 1991): 24–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0017383500022968.

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The flute players who in 404 B.C. celebrated the demolition of the Athenian walls with a hymn of joy for the liberation of Greece were thought to be hailing the dawn of a new era. It was an era in which Athens herself could participate, for even in defeat she had been spared the worst fate: her citizen population had not been butchered or enslaved; her land was not divided among alien colonists. Nevertheless the future which she faced was expected to be hard, in accordance with her humbled status. Her treasure was spent, her empire at an end; her losses in manpower had been terrible; the farming land which had traditionally been the economic basis of her existence, had been deliberately and extensively damaged. Thucydides in retrospect described the war as the most destructive in history: and Athens had ended as the loser. No wonder that historians have regarded the Peloponnesian War as a turning point of European history; and many have terminated their studies at this point, as if to divert their eyes from the tragic sight of Athens' decline into a new era of poverty and humiliation.

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