Статті в журналах: "Earthen Settlement"

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Tang, Xiaojia, Shui Shen, and Xin Su. "From rammed earth to stone wall: Chronological insight into the settlement change of the Lower Xiajiadian culture." PLOS ONE 17, no. 8 (August 22, 2022): e0273161. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0273161.

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In this article, we investigate the chronological change of settlements of the Lower Xiajiadian (LXJD) culture in northeast China. On the basis of excavation data, two types of settlements can be identified based on the methods of site construction: earthen (rammed earth/mudbrick) settlements and stone-constructed settlements. After integrating and reanalyzing all published 14C radiocarbon data of different LXJD sites, we argue that there is a clear chronological difference between these two types of settlements. It is revealed by the OxCal model that settlements built with earthen structures are generally earlier than those constructed with stones, and the changes in settlement spatial distribution and constructive material largely happened after 1500 BC. By means of correlation analysis with other related archaeological evidence, we suggest that the underlying social dynamics that contributed to LXJD settlement changes can be explored through multiple prospects.

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Zadnikov, S. A., and I. B. Shramko. "ON THE ISSUE OF THE ARCHITECTURE OF DEFENSIVE STRUCTURES OF THE EASTERN FORTIFICATION OF BILSK HILLFORT." Archaeology and Early History of Ukraine 42, no. 1 (April 6, 2022): 203–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.37445/adiu.2022.01.15.

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Bilsk is the largest fortified settlement of the Early Iron Age in Europe. The defensive line of the site consists of a rampart and the moat of more than 30 km length surrounding the area of ca. 5 thousand hectares. Over the years of the exploration of this archaeological site the idea of the time of settlement of certain parts of the archaeological complex, the origin and peculiarities of the creation of grand defensive structures was gradually formed. A special role in the process of their formation and use was played by the Eastern fortification, the fortified walls of which existed for more than two centuries. Recent exploration of its rampart and moat taking into account the results obtained last years suggest the creation of strong defencive system on the place of unfortified settlements and offered new vision of the appearance of fortified walls. The analysis of excavation materials of different years allows us to state that the territories occupied by unfortified settlements in the pre-fortress period were much larger and went beyond the future line of wood-earth fortifications. For more than a century and a half in the western part of the settlement complex there were no defencive structures. Only open settlements are known, which appeared in the last third of the 8th century BC. The situation changed in the second half of 6th century BC when the eastern part of the complex was occupied by the population with other traditions. Probably at the beginning of the third quarter of the 6th century BC the founders of the settlement, located in the eastern part of the watershed plateau, surrounded the most important part of the village with a wooden fence (a wall of logs, or mud). A similar wall defended the settlements within the modern Western settlement. The defensive line of the Great Fortress was later planned according to the same principle. We believe that such a light fence, without additional engineering structures, had no defensive significance but determined its own social space of settlements, which housed the estates of local tribal leaders, the most important public buildings and other facilities. Probably belonging to the different tribal groups prompted the inhabitants of the two settlements to strengthen the system of defence and surround the perimeter of each of them with an earthen rampart. The settlements gradually turned into a kind of residence of the local elite. We can assume that in the last third of the 5th century BC or at the beginning of the last quarter of this century, most likely, in the unstable situation in the region, the single strong defensive line in the form of an earthen rampart with a wooden wall on the ridge and a moat in front of them was created. The rampart and moat of the Great Fortress probably delineated the boundaries of the centre of the tribal union. The representatives of different ethnic groups and different social groups lived in this large area. The created defensive line with a length of 35 km was relevant until the middle of the 5th century BC until the time of the appearance of the settlement within the Western settlement. In the Eastern settlement life continues for another century and a half, until the endof the 4th century BC.

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Korzh, A. A. "NEW RESEARCH OF FORTIFICATION OF THE BASIVKA HILL-FORT." Archaeology and Early History of Ukraine 42, no. 1 (April 6, 2022): 131–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.37445/adiu.2022.01.10.

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Defensive structures are the integral part of any fortified settlement. Their study requires significant labor costs, so usually the earthen constructions haven’t received enough attention from the predecessors. Basivka hill-fort is definitely the key settlement of the Scythian Age in the Sula River basin. Its total area is approximately 170 ha. The central, residential part is located on three well-fortified capes. Not all fortification areas were created simultaneously but had developed dynamically in time and space. Successful usage of natural topographic features at this settlement is combined with the basics of defense tactics. Modern agricultural activity and dwelling construction led to significant damage,and in some places to the destruction of earthen structures of Basivka hill-fort. This is especially true of the Great Outer Rampart which is well-preserved only in the eastern part. The complexity of the modern terrain and the significant forest cover were the determining factors that hindered the preparation of the most accurate topographic plan of this site. The paper presents a new plan of central fortifications but it also needs to be revised which is a matter of the future. A separate issue of the work is devoted to the placement of ancient entrances, which, like the fortification in general, could change over time and move from the main to the role of secondary ones. The paper highlights the results of excavations of the Great Basivka Rampart which were conducted in 2020—2021. It is ascertained that the defensive structures cover the cultural layer of the settlement. In general, valuable information was obtained regarding the development of fortifications in the Ukrainian Forest-Steppe of Dnieper Left-Bank area in the Scythian Age.

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do Carmo Souza, Leonardo Roque, and Sumitra S. Kandolkar. "Geotechnical Evaluation of Traditional ‘Bunds’ - Earthen Levees - From Goa." Applied Mechanics and Materials 877 (February 2018): 230–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.877.230.

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Ancient Goa was reclaimed from the marshy deltas by remnants of the Saraswat Civilization who settled there and brought with them their ancient technology. We need to learn from these ancient structures that have survived nearly 8000 years and therefore are truly sustainable. Their construction method needs to be replicated to help India’s growing infrastructure demand and lowland reclamation. They use renewable, locally available materials like Soil, Lime, Ash, Cowdung and Straw. They are multi functional: habitation, irrigation, pisiculture, agriculture, rainwater harvesting, infrastructure etc. they possess a stable shape. They save at an average 80% more space than standard embankments. A 6-8% mix of Lime and Coconut Leaf Ash gave best results for soil stabilization. They have good slope stability with a factor of safety of more than 1.5. They have no seepage problems. The self-repairing sustainable coconut tree root system provided 20% more shear strength and seismic stability. As they have already existed for many years they are already undergone settlement and consolidation. This is green engineering that has scope for ancient technology aiding modern technology and spurring India’s growth in it race for international primacy as a technological superpower.

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Mammadzadeh, Huseyn. "Shortepe fortified settlement and еarly Barda town in Garabagh". Grani 23, № 11 (25 листопада 2020): 81–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.15421/1720104.

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Shortepe situated near Shatirli village of Barda in Garabagh region of Azerbaijan Republic. Archaeological excavations gave us an opportunity to research antique and early medieval period of the city. Shortepe is one of the biggest antique and early medieval settlements of Azerbaijan. The settlement situated near Shatirli village in Barda region. There situated Bronze Age settlement Balatepe which were one of the important centers of Kura-Araxes (proto-albanians) tribes, Bronze Age kurgans and Shortepe archaeological complex in Shatirli village. As a result of the research, four cultural strata were discovered. The first layer belongs to the Kur-Araz culture. In this layer, hearth-shaped and horseshoe-shaped hearths were found. In the second layer, painted and simple vessels typical of the Middle Bronze Age were found, and in the third layer, stone box-type tombs and long-necked clay vessels were found. The fourth layer is located at a depth of 0.3-0.9 m. Earthen graves belonging to children and the elderly were found in this layer. There are considerable information about Barda city and a region where it is situated in the works of authors of Antic and Early Middle Ages. Archeologists C.Morqan, N.Silosani, İ.Babayev, R.Goyushov, A.Nuriyev, H.Jafarov, F.Osmanov, A.Mammadov, M.Huseynov had been researched in Barda. According to professor A.M.Mammadov, Shortepe monument is remains of ancient Barda that called “Harum” in the works of Nizami Ganjavi. The article was dedicated to antique and early medieval fortified settlement Shortepe, which researchers prove that the settlement was an ancient Barda town. We can localize it with Anariaka antique Caucasian Albanian settlement. Archaeological excavations were continued in 2006-2016 years regularly. Archaeological excavations had been led in Shortepe in 2014. Scientific researches had been continued in the size of 10x10 m and the area had been divided 4 square. In the result of the archaeological excavations has been got the material examples which dedicated to the antique and early medieval period. In 2015 year archaeological excavations continued. Fortified part of settlement and pit graves was unearthed during digs. Scientific investigations show that Shortepe was ancient city of Garabagh region of Azerbaijan.

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Rybchynskyi, Nestor-Mykolai. "GRAPHIC RECONSTRUCTION OF DEFENSE BULWARK OF THE THIRD FORTIFIED SETTLEMENT OF IX - X CENTURIES. IN THE KOROSTEN CITY (ON BASIS OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL DATA)." Current Issues in Research, Conservation and Restoration of Historic Fortifications 14, no. 2021 (2021): 132–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.23939/fortifications2020.14.132.

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From ancient times, mankind has tried to protect their settlement from predators and enemies. This promoted to creation of comfortable living conditions. This contributed to the emergence of fortified settlements. On the territory that archaeologists associate with the Slavs tribe Drevlyany, settlements began to appear in the IX century. when the Great Migration of the Slavs was finally completed. Bohdan Zvizdetsky, researcher of drevlyan՚s antiquity, provided information about 20 fortified settlements between the Horyn and Teteriv rivers. Such settlements are called in Ukrainian «horodyshche». Unfortunately, researchers rarely turned to archaeological research of the fortifications of drevlyan՚s fortified settlements. They primarily paid attention to the filling of cultural layer and archaeological excavation of ancient cemeteries. Therefore, few fortifications have been studied: Rayky, Secont fortified settlement in Korosten, Malyn and Third fortified settlement in Korosten. In general, it is worth mentioning the researchers who studied and analyzed the fortifications of the settlements of Kyiveian Rus՚ in the IX - XIII centuries. P. Rappaport was one of the first to pay attention to the construction of defensive bulwarks in his opinion, main types of wooden structures were palisade and the pillar structure, when horizontal logs are clamped between two verticals, or in the grooves of one vertical. Another archaeologist who paid attention to the study of fortifications was M. Kuchera. In his opinion, the most used was a framework structure. As a basis of a design, he put three-, or four-walled framework. They could be separate segments of the defense wall, or be structurally combined into a single line. Another option for fortifications, the researcher considered the walls of the pillar structure. Archaeologist Yuri Morgunov is also tried to study of fortifications of Kyievian Rus՚. He singled out separate elements: Escarpments; ditches; wooden-earthen defense constructions. In the middle of XX century. military engineer B. Sperk considered various types of defensive walls of fortified settlements of Ancient Rus՚. He wrote that, the main types of walls were three- or four-walled framework. They could be separate segments of the defense wall, or be structurally combined into a single line. Also, architect Vadym Lukyanchenko was engaged in architectural analysis. He turned his attention to the construction of wooden and earth defense construction. According to him, the earliest type of fortifications was a palisade, and later there were several types of fortifications: three, or four-walled frameworks. Based on the work of other researchers, as well as on analogies from the monuments of Poland (Motych; Naszacowice; Zawada Lanckorońska), Czech Republic (Uherské Hradiště- Rybárny; Breclav-Pohansko; Vlastislav) , Slovakia (Spišske Tomášovce; Pobedim), Germany (Behren-Lübchin; Lenzen; Oldenburg; Berlin-Spandau) and Austria (Gars-Thunau), was created a graphic reconstruction of the south-eastern section of the defensive wall of fortified settlement №3 in Korosten. The main structure was a 4-walled framework. We assume that the diameter of the deck could be 250 mm. In addition, frameworks, as the main structure of the defensive wall, were also found on the early medieval fortified settlement near Olevsk, which is also considered as drevlyan՚s fortress. Hypothetical size of each framework could reach 2x2 m in plan and up to 3 m in height. On the top of framework could be a palisade. It was protection for the defenders of the fortress. It was system of fences. The diameter of the deck of a single pile could be 200 mm and a height of 1.8 m. The difference in the height of individual piles formed loopholes. The piles were located on the inside, near the outer wall of the framework. A similar construction can be traced on the already mentioned settlement of Motych and Gars-Thunau. For construction of wooden and earthen construction was required a wide range of tools. It was partially represented by archaeological finds: wooden shovels with metal shells, axes of various types, saws, etc. Despite the fact that other segments of the defensive line of third fortified settlement in Korosten have not been studied. Based on the plan published by I. Samoilovsky, it is possible to draw a conclusion that such a construction of the defensive wall was not found along the entire defensive perimeter. So, the section on the eastern side adjacent to the steep cliffs on the Uzh river does not have clear protective fortifications. Therefore, Therefore, it was possible that this area was fortified only with a palisade. Also, according to I. Samoilovsky's plan, the western and northern parts of the defensive perimeter are surrounded by a powerful bulwark, which most likely had a more complex structure with larger parameters of fortifications. Unfortunately, the worst studied element of the lines of defense of the settlements of the IX - X centuries is the entrance remains. Therefore, were used analogies from well-researched monuments in Poland, Germany, the Czech Republic and Slovakia. In all cases, it had pillar structure withn the gate tower. It has an exclusively observation function, because they do not have loopholes. That is why in visualization gate structures is also only as observation and guard points. The outer wall of such a gatehouse could be made of boards. The volume of the watchtower could be covered with a gabled roof. This design required the installation of a roof ridge and the placement of wooden brackets for the stability of the structure. A wooden bridge over the defensive moat could be located in front of the entrance, which would facilitate access to the settlement in peacetime.

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Quintus, Seth, Jennifer Huebert, Stephanie Day, Noa Lincoln, Kyungsoo Yoo, Tiffany Lee, Darby Filimoehala, and Dolly Autufuga. "TEMPO AND TRAJECTORY OF THE BUILT LANDSCAPE ON TA‘Ū ISLAND, MANU‘A GROUP, AMERICAN SĀMOA: INTEGRATING EXTENSIVE RADIOCARBON DATING WITH JOINT POSTERIOR MODELING." Radiocarbon 62, no. 5 (July 20, 2020): 1317–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/rdc.2020.60.

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ABSTRACTStone and earthen architecture is nearly ubiquitous in the archaeological record of Pacific islands. The construction of this architecture is tied to a range of socio-political processes, and the temporal patterning of these features is useful for understanding the rate at which populations grew, innovation occurred, and social inequality emerged. Unfortunately, this temporal patterning is poorly understood for many areas of the region, including the Sāmoan archipelago. Here, we describe a project directed toward establishing a robust chronology for the construction of these earthen and stone terraces and linear mounds on Ta‘ū Island. Using recent methodological improvements, we highlight the tempo at which different architectural types were constructed on the island and the implications for understanding demographic expansion and changing land tenure practices in the last 1500 years. This research suggests the construction of architecture was largely confined to the 2nd millennium AD with a small number of terraces plausibly built in the 1st millennium AD. This temporal patterning suggests that a reconfiguration of settlement patterns occurred within West Polynesia as people there moved into other regions of Oceania.

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Matveeva, N. P. "Defensive Buildings of the Bakalskaya Culture (The Staro-Lybaevskoe-1 Settlement in the Forest-Steppe Trans-Urals)." Vestnik NSU. Series: History and Philology 22, no. 3 (March 5, 2023): 114–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.25205/1818-7919-2023-22-3-114-124.

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Purpose. The purpose of this article is to evaluate defensive potentialities of the Middle Age population in the Trans-Urals. The main task is to reconstruct the exterior of the fortified areas and the necessary amount of work.Results. The defensive buildings of the Staro-Libayevskoye-1 fortified settlement were used. It has been established on the terrace of the Middle Tobol river and had the 5-angle form, size 65 × 75 m and a simple rampart-and-ditch line with two approach gates. This square was used for habitation twice in Middle age epoch. Apparently, large earthworks were not carried out due to the features of the relief, which had a height difference of 2 meters; considering the wooden wall and the ditch depth. Based on the analysis of the archaeological finds and the cultural layer, we established that in the early period of the Bakalskaya culture (4th – 5th centuries) the settlement was encircled with timber-framed wall and the terrace slope possibly played a role of a berm. The inhabitants created a defense line minimum of 5.5–6 meters in height. We assume that there was exacerbation of social and local conflicts, and the population sought to prevent these conflicts by strengthening defense. The Ustyug-1 synchronous cemetery testifies to the existence of a constant military threat, such as attacks by migrants and conflicts with the use of weapons. Later, in 8th – 10th centuries the settlers used traditional methods and created a new earthen wall. It was built two times wider, then earlier, using pre-existing land cultural layer. The settlers abandoned the laborious movement of soil from the ditch to the height of the wall. For greater protection, they equipped the earthen rampart with timber-frame structures and created a barrier 5.5 meters high.Conclusion. Concluding, we suggest that a dangerous military situation persisted during this period, as evidenced by samples of weapons and a cemetery in the settlement. The study also revealed a trend towards increasing labor costs for fortifications construction.

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Perttula, Timothy K., and Robert Rogers. "The Evolution of a Caddo Community in Northeastern Texas: The Oak Hill Village Site (41RK214), Rusk County, Texas." American Antiquity 72, no. 1 (January 2007): 71–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/40035299.

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The Oak Hill Village (41RK214) in northeastern Texas is a prehistoric (ca. A.D. 1150–1450) Caddo settlement that was completely excavated in the mid-1990s prior to lignite mining activities. Analysis of the architectural remains, key calibrated radiocarbon dates, and changes in ceramic decorations, indicates that the village evolved as three temporally and spatially different communities composed of a number of separate households. Emerging in the latter two communities were important social institutions (a plaza, an earthen mound, and specialized structures with extended entranceways) that bound this singular Caddo community together for approximately 150–200 years (ca. A.D. 1250–1450).

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Pompeani, David P., Aubrey L. Hillman, Matthew S. Finkenbinder, Daniel J. Bain, Alexander Correa-Metrio, Katherine M. Pompeani, and Mark B. Abbott. "The environmental impact of a pre-Columbian city based on geochemical insights from lake sediment cores recovered near Cahokia." Quaternary Research 91, no. 2 (December 27, 2018): 714–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/qua.2018.141.

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AbstractCahokia is the largest documented urban settlement in the pre-Columbian United States. Archaeological evidence suggests that the city, located near what is now East St. Louis, Illinois, began to rapidly expand starting around AD 1050. At its height, Cahokia extended across 1000 ha and included large plazas, timber palisade walls, and hundreds of monumental earthen mounds. Following several centuries of occupation, the city experienced a period of gradual abandonment from about AD 1200 to 1400. Here, we present geochemical data from a 1500-year-old sediment core from nearby Horseshoe Lake that records watershed impacts associated with the growth and decline of Cahokia. Sedimentary analysis shows a distinctive 24-cm-thick, gray, fine-grained layer formed between AD 1150 and 1220 and characterized by low carbonate δ13C, elevated sorbed metal concentrations, and higher organic matter δ15N. The deposition of this layer is contemporaneous with archaeological evidence of increased agricultural activity, earthen mound construction, and higher populations surrounding the lake. We hypothesize that these human impacts increased soil erosion, producing new sediment sources from deeper soil horizons, and shifted dissolved transport to the lake, producing lower carbonate δ13C values, higher concentrations of lead, copper, potassium, and aluminum, and increased δ15N, likely due to contributions of enriched nitrogen from sewage.

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Maxham, Mintcy D. "Rural Communities in the Black Warrior Valley, Alabama: The Role of Commoners in the Creation of the Moundville I Landscape." American Antiquity 65, no. 2 (April 2000): 337–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2694062.

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AbstractMississippian sites are generally believed to fall into one of three categories: paramount political center, local political center, and farmstead. Elites lived at paramount and local centers while the rest of a polity’s population lived in scattered farmsteads. Archaeologists identify paramount and local centers by the presence of earthen mounds and usually classify all small sites without mounds as farmsteads. In this examination of rural settlement in the Moundville chiefdom, I argue that there was more variation in Mississippian landscapes than the traditional tripartite site classification scheme allows. The vessel assemblage from 1TU66, a small site in the Black Warrior Valley, does not reflect domestic activities, but rather suggests that this site was a place where neighbors gathered to share food as a community.

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Milheira, Rafael G., Kita D. Macario, Ingrid S. Chanca, and Eduardo Q. Alves. "Archaeological Earthen Mound Complex in Patos Lagoon, Southern Brazil: Chronological Model and Freshwater Influence." Radiocarbon 59, no. 1 (February 2017): 195–214. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/rdc.2017.5.

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AbstractIn the present work, we assess the chronology of archaeological sites known as earthen mounds, commonly found at the Pampas biome, among the lowlands of Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina. We focused on the Pontal da Barra settlement, which is a testimony of the long-term occupation of indigenous groups in the swamp and wet environment of Patos Lagoon, southern Brazil. A Bayesian chronological model based on the radiocarbon (14C) dating of 17 samples of fish otolith, 5 charcoal fragments, and 2 bones (human and dog) allowed determination of the beginning of the occupation as well as the occupational synchronism of the different mounds. The nature of the samples allows us to study the local 14C reservoir effect through the comparison between the group of marine and terrestrial samples, deriving a reservoir offset value of 63±53 14C yr for this particular area, indicating a strong freshwater influence in the lagoon system. We estimate the start of human intervention in the landscapes of southern Patos Lagoon to be around 2200 cal BP, with the most intense activity between 1800 and 1200 cal BP.

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Dyakova, O. V. "Medieval Fortresses of the Margaritovka Basin in Eastern Primorye." Vestnik NSU. Series: History and Philology 21, no. 5 (May 16, 2022): 60–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.25205/1818-7919-2022-21-5-60-70.

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Introduction. Studies of ancient fortifications in the Eastern Primorye of Russia in the Margaritovka River basin are conducted for the first time by complex methods: mapping, geophysical characteristics, classification by shape, size, functional purpose.Results. Four fortification sites have been identified: Shcherbakovskoye settlement, Senokosnoe-1 fortification, Margaritovo fortress, Margaritovskaya stone defensive wall. Shcherbakovskoye settlement belongs to the mountain type. It is characterized by a closed configuration of shafts, corner and wall towers, stone-throwing platforms, an inner city, residential estates. Shcherbakovskoye settlement is a gift of the 13 th century period of the state of Eastern Xia. The Senokosnoe-1 fortification belongs to the cape type. It is protected by earthen ramparts and a moat. The fortification is comparable in archaeological material with the Polzevskaya culture of the early Middle Ages. The Margaritovo fortress belongs to the cape type and dates from the post-Bohai period. The Margaritovskaya stone wall is located on the Sikhote-Alin mountain spur. It is equipped with a watchtower. It was built in the Middle Ages. Conclusion. The location of the fortifications and the stone rampart indicate the functioning of a land and river route in the Margaritovka River basin. The road began on the mountain Perevalnaya. The final point of the road was the bay of the Morayak-Ribolov of the Sea of Japan. The entrance to the bay and the mouth of the Margaritovka River was protected by a stone wall with signal towers.

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Trizio, F., C. Mileto, F. J. Torrijo Echarri, and M. Lidón de Miguel. "PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS OF EARTHEN ARCHITECTURE RESPONSE TO FLOODS: THE CASE OF ALZIRA (SPAIN)." ISPRS - International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences XLIV-M-1-2020 (July 24, 2020): 713–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/isprs-archives-xliv-m-1-2020-713-2020.

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Abstract. Alzira, the capital of the Ribera del Júcar, has historically played a prominent role within the Comunitat Valenciana. The first settlement of the city dates back to the Moorish domination, and after the Reconquista, together with Xativa, Alcoi and Elx, it became one of the main cities of the ancient Reino de Valencia. Its architectural heritage is a witness of this remarkable past, including the glorious example of the Moorish wall, built almost entirely using the technique of rammed earth. Throughout history, the Moorish wall and the entire architectural heritage of Alzira have suffered extensive damage due to multiple factors, including neglect, wars and numerous floods. Throughout history, floods have had a significant impact on the architectural and cultural heritage of the city, as chronicled at the time, given that until the 1960s, the historic centre was surrounded by the two branches of the river Júcar. This study aims to analyse the response of earthen architecture to flooding, assessing its resilience and vulnerability through the analysis of the case of the city of Alzira and, in particular, of its historic centre. The research will therefore investigate the adaptation of earthen architecture and traditional techniques to floods. The recognition of these good practices used in the past and the establishment of a level of risk will be crucial to developing measures for the prevention and mitigation of the effects of floods, such as structural reinforcements and protective devices.

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Kochkarov, Umar, and Mikhail Zhukovsky. "Some Issues of the Humara Fortress Planning and Fortification." Vestnik Volgogradskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta. Serija 4. Istorija. Regionovedenie. Mezhdunarodnye otnoshenija, no. 4 (October 2020): 225–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.15688/jvolsu4.2020.4.15.

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Introduction. The territory of Karachay-Cherkessia since ancient times was a densely populated region. Life was especially intense in the era of the Early Middle Ages. In the period from the 8th to the 10th centuries the territory of modern Karachaevo-Cherkessia was in the sphere of interests of a powerful state association – the Khazar Khaganate. To protect their northern borders from the onslaught of the Arab caliphate and to protect the caravan routes in the upper reaches of the river Kuban, Khaganate built Humara fortress – one of the largest fortresses in Eastern Europe. Methods and materials. Based on materials from the excavations of the 70s – 80s of the 20th century (E.P. Alekseeva, Kh.K. Bidzhiev), as well as new materials obtained during the research of recent years (2007–2018) (U.Yu. Kochkarov), we can say that the main population of the site was a military garrison consisting mainly of the Alano-Bulgarians. The Bulgarian population dissolved after the dissolution of the Khaganate in the local environment. The fortresses is a 25 hectare area protected by a strong (4–7 m wide and 10 m high) wall of well-hewn stone blocks that has been preserved in the form of earthen ramparts that keep the remains of walls and battle towers under them. In the process of the work at Humara settlement, a high-precision three-dimensional computer model of the surface of the settlement was created by photogrammetric processing of the results of low-altitude aerial photography of the territory of the monument carried out by an unmanned aerial vehicle over an area of about 50 hectares. Analysis and Results. During the computer processing of aerial photography materials carried out automatically in the software of Agisoft Photoscan Pro, a cloud of high-density points (about 0.8 billion units) was obtained, which characterizes, with a high degree of accuracy, the microrelief of the surface of the settlement. The computer model of the microrelief of the Humara settlement does not only allow to realize three-dimensional visualization of the monument in various views and perspectives, but is also a productive analytical tool that makes it possible to reveal the characteristic features of the layout and spatial organization of the settlement hidden in its microrelief.

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Dar, Abid. "Settlement Analysis of Dredged Material and Its Stabilization Using Surkhi/Brick Dust." International Journal for Research in Applied Science and Engineering Technology 9, no. 10 (October 31, 2021): 603–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.22214/ijraset.2021.38469.

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Abstract: Soil stabilization is the phenomenon by virtue of which the soils are altered to enhance their physical Properties. The process aims to increase the shear Strength of soil thus improving its load bearing capacity to support pavements and foundations. Diverse range of soil materials varying from Expansive clays to granular materials can be treated by a diverse set of Additives like silica, lime, fly-ash, cement and so on. In J&K, the most common types of soils are the alluvial soils which get deposited in river beds as a result of sedimentation. River Jhelum in J&K is one of the major hotspots for accumulated sediments with an estimate of about 36 lakh cubic meters of sediments in its river bed, leaving very little space in it to take excess water. Subsequently, it is severely threatened by the Phenomena of still higher levels of sedimentation and hence consequent Floods. Dredging practices are a challenge for the maintenance of rivers and their Spillways. In Geotechnical Engineering, the valorisation of dredging Sediments and their Use in public works is increasingly prospected by Researchers in recent Years. Moreover, Floods in Kashmir valley in September 2014 compelled the Govt. Of Jammu and Kashmir to take Necessary steps in order to avoid similar situation in near future. This project therefore intends to study the stabilization of dredged material procured from Sindh Nallah having a higher content of alluvial Soil using Surkhi/Brick dust as an additive. Soil stabilization by this means can be utilized on airport pavements, highway pavements, earthen dams and many other situations where sub-soils are not suitable for construction. Keywords: Sindh Nallah, Dredged material, Surkhi, OMC, MDD, CBR, Direct Shear test.

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Tariq, Muhammad Atiq Ur Rehman, Zohreh Rajabi, and Nitin Muttil. "An Evaluation of Risk-Based Agricultural Land-Use Adjustments under a Flood Management Strategy in a Floodplain." Hydrology 8, no. 1 (March 21, 2021): 53. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/hydrology8010053.

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Agricultural damage due to floods in the Indus basin’s fertile land has been the most damaging natural disaster in Pakistan so far. Earthen dikes are protecting the vast areas of the floodplain from regular flooding. However, the floodplain is attractive to farmers due to its fertility and experiences regular crop production within and out of the dike area. This paper evaluates the flood risk in a floodplain of the Chenab river in Pakistan and recommends land-use changes to reduce the flood risk for crops and associated settlements within the study area. The objective of the land-use change is not just to reduce flood losses but also to increase the overall benefits of the floodplain in terms of its Economic Rent (ER). This preliminary study analyses the economic impacts of the risk-based land-use improvements on existing floodplain land uses. Expected Annual Damage (EAD) maps were developed using hydrodynamic models and GIS data. The developed model identified the areas where maize can be economically more productive compared to rice under flood conditions. Promising results were obtained for the settlement relocations. It was also observed that the infra-structure, running parallel to the river, plays a significant role in curtailing the extent of floods. The results show that a combination of structural and non-structural measures proves more effective. The study also recommends the inclusion of social and environmental damages as well as other types of non-structural measures to develop the most effective flood management strategy.

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Voitiuk, O. P., and B. A. Pryshchepa. "RESEARCH OF THE SETTLEMENT OF PRAGUE-KORCHAK CULTURE IN RIVNE CITY." Archaeology and Early History of Ukraine 40, no. 3 (November 3, 2021): 122–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.37445/adiu.2021.03.06.

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The paper introduces into scientific circulation the results of research of the objects of Early Slavs of the Prague-Korchak culture in a multi-layered settlement in the southern part of Rivne city. The settlement is located on the eastern shore of the Basiv Kut Reservoir, on the oval hill measuring 220 Ч 120 m. The first finds of the Early Middle Ages were discovered here by V. K. Piasetskyi in 1989. In 2019, the excavations were carried out on the area of 590 m2; the housing and storage pit of the Prague-Korchak culture have been discovered. The quadrangular foundation pit of 3.5 Ч 3.5 m square was sunk into the earth to the 0.3—0.4 m from detection level. The remains of stone stove made on the wooden frame were located in the northern corner of the dwelling. Such semi-dugout dwellings with the stove in one of corners was the main type of residential buildings in the population of the Prague-Korchak culture. The pillar holes found in the corners of the foundation pit and in the middle of the walls indicate the frame-pillar construction of the wooden walls. Among the stones from the destroyed stove and on the earthen floor in the central part of the foundation pit of the dwelling the remains of nine clay pots were found. We managed to reconstruct the full profiles of seven of them; two else vessels are represented by the profiles of the upper parts. The pots from the dwelling have a conical body, weakly marked shoulder, scarcely marked neck and short rim. The surface of the item is insufficiently smoothed and bumpy. The admixtures in the clay are mostly of small and medium size, with added fireclay, grus and sand. By their size the vessels are divided into small (1), medium (5) and large (3). All pots from the dwelling belong to variants 1—3 of the first type according to I. P. Rusanova’s classification. This combination is typical of the early monuments of the Prague-Korchak culture. The analysis allows attributing the ceramic complex from Rivne to phaze 1 according to I. O. Havritukhin and to date it as belonging to the second half of 5th — mid-6th centuries. The settlement was not large; two or three farmsteads could simultaneously exist there. They were located at a distance of 100—150 m from each other.

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D., Korobov D. S. ,., Malashev V., and Fassbinder J. W. E. "Geophysical and Archaeological Survey of the Hillfort of Zilgi and the Barrow Cemetery of Beslan (North Ossetia)." Teoriya i praktika arkheologicheskikh issledovaniy 33, no. 3 (2021): 162–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.14258/tpai(2021)33(3).-10.

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The article is devoted to new methodological techniques in the study of widely known sites of the early stage of Alanic culture of the Central Ciscaucasia — Zilgi hillfort and Beslan kurgan catacomb burial ground (RNO — Alania). The use of satellite images, low-altitude aerial photography, photogrammetry and magnetometric survey made it possible to obtain fundamentally new information about these well-studied sites and to specify their topographic and planigraphic features in the shortest time with minimal destructions. The excavations carried out in two areas of the Beslan necropolis helped to considerably refine its chronological framework, trace the development of the necropolis from the Zilgi hillfort to the southeastern periphery and identify the area of the most recent graves dating from the middle of the 7th century AD, which were made near the eastern border of unfortified settlement of Zilgi. The non-destructive survey methodology tested by the team has wide prospects for the study of Alanic culture sites of the Central Caucasus, especially at its early stage. Keywords: North Caucasus, Alanic culture, “earthen hillforts”, barrow catacomb burials, photogrammetry, Remote Sensing data, magnetometric survey

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Gazzán, Nicolás, Cristina Cancela-Cereijo, Camila Gianotti, Pastor Fábrega-Álvarez, Laura del Puerto, and Felipe Criado-Boado. "From Mounds to Villages: The Social Construction of the Landscape during the Middle and Late Holocene in the India Muerta Lowlands, Uruguay." Land 11, no. 3 (March 19, 2022): 441. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/land11030441.

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This paper presents new data on the spatial organization of mound-builder groups in the India Muerta wetlands, Uruguay. This area presents the beginning of land architecture in the region (ca. 4800–5000 years BP), associated with more arid climate. This construction tradition continues and intensifies, mainly from ca 3000 years BP, from the establishment of warmer and damper conditions. New sources of information and geospatial technologies have made it possible to locate mound sites with greater precision, as well as to analyze settlement patterns. Indigenous communities occupied areas of hills, plains and wetlands, showing differences but also regularities in spatial organization in each area. In the whole area, earthen mound complexes form groups of different orders, from regional to domestic units, configured by mounds, negative structures and limited spaces. The location of the mounds is primarily in dry areas, known locally as islands, which are prominent in the landscape during floods in this wetland-dominated environment. Through this analysis of the landscape, this work delves into the underlying logic of the social construction of the territory. The results achieved in this paper are consistent with previous research suggesting planned occupation associated with villages integrated within broader regional systems.

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Graesch, Anthony P., Sarah E. Shankel, and David M. Schaepe. "The Pocket Penetrometer." Advances in Archaeological Practice 3, no. 2 (May 2015): 93–106. http://dx.doi.org/10.7183/2326-3768.3.2.93.

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AbstractThe identification of earthen house floors or living surfaces during archaeological field investigations can be hampered by the scale of excavation, variable fieldworker experiences, and any number of site formation processes. Furthermore, although time- and context-sensitive sampling protocols (e.g., those required of macrobotanical and microartifact data collection) rely on in-the-moment identifications of floors, strong empirical evidence for the presence of house floors often comes well after the field season has concluded. Pocket penetrometers—inexpensive instruments that measure the compaction strength of soil—can lend empirical support to decisions about sampling procedures during onsite investigations. In this study, we present findings from the analysis of 4,463 penetrometer readings recorded during the excavation of residential and non-residential architecture at Welqámex, a Stó:lō-Coast Salish settlement in southwestern British Columbia. We show how pocket penetrometer data reveal quantifiable differences in the compaction of floors and other cultural deposits. We argue that compaction measurements can provide an additional line of data (ratio scale) to affirm or challenge onsite interpretations of stratigraphy based on other tactile and observational data, particularly as such interpretations pertain to surfaces expected to have been exposed to recurrent foot traffic

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Mehta, Kedar, Wilfried Zörner, and Rick Greenough. "Residential Building Construction Techniques and the Potential for Energy Efficiency in Central Asia: Example from High-Altitude Rural Settlement in Kyrgyzstan." Energies 15, no. 23 (November 24, 2022): 8869. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en15238869.

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Building construction in rural Kyrgyzstan is heavily dominated by earthen buildings. Old and inappropriate residential building structures contribute significantly to high domestic space heating energy consumption. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the relevant building construction techniques. However, the scant information on Kyrgyz building techniques, especially for high-altitude rural settlements, was the prime motivation to perform the presented study. The key objective of the study is to investigate residential building construction techniques in high-altitude rural Kyrgyzstan, and this was to be achieved by house visits during field trips, literature review, and pilot interviews with local people. The analysis enabled the detailed identification of individual building envelopes as well as predominant building materials to be recorded. Based on the assessment, a housing profile was created that represents the typical characteristics of traditional rural Kyrgyz houses. Furthermore, the study demonstrates the potential for energy savings in rural Kyrgyz houses of 50–70%. However, local conditions prevent people from making improvements to all domestic energy efficiency parameters simultaneously. Therefore, the study developed a ‘sequential roadmap’ to reduce domestic space heating demand in different phases based on simulation studies. Existing low-income rural Kyrgyz habitations can use the presented roadmap to reduce domestic space heating demand sequentially to overcome financial barriers and, therefore, contribute to establishing sustainable buildings in Kyrgyzstan. These results may be partially replicated in other Central Asian rural communities depending on their location and building characteristics.

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Trufanov, Aleksandr A., and Valentina I. Mordvintseva. "A Warrior Burial from the Ust’-Al’ma Necropolis (Mid-1st Cent. ad)." Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 23, no. 1 (July 13, 2017): 42–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15700577-12341309.

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In 2015 during excavations in the Ust’-Al’ma necropolis, a grave with a side-chamber was discovered (No. 1074). The deceased was a male aged 25-35 who had suffered many injuries during his life which could be traces of blows received in battle. The burial complex dates from the mid-1st century ad and belongs to a group of ‘Barbarian’ elite burials complete with gold funeral wreaths and face-coverings (eye- and mouth-covers). Most of these graves are earthen catacombs located along the road leading towards the ancient fortified settlement of Ust’-Al’ma on the western coast of the Crimean peninsula. Assemblages from male burials of this group usually contain weapons (sword, bow, arrows). As a rule, the burial goods are plentiful and rich. Elements of burial attire are often made of precious metals, and are represented by armlets, brooches, pendants, amulets, items from belt-sets and plaques which would have been sewn on to items of apparel. Among other burial goods, there are amphorae, wooden utensils with carved figures of animals and Roman imported bronze and silver ware. Taking into consideration that these burial structures were of a special type, that the graves had been positioned in a special area along the road leading to the settlement, as well as the extraordinary splendor of the grave goods, it can be concluded that they were burials for individuals belonging to the highest ranks of the social elite. The use of an unusual type of burial structure (a grave with a side-chamber) and the relatively small number of grave goods, which were nevertheless signs of high social rank (a funeral wreath, face-coverings, a sword), indicate the special status of the individual buried in Grave No. 1074.

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Rybchynskyi, Oleh. "UNSUCCESSFUL TOWNS OF THE BAR SURROUNDINGS: YALTUSHKIV, MEZHYRIV, POROSIATKIV, MARIANIVKA, BAROK AND BERLYNTSI." Current Issues in Research, Conservation and Restoration of Historic Fortifications 14, no. 2021 (2021): 122–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.23939/fortifications2020.14.122.

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Historical towns of Ukraine are the subject of numerous interdisciplinary studies. The focus is mainly on those settlements that have preserved the planning composition or have significant historical significance. Instead, towns that have lost opportunities for spatial development remain unnoticed. The purpose of article is to determine the spatial parameters of downtown and individual development anomalies of unsuccessful cities: Yaltushkiv, Mezhyriv, Porosyatkiv, Maryanivka, Barok and Berlyntsi. Urban factors with varying intensity stimulate the development of settlements. In each example, this happens individually. The formation and long-term formation of the town had hereditary, evolutionary and variable-pulsating properties. Given these characteristics, several cities located in the vicinity of Bar and recorded on the map of Podolsk Voivodeship in 1670 attract attention. These towns had a short period of development and did not differ in the history of the region. Instead, they deserve to examine the peculiarities of formation and restoration historical memory. On the map of Podolsk Voivodeship in 1670, Yaltushkiv is shown with a castle and fortified downtown. The settlement was located on the road that connected Bar with Dunaivtsi. Analysis of the current state of street network and relief allows to delineate boundaries of historic downtown. It had two gates, the main street on which stood the Church of Holy Trinity and Church of Holy Spirit. The market square had the shape of an elongated rectangle. The castle was located in the north-western corner. Preserved regular street network shows that the downtown was built thoughtfully and according to the developed plan. Most likely it happened in the middle of the 16-th century, but due to repeated devastation of the 16 - 20 centuries, no significant buildings and temples have survived. On the map of Podolia Voivodeship in 1670, Mezhyriv is marked as a densely built-up town with a castle. Analysis of current state of the street network and relief helps to determine the boundaries of the ancient fortified city center, the probable location of the gates and the castle complex. On the map of Podolia voivodeship in 1670, Porosyatkiv is shown as a wellfortified town, with bastions and ramparts, but without castle. Instead, the fortification, market and temple have been lost today. The street network allows you to roughly delineate the area of the historic center. On the map of Podolsk Voivodeship in 1670, Maryanivka is shown as a quadrangular fortified town with a castle located near the eastern part of the downtown. An analysis of existing street network and relief shows that the ancient Rynok Square was located near the church, town had ramparts and dry ditches, two gates and a regular type of layout. The castle was rectangular in shape, with ramparts and a moat, located near the road to Kopaygorod. On the map of Podolia Voivodeship in 1670, Berlyntsi is mentioned as a fortified settlement with a castle located on the southern side of downtown. On the map of Podolsk Voivodeship in 1670, Barok is shown as a fortified town with a castle located on the north side of downtown. The essence without the success of towns is concentrated in the reasons that determined their decline. The quality of the potential development of settlement was influenced by natural factors - geographical and topographic location, climate and geology. The analysis of natural properties in each settlement showed that from the very beginning they had significant limitations in spatial development. Consideration of economic factors, namely favorable conditions for the development of handicrafts and trade, the availability of natural resources indicate that Yaltushkiv, Mezhyriv, Porosyatkiv, Maryanivka, Barok and Berlyntsi were primarily focused on agriculture. The dominance of this vector of settlement activity has negatively affected their functional role in the development of region. An overview of urban planning factor - the development of form and composition of the town show that a clear plan for the creation of the downtown was in Mezhyriv, Yaltushkiv, Berlyntsi, Barok and Maryanivka. Porosyatkiv was planned without prior planning. According to the map of the Podolsk Voivodeship of 1670, the defensive structures of downtown consisted of earthen ramparts, small bastions and wooden fences. On the map of Ricci Zanoni in 1767 it is recorded that Mezhyriv has good fortifications; Porosyatkiv with fortifications (probably scalded); Yaltushkiv, Berlyntsi, Barok and Maryanivka - without fortifications. Thus, the spatial dissolution of the downtown in these towns began in the middle of the XVIII century. An analysis of the towns Yaltushkiv, Mezhyriv, Porosiatkiv, Maryanivka, Barok and Berlyntsi revealed that from the beginning of their founding and during the two centuries of progress, they had hereditary, evolutionary and variable-pulsating anomalies in development. Instead, this is no reason to neglect their significance for the history of Ukrainian urban planning. On the contrary, these settlements today need a special monument protection status.

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Varfolomeev, V. V., V. K. Merts, and I. V. Merts. "Shokpartas: a New Eneolithic Site in Central Saryarka." BULLETIN of L.N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University. HISTORICAL SCIENCES. PHILOSOPHY. RELIGION Series 134, no. 1 (2021): 36–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.32523/2616-7255-2021-134-1-36-48.

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The paper deals with Eneolithic materials of the settlement Shokpartas, which is located on the right side of the mountain range with the same name as the Taldy River in the Central Saryarka. The main archaeological complex of the monument belongs to the late bronze age and contains materials of the BegazyDandybai (Sargarin-Alexeyev) culture, which is part of the common culture of roller ceramics. In 2018, part of an earthen type dwelling was investigated in the settlement. In the cultural layer of the settlement, together with Sargary utensils, were found flaked stone tools and several fragments of pottery with Neolithic appearance. Stratigraphically, it is impossible to separate these two complexes since the early layer is destroyed by later structures. The stone industry of the Eneolithic period is represented by 526 items, among which there are nuclei, bifaces, flakes, and scrapers. They are made of typical local siliceous rocks. A special feature of the collection is the absence of small arrowheads with a notch in the base, which are markers of Eneolithic complexes of the steppe zone. The presence on the monument of remnants of blanks of nuclei, a large amount of broken stone, production waste, allow us to consider it as a storage- workshop for the primary processing of stone. According to the typology of some tools, the raw materials and manufacturing techniques, the materials are found analogical to in the Eneolithic layer 1a of the Shiderty 3 site, as well as in the synchronous monuments of Northern Kazakhstan and Turgai. The stone industry of Shokpartas is associated with a small number of ceramics decorated with «false textiles» with the method of “pulling through «and «combing». This kind of ceramics have similarities with those found in locals, in the South-Western Kulunda, the Upper Irtysh region and in the Middle Trans-Urals. However, «false-textile» ceramics in General are not typical in Saryarka while mainly prevails on the right Bank of the Irtysh in complexes of the Borly 4 type. The age of the artifacts is determined based on stratigraphic observations of the occurrence of stone industries of a similar type at the stratified site of Shiderty 3 and is supplemented by radiocarbon analysis of Eneolithic complexes in Kazakhstan. Based on this, the early materials of the Shokpartas settlement can be tentatively dated within the second half of the IV-turn of the IV-III Millennium BC, assuming a relatively late age within the epoch. It is difficult to clearly determine their cultural affiliation, which is due to the lack of knowledge of the Eneolithic of Central Kazakhstan, so at this stage of problem, Shokportas materials can only be considered within the Ust-Narym-Shiderty circle of monuments, which tends to the Irtysh Region.

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Sаpоzhnykov, І. V. "OLBIO AND ITS OUTSKIRTS IN THE 18th — EARLY 20th CENTURIES:TOPOGRAPHIC AND HISTORIOGRAPHIC ESSAYS." Archaeology and Early History of Ukraine 40, no. 3 (November 3, 2021): 354–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.37445/adiu.2021.03.25.

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The paper is devoted to the publication and analysis of the literary and cartographic sources of the late 18th — early 20th centuries in some way or another related to the ruins of Olbio and its outskirts. Some of them are dated back to so-called «pre-Russian period» of the study of this unique complex of archaeological sites, in particular the plan of the French military topographer A. Zh. de Lafitt-Clave in 1784 where any settlements is not marked directly in the Olbio region. Further is the «Russian Old Believers episode» of the history of Ilyinske-Parutine village recorded by Count A. S. Uvarov in 1848. The author paid the main attention to several problems and aspects of the history of mapping the Olbio settlement and the Sto Mohyl (One hundred kurgans) tract which was began around 1810 by I. S. Borislavsky. Particular attention in the paper was paid to the plans of P. I. Kцppen 1819, and it is also specified that the author of one of the best plans of Olbio (1863) was A. P. Chirkov. The result of these researches is the «List of basic plans and maps of Olbio and its environs in the 1810s — 1860s» (Appendix 1). In the final part of the paper the sources of the late 19th—20th centuries which were the basis of S.B. Buyskikh’s reconstruction of the defense line of Olbian limes were analyzed in detail. The main problem with these constructions is that earthen embankments with moats have not yet been identified or explored. Based on a number of facts and field observations, the route of the road from Olbio to the west (to Tyras and other cities), which passed through Kamеnka (Anchekrak), is proposed by the author. It is clear that this assumption needs to be tested in the field using modern devices (GPS navigator, georadar and drone). In addition, the author republished the essays by I. I. Kedrin «Small town Illinskoe» 1850 (Appendix 2) and A. A. Skalkovsky about his trip to Olbio in 1861 (Appendix 3).

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Regan, Krešimir. "Kamenica Castle in Croatia Zagorje region." Studia lexicographica 16, no. 30 (June 14, 2022): 61–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.33604/sl.16.30.4.

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This paper examines the centuries-long history of the castle Kamenica, situated above the identically named settlement in the Croatian Zagorje region, not far from Lepoglava. It was first mentioned in writing in 1311. It was built in the second half of the 13th century at the latest, by an unknown Zagorje noble, as a fortified residence and centre of the identically named estate. Between 1399 and 1405, Kamenica became the property of Herman II of Celje, whose descendants held it until 1456. Although no source directly mentions the fall of Kamenica, it likely happened during the war for the Celje succession, and the castle was first mentioned as a ruin in 1459, when King Matthias Corvinus donated it to John Vitovac. During the time it was under the Vitovacs (1459–88), Kamenica was permanently abandoned, and its holdings were combined with the neighbouring Trakošćan estate into the joint Trakošćan-Kamenica estate, which was formally seated in Trakošćan, but factually in the fortified manor Klenovnik. The existing, meagre architectural elements suggest Kamenica was a small castle (castrum) dating from the second half of the 13th century. It consisted of a trapezoidal core at the top of a steep, conical eminence, formed of a walled, fortified house with a smallish courtyard protected by a wooden palisade, and a fortified, circular suburb, raised around the core with a combination of wooden palisades and earthen ramparts.

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Wallner, Mario, Michael Doneus, Ingrid Kowatschek, Alois Hinterleitner, Felix Köstelbauer, and Wolfgang Neubauer. "Interdisciplinary Investigations of the Neolithic Circular Ditch Enclosure of Velm (Lower Austria)." Remote Sensing 14, no. 11 (June 1, 2022): 2657. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs14112657.

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Middle Neolithic circular enclosures, known as Kreisgrabenanlage (KGA), are the oldest known monumental sites in Central Europe, dating roughly to 4850–4600/4500 BC. These large prehistoric monuments are mainly discovered by aerial archaeology and have been investigated by geophysical prospection and archaeological excavations since the 1960s. The site of Velm (Lower Austria) was discovered by aerial photographs in 2001. Due to its unusual location on a flat gravel plateau, the enclosure has become the object of intensive interdisciplinary research in recent years. In 2016, two motorized ground-penetrating radar (GPR) surveys were conducted, resulting in a detailed three-dimensional dataset visualizing the circular ditches, palisades and dwellings of an adjacent settlement. The high contrast between the gravel sediments and the humic earthen backfill of the ditches, palisades and individual postholes resulted in a highly detailed visualization of the Middle Neolithic monument. Based on this survey, selected structures were investigated by targeted archaeological excavations to evaluate the GPR results and to take samples for radiocarbon dating. This paper presents a synopsis of all the methods used. An integrated interpretation of aerial photo information, magnetometry and GPR is conducted, and it is shown to what extent these could be verified by the targeted archaeological excavation. By a detailed analysis of all applied archaeological prospection methods, it is now possible to interpret the monument in its entirety and confirm its dating to the Middle Neolithic Lengyel cultural complex.

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Molodin, Vyacheslav I., and Liliya S. Kobeleva. "Children’s Burial Ground of Andronovo (Fedorovo) Culture in the Baraba Forest-Steppe." Archaeology and Ethnography 20, no. 5 (2021): 82–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.25205/1818-7919-2021-20-5-82-95.

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Purpose. The materials from the Preobrazhenka-3 children’s burial ground of Andronovo (Fedorovo) culture of the Bronze Age, located in the Baraba forest-steppe, are introduced into scientific circulation. Results. During the research process, results of the planigraphic analysis of the site were obtained. The necropolis is quite clearly localized. Subsequently, already in the Late Bronze Age (Irmen culture), earthen structures (mounds) were constructed on its surface. In turn, the bearers of Andronovo (Fedorovo) culture built their necropolis on the territory of a previously existing and no longer visible settlement of Krotovo culture. The study of the burial complexes revealed groups of burials containing complete and incomplete skeletons of children. There are also graves with only a vessel without either a corpse or other equipment. Analysis of ceramic vessels from burials made it possible to divide them into two groups. The first group consists of elegant vessels made with the classical canon. The ornament is represented by complex compositions containing rows of oblique shaded triangles, meanders, cannelures. The second group of vessels was made extremely carelessly. The ornament is applied unevenly, frequently with traces of smudged parts. It has been suggested that some of the ceramic vessels placed in the graves were made by children. Conclusion. The Preobrazhenka-3 burial ground provides researchers with all types of children’s burial practices and serves as a kind of model for its implementation by the bearers of Andronovo (Fedorovo) culture.

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Van Den Hoek, Jamon, and Hannah K. Friedrich. "Satellite-Based Human Settlement Datasets Inadequately Detect Refugee Settlements: A Critical Assessment at Thirty Refugee Settlements in Uganda." Remote Sensing 13, no. 18 (September 8, 2021): 3574. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs13183574.

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Satellite-based broad-scale (i.e., global and continental) human settlement data are essential for diverse applications spanning climate hazard mitigation, sustainable development monitoring, spatial epidemiology and demographic modeling. Many human settlement products report exceptional detection accuracies above 85%, but there is a substantial blind spot in that product validation typically focuses on large urban areas and excludes rural, small-scale settlements that are home to 3.4 billion people around the world. In this study, we make use of a data-rich sample of 30 refugee settlements in Uganda to assess the small-scale settlement detection by four human settlement products, namely, Geo-Referenced Infrastructure and Demographic Data for Development settlement extent data (GRID3-SE), Global Human Settlements Built-Up Sentinel-2 (GHS-BUILT-S2), High Resolution Settlement Layer (HRSL) and World Settlement Footprint (WSF). We measured each product’s areal coverage within refugee settlement boundaries, assessed detection of 317,416 building footprints and examined spatial agreement among products. For settlements established before 2016, products had low median probability of detection and F1-score of 0.26 and 0.24, respectively, a high median false alarm rate of 0.59 and tended to only agree in regions with the highest building density. Individually, GRID3-SE offered more than five-fold the coverage of other products, GHS-BUILT-S2 underestimated the building footprint area by a median 50% and HRSL slightly underestimated the footprint area by a median 7%, while WSF entirely overlooked 8 of the 30 study refugee settlements. The variable rates of coverage and detection partly result from GRID3-SE and HRSL being based on much higher resolution imagery, compared to GHS-BUILT-S2 and WSF. Earlier established settlements were generally better detected than recently established settlements, showing that the timing of satellite image acquisition with respect to refugee settlement establishment also influenced detection results. Nonetheless, settlements established in the 1960s and 1980s were inconsistently detected by settlement products. These findings show that human settlement products have far to go in capturing small-scale refugee settlements and would benefit from incorporating refugee settlements in training and validating human settlement detection approaches.

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Ulimaz, Mega, Reynaldi Yudha Pratama, Ajeng Nugrahaning Dewanti, and Elin Diyah Syafitri. "Assessment of Settlement Quality Levels in Balikpapan Kota Subdistrict, Balikpapan, Indonesia." Jurnal Presipitasi : Media Komunikasi dan Pengembangan Teknik Lingkungan 19, no. 1 (February 15, 2022): 55–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.14710/presipitasi.v19i1.55-67.

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Balikpapan is experiencing rapid urbanization and has an essential role in settlement development. One of the strategic issues of settlements in Balikpapan is the settlements that have decreased in quality in residential in urban areas with a mild level of slum. Based on the Balikpapan Spatial Plan, the spatial pattern in the Balikpapan Kota Subdistrict is dominated by the Settlement Area. It can be said that the components of settlements are the components that are planned to support settlement activities. Therefore, it is necessary to assess the quality of settlements in the Settlement Area in the Balikpapan Kota Subdistrict. The analysis was carried out by quantitative descriptive method (scoring method) with the unit of study for each settlement block or neighborhood. The analysis results of the quality of settlements in the Balikpapan Kota Subdistrict tend to have reasonable quality settlements. There were no areas that had poor settlement quality values. In the research area, from 131 neighborhoods, 19 neighborhoods still have a moderate quality of settlements. It is necessary to increase several components to improve the quality of settlements in each block so that all settlements become more liveable.

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Polshikova, N. V. "DEVELOPMENT AND FORMATION OF ARCHITECTURAL AND CONSTRUCTION TRADITIONS OF THE STEPPE AND FOREST-STEPPE ZONES OF EASTERN EUROPE FROM THE 5TH TO THE 7TH CENTURIES." Problems of theory and history of architecture of Ukraine, no. 20 (May 12, 2020): 188–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.31650/2519-4208-2020-20-188-195.

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This article is the fourth of the general topics«Development and formation of architectural and construction traditions of the steppe and forest-steppe zones of Ancient Russia. In the process of studying historical and archaeological facts, tere arefollowing:The main type of settlements of the early medieval period of the 5th-7th centuries in all territories of Slavs' residence –uninhibited villages along the banks of rivers and lakes on low floodplain terraces with an area of 0.25-1.0 ha, but in Moldova -up to 1.2 ha, in Podolia –up to 1.5 ha, inSmolensk –up to 7.0-8.0 ha. In the Upper Dniester and Upper Dnieper, the location of settlements is «nesting» with a distance between «nests» of 0.3-0.5 km. Layout –ordinary along the coast according to the terrain. Settlements of 3 types: tribal trade and craft centers, shelters and religious centers. Refuge settlements were built in the Upper Dnieper Left Bank, in the Upper reaches of the Western Dvina, in the borderland with Finno-Ugric and Germanic tribes, especially in the Upper Oka basin, where the main type of settlement settlements. They are trade and craft centers of permanent residence, asylum-fortifications were built separately.Placement of settlements -suburban protected areas, additional fortifications -ramparts and ditches, wooden walls with crates along the inner perimeter of the walls, their area is 0.2 -0.3 ha. Ancient settlements-cult centers inSmolensk region had similar fortifications.Dwellings –everywhere rectangular plans (or close to them, with gable roofs covered with a layer of clay or resin, rammed earthen floors.Space-planning decisions in all territories of Slavs' residence are of the same type, the differences are only in wall designs, which depended on climatic conditions, and in the placement of heating devices: among Slavs, stove-stoves and clay in the corner of dwellings, among neighbors of the Slavs (Balts and Finns) –foci in the middle of dwellings.So in the Southern region there are half-dugouts and ground pillars and log houses with a hearth in the center or a stove with a stove in the corner of the outbuilding.In the Northern region there are rectangular log cabins with astove in a corner. In the Western region, there are half-dugouts and terrestrial columnar and log-house constructions with centers in the center or a stove-heater in the corner.Definitely religious buildings –pagan luminaries. Found only in the Smolenskregion. They are round, rammed, a platform with a diameter of 6 m, along the edge of which is in the center of the site.The burial facilities of the early period of the Slovenian middle ages ubiquitous soil burial grounds and mounds are mainly accordingto the rite of incineration.Thus, the construction and architecture in all areas of the Slavs and their immediate neighbors to the VIII century –of the same type. This situation in the Steppe continued in the Middle Ages, when the Turkic-speaking Huns invaded the Steppe in the Middle of the 4th century wich is putting an end to the centuries-old domination of the Iranians and causing the grandiose movement of European peoples –«The Great Relocation».Development and formation of architectural and construction traditions of the steppe and forest-steppe zones of Eastern Europe from the 5th to the 7th centuries –The early stage of the early Slavic Middle Ages –is considered separately for the forest-steppe and steppe zones. The development of constructionin the steppe zone, through which the namada of the Hun circle moved west, is represented only by random mounds, often inlets, left in the Steppe from the previous time. All types of structures of the settled population of the forest-steppe zone that havedeveloped earlier were developed in this period. The early Slavs, the formation of whose ethnicity began in the III century. BC., to the V century. n. e. the main types of buildings have developed, which have had a special development since the 5th century. n. e.

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Fallatah, Ahmad, Simon Jones, Luke Wallace, and David Mitchell. "Combining Object-Based Machine Learning with Long-Term Time-Series Analysis for Informal Settlement Identification." Remote Sensing 14, no. 5 (March 2, 2022): 1226. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs14051226.

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Informal settlement mapping is essential for planning, as well as resource and utility management. Developing efficient ways of determining the properties of informal settlements (when, where, and who) is critical for upgrading services and planning. Remote sensing data are increasingly used to understand built environments. In this study, we combine two sources of data, very-high-resolution imagery and time-series Landsat data, to identify and describe informal settlements. The indicators characterising informal settlements were grouped into four different spatial and temporal levels: environment, settlement, object and time. These indicators were then used in an object-based machine learning (ML) workflow to identify informal settlements. The proposed method had a 95% overall accuracy at mapping informal settlements. Among the spatial and temporal levels examined, the contribution of the settlement level indicators was most significant in the ML model, followed by the object-level indicators. Whilst the temporal level did not contribute greatly to the classification of informal settlements, it provided a way of understanding when the settlements were formed. The adaptation of this method would allow the combination of a wide-ranging and diverse group of indicators in a comprehensive ML framework.

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Afti, Siti Naila Tassa Ghuba, and Fitriana Syahar. "Evaluation of Settlement Space Patterns in Solok City with Remote Sensing." Journal of Applied Geospatial Information 6, no. 2 (November 2, 2022): 669–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.30871/jagi.v6i2.4509.

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Land use is the physical form of the earth's surface that is influenced by human activities. The increase in population results in changes in land use for settlements that tend to increase and are not controlled, so it is necessary to monitor the rate of these changes so that the balance of life and the environment can be maintained and in accordance with what has been regulated by the government in the regional spatial plan (RTRW). This study aims to identify changes in settlement area from 2010-2020 in Solok City and assess the suitability of land use for settlements with residential spatial patterns (RTRW) in 2012-2031 Solok City. This study uses remote sensing data in the form of spot images. The steps taken by the image interpretation approach with manual digitization methods and arcgis applications, accuracy sampling is done by random sampling with the confusion matrix accuracy test technique carried out to answer the goal. The results of the study found that the image accuracy was 91.66%. Then, the condition of settlements in Solok City continues to increase in area every year in the 2010-2020 period with a total of 353.8 Ha, where the largest area of settlement changes is in Lubuk Sikarah District. In this study, it can be stated that the area of settlement in 2020 is 306.50 Ha which is not in accordance with the area contained in the spatial pattern (RTRW) of Solok City

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Jia, Dan, Yikai Li, and Xiuqi Fang. "Complexity of factors influencing the spatiotemporal distribution of archaeological settlements in northeast China over the past millennium." Quaternary Research 89, no. 2 (February 22, 2018): 413–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/qua.2017.112.

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AbstractRelic archeological settlement is used to indicate the development of agriculture. We extracted 8865 relic archeological settlements from theAtlas of Chinese Cultural Relicsto analyze how the spatiotemporal distribution of archaeological settlements was influenced by temperature changes and social factors during the last millennium. During the Liao dynasty (AD 916–1125) and Jin dynasty (AD 1115–1234) in the Medieval Warm Period (MWP), a large number of settlements indicated the development of agriculture as far north as 47°N. The warm climate of the MWP provided sufficient heat resources to promote the implication of positive policies of the Liao and Jin dynasties to develop agriculture and settlements. By contrast, during the dynasties of Yuan (AD 1279–1368), Ming (AD 1368–1644), and Qing (AD 1644–1911) in the Little Ice Age (LIA), the number of settlements declined drastically, and the northern boundary of the settlement distribution retreated by 3–4 degrees of latitude to modern Liaoning Province. Although the southward retreat of the settlements and related agriculture occurred in the cold climate of the LIA, it could not be completely explained by the drop in temperature. Social factors including nomadic customs, ethnic policies, and postal road systems played more important roles to the northern boundaries of the settlement distributions during the Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties.

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Yasinskyi, M., and V. Serdiuk. "ON THE QUESTION OF THE SIGNIFICANCE AND EXISTENCE PERIOD OF ROHATYN DEFENSIVE CASTLES." Vìsnik Nacìonalʹnogo unìversitetu "Lʹvìvsʹka polìtehnìka". Serìâ Arhìtektura 4, no. 2 (December 22, 2022): 205–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.23939/sa2022.02.205.

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The article presents the results of the study of literary sources and natural surveys of the territory of the castle in Rohatyn carried out by the authors. As is well known, the city of Rohatyn of the Ivano-Frankivsk region is one of the oldest cities in Western Ukraine. As early as 1415, the city received the Magdeburg right, which gave potential for more intensive development of the settlement. The planning structure of the city go through certain transformations over time, but the location of the main objects of the city, such as churches, the market square, earthen fortifications and the castle, remained unchanged. There are a small number of references to Rohatyn castle buildings. Some claim that the castle was moved to another location not far from the previous one, within the city limits, next to the city fortifications. Others declare about the existence of another castle on a hill near the city in the Babyntsi village. These evidences largely complement each other, which enabled the researchers to localize the location of the city castle. However, it will be possible to confirm the existence of the Babyntsi Castle only after conducting archaeological research on the hill. Important evidence about the city castle is the studied metrics, descriptions and lustrations of the Rohatyn Starostvo from 1537, and the inventory from 1725. Thanks to these materials, we became aware of the existence of a number of premises and buildings in the castle, such as kitchens-bakeries, carriage houses, stables, storage rooms, gates and other premises, as well as the presence of cannons, grottoes and a list of craftsmen who were part of the castle’s collateral. Thanks to these statements, many conclusions have been drawn regarding the list of premises and their relative location. The results of natural studies and measurements of the casemates, which have survived to this day on the territory of the castle, allowed many researchers to confirm the location of the defensive fortifications in the southeastern part of the city and to localize the castle in the city of Rohatyn according to literary sources and now also according to the results of the fixation of the remains of the casemates.

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Wahyudi, Dendi Sigit, Antariksa Antariksa, and Sri Utami. "Orientation Characteristics of Sasak Traditional House (Bale Tani) in Limbungan Hamlet, East Lombok Regency." Journal of Sosial Science 3, no. 4 (July 22, 2022): 689–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.46799/jss.v3i4.368.

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Traditional settlements are very synonymous with the customs and cultural traditions of the people in each region. Traditional settlements essentially and generally have rules for the pattern and arrangement of houses in settlements that follow the rules of local culture and existing traditions, one of which is in terms of orientation in home settlements. The pattern of the house's orientation is also found in the settlements in Limbungan Hamlet, but the orientation of the Sasak tribe in this village has a very diverse characteristic. Limbungan hamlet is a settlement located on contoured soil conditions and in a very high hilly area. The settlement pattern in this hamlet is generally symmetrical, forming settlement groups that follow the contours of the settlement. The purpose of this research is to be able to know and be able to explain the characteristics of the orientation of the traditional house of the Sasak tribe (bale tani) in the Limbungan hamlet, which has a traditional house orientation direction based on the approach of customary rules and traditions of the indigenous people or local communities. The research methodology used is a descriptive analysis qualitative method approach by conducting a comparative analysis technique on the traditional settlement group of the Sasak Tribe. The results of research on these settlements can show that there is a basis that the emergence of the orientation of the Sasak tribe is related to the concept of house orientation facing east. The house's orientation is good, namely the direction facing east and west, and strongly against the direction facing south and north. The east direction of the traditional house considers the topographical conditions of the placement of the house. Houses in hilly topography will generally always be oriented towards the high ground and face east, especially Limbungan is always at the foot of Mount Rinjani

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Baiteriakov, O. Z., A. A. Kuzovleva, and A. M. Mitskan. "SPATIAL PECULIARITIES OF THE SETTLEMENT SYSTEM OF DNIPROPETROVSK REGION AS OF 01.01.2022." Odesa National University Herald. Geography and Geology 27, no. 2(41) (January 26, 2023): 112–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.18524/2303-9914.2022.2(41).268709.

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Problem Statement and Purpose. The purpose of the study: to identify the state and spatial differences in the settlement system of the territory of the Dnipropetrovsk region on the eve of Russian military aggression. This will enable to understand the main socio-geographical realities that have developed by the beginning of the aggression, for the further restoration of the system of settlement of the territory in the post-war period, taking into account the peculiarities and problems that have taken place. Data &Methods. The study used methods for calculating quantitative and relative indicators of the state of the regional settlement system and a comparative analysis of the assessment results. Results. For Dnipropetrovsk region as a whole, and for each of its administrative districts separately, the population density, the average population density ofsettlements, the average density of settlements, the average distance between them, the index of leadership of the administrative centers of districts, the level of urbanization of the territory by the share of the urban population and by thehierarchical method of O. Tereshchenko have been calculated. According to these indicators, spatial differences in the system of settlement of the administrative districts of the region have been revealed. The systems of urban settlements in the administrative districts of the region are characterized by significant differentiation. This is especially evident when using a hierarchical approach to determine the level of urbanization. The regional systems of rural settlements in the region have smoother differences in terms of similar indicators in comparison with the systems of urban settlement. In general, the settlement systems of the administrative districts of the Dnipropetrovsk region had significant differences in key indicators, such as the area of the territory, the number and density of the population, the number of settlements. At the same time, in terms of the density of settlements and the average distance between them, the differences are less vivid. However, it should be pointed that the vivid differentiation of settlement systems cannot be considered a positive consequence of the administrative-territorial reform.

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Elfadaly, Abdelaziz, Nicodemo Abate, Nicola Masini, and Rosa Lasaponara. "Correction: Elfadaly, A.; Abate, N.; Masini, N.; Lasaponara, R. SAR Sentinel 1 Imaging and Detection of Palaeo-Landscape Features in the Mediterranean Area. Remote Sens. 2020, 12, 2611." Remote Sensing 12, no. 18 (September 5, 2020): 2878. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs12182878.

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The authors wish to make the following corrections to this paper [1]: Due to mislabeling, replace: Figure 6Typical Neolithic settlements in the Tavoliere delle Puglie: (a) settlement of Masseria Schifata; (b) settlement of Passo di Corvo [36] [...]

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Shin, Seungwon, Yong-Hee Park, Jeong-Heon Choi, Hyoun Soo Lim, Sook-Chung Shin, and Daekyo Cheong. "Geochronology and sedimentary environment at the Udu-dong archeological site, Chuncheon, South Korea." Holocene 28, no. 9 (May 31, 2018): 1512–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0959683618777068.

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The Udu-dong archeological site in Chuncheon, South Korea, dates back to the Proto–Three Kingdoms Period (approximately 100 BC to AD 350). Many artifacts, including some earthenware, have been excavated in these ancient dwelling sites. We applied three geochronological dating methods (radiocarbon, optically stimulated luminescence (OSL), and archeomagnetic dating) to the archeological remains of this large-scale human settlement and reconstructed the history of depositional processes prior to human settlement. The timing of the ancient community’s settlement was investigated by radiocarbon dating of the charcoal fragments collected from old furnaces. Archeomagnetic dating allowed us to constrain the time period of the settlement’s abandonment by dating the last use of fire. The timing and development of fluvial deposits underlying the settlement site were reconstructed by OSL dating combined with sedimentary facies analysis. Our results show that, following the deposition of coarse sediments starting 10,000 years ago, the region formed a stable floodplain environment starting around 3000 years ago; people began to form clustered settlements approximately 50 years later. For the subsequent 150 years or so, the area was heavily used as a settlement site, with people evenly distributed across it, before eventual abandonment of the site around AD 200–250. Because the sedimentary deposits do not show any significant facies change during this period, we conclude that any catastrophic events were not the main reason for settlement abandonment. This study suggests that combining scientific and archeological analyses have significant benefits for studies of such archeological sites. Therefore, continuous collection of such data can provide important information for the excavation and protection of prehistoric or historic sites.

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Dou, Haojian, Libang Ma, Huan Li, Jie Bo, and Fang Fang. "Impact evaluation and driving type identification of human factors on rural human settlement environment: Taking Gansu Province, China as an example." Open Geosciences 12, no. 1 (November 16, 2020): 1324–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/geo-2020-0126.

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AbstractEvaluating the quality of rural human (RH) settlements and clarifying its spatial differentiation characteristics have the most direct guiding role for the formulation of regional construction policies and the optimization of RH settlements. In this study, the index model of environmental quality of RH settlement was established. ImPACT and trade-off analysis methods were used to quantitatively identify the spatial differentiation of RH settlement and dominant impact human factors of it in Gansu Province in 2017. Then, the driving type of RH settlement environment was identified. Results are as follows. (1) The overall environmental quality of RH settlement in Gansu Province shows a decreasing trend from “west to east.” (2) The environmental quality of RH settlement is mainly affected by eight factors, of which the effect of quantity index per capita is more significant. (3) The trade-off relationship between the environmental quality index and these eight dominant factors is mainly low–low, which indicates that the human factors are the main reason for the environmental quality of the RH settlement. (4) Based on the dominant human factors, Gansu Province is classified into four driving types, of which the proportion of comprehensive type accounts for 77.01%.

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Kostomarov, V. M., and E. A. Tretyakov. "SETTLEMENT STRUCTURE OF EARLY MEDIEVAL GROUPS IN THE TRANS-URALS." VESTNIK ARHEOLOGII, ANTROPOLOGII I ETNOGRAFII, no. 4(47) (December 30, 2019): 81–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.20874/2071-0437-2019-47-4-7.

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The article considers the settlement of Early Medieval population in the Trans-Urals (4th–9th centuries AD). The study is based on the data about the location of monuments attributed to the Bakal culture, which are re-corded on the territory of the Tobol-Ishim interfluve and its water system in the area of the modern forest-steppe belt. The relevance of the study is determined by the following points: presentation of new data on the monu-ments of the Bakal culture; analysis of the settlement system and landscape use in the specified period; identifica-tion of economic areas characteristic of the early medieval population. In this study, the authors used the methods and approaches of landscape and settlement archaeology. In addition to the spatial and morphological character-istics, the source database includes data on the Earth's digital model drawing on SRTM30 data. The analysed materials (81 monuments — 36 hillforts, 40 villages, 5 burial grounds) were collected in one geoinformation sys-tem; the authors proposed an improved classification of fortified villages, which provides the opportunity to char-acterise the economic structure of the Bakal groups in a new way. The hillforts comprise 27 terrace settlements located on the high bedrock coasts of rivers, as well as 9 floodplain fortified settlements situated on isolated hills. When identifying economic zones on the basis of constructed Thiessen (Voronoi) polygons, it was found that there was one or, less often, two fortified villages (hillforts) in the centre of one zone. Settlements were located not far from the centre (most often in a floodplain). The analysis of direct visibility from the settlements showed that direct visual watch was kept over the villages in the floodplain, with the visibility zones covering large flood-plain sectors, thereby providing fairly tight control of the territory. It was established that the burial grounds were located in the immediate vicinity of fortified villages. The analysis revealed a correlation between the location of the village and the economy of the Bakal population, where cattle, prevailing in quantity, played an important role. This is due to the presence of large fortified settlements located in floodplains, whose population kept livestock. The authors established a system of the settlement and space-related occupation of the Medieval population in the Trans-Urals, with hillforts being the main centres used to control the territory simultaneously performing the functions of political, trade and economic centres.

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SARI, Cemali, and Cansel YILMAZ. "Classification of Settlement Names in the Turkish Cypriot Geography." Social Science Development Journal 7, no. 29 (January 15, 2022): 1–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.31567/ssd.528.

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The subject of this study is the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC), and its purpose is the geographical classification of the settlement names of the country. The examination of the settlement names given by the influence of the physical and human geography elements of the country (Nicosia, Famagusta, Girne, Güzelyurt, İskele and Lefke districts) will shed light on its past and the importance of the settlement names that the Turkish people living in Northern Cyprus want to commemorate for their homeland will be determined. The Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, which was established after the Cyprus Peace Operation (1974), has given Turkish names to the lands of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus by the "Continuous Committee for the Standardization of Geographical Systems" as of 1974, as an indicator of sovereignty. It has continued with the transfer of their identities to the places where they became homeland by the tribes that settled in the TRNC lands, which witnessed many migration events in history. Each civilization reflects its own cultural characteristics in place names. Settlement names are cultural pools of nations. In the study, document analysis technique, one of the qualitative research methods, was used. Factors arising from the interrelationship of nature and human relations have been taken into account. It has been systematically discussed and discussed in order to create a national awareness level. In this context, it is aimed to contribute to Turkish culture by examining the names of settlements. In the administrative structure of the TRNC in 2021, there are 261 settlements as central district, sub-district and neighborhood/village. It is seen that the majority of these settlement names take their source from geographical elements. 122 (46%) settlements are the names of settlements given by being influenced by physical geography and 136 (51%) human geography elements. It has been determined that settlement names related to landforms are more common in physical elements, and settlement names related to person, lineage and clan name among human elements are more common in the field. Each civilization reflects its own cultural characteristics in place names. Settlement names are cultural pools of nations. The Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, which has been the last manifestation of the Turkish presence on the island for centuries, transferred this ancient culture to the settlement names with the effect of Physical and Human geography. In this direction, the effects of Turkish culture can be seen in the naming of the settlements of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus.

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Li, Jing, Zhongyuan Cai, and Lianru Duan. "Spatial Distribution Characteristics and Optimum Layout of Urban and Rural Areas in Different Geomorphological Types." Earth Sciences Research Journal 24, no. 3 (October 12, 2020): 267–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.15446/esrj.v24n3.89450.

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Taking Jinghe River Basin in the Loess geomorphological area and Guangnan County in the karst geomorphological area as the study area, the spatial distribution characteristics of urban and rural areas of different geomorphological types are analyzed. By using GIS and related statistical analysis software, this paper summarizes three basic urban and rural types: river channel type, plateau surface type, and loess terrace horizon prototype in the Loess Landscape Jinghe River Basin. It is known that most towns in the loess plateau gully area are in the Jinghe River Basin. According to the spatial distribution characteristics of urban and rural areas, the optimal layout based on the main structure of five districts, nine River corridors, and four plates is proposed. Using the DEM module of ArcGIS to divide the elevation and gradient of Guangnan County, we know that the density of urban and rural settlements in Guangnan County is low and the spatial distribution is dispersed, and the distribution of urban and rural settlements shows a strong elevation orientation. The distribution of urban and rural settlements has a normal distribution relationship with the elevation. The largest number of urban and rural settlements is between 2.1° and 25°. According to the present situation of settlement distribution, this paper puts forward some optimization strategies, such as appropriate settlement scale, settlement space development monitoring, and so on.

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Miao, Lu, Kailiang Deng, Guangcai Feng, Kaifeng Li, Zhiqiang Xiong, Yuedong Wang, and Shuiyuan He. "Reclaimed-Airport Surface-Deformation Monitoring by Improved Permanent-Scatterer Interferometric Synthetic-Aperture Radar: A Case Study of Shenzhen Bao'an International Airport, China." Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing 87, no. 2 (February 1, 2021): 105–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.14358/pers.87.2.105.

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Reclaimed airports usually have fragile geological structures and are susceptible to the uneven ground settlements caused by filling-material consolidation, underground construction, and dynamic loading from takeoff and landing of aircrafts. Therefore, deformation monitoring is of great significance to the safe operation of reclaimed airports. This study adopts an improved permanent-scatterer interferometric synthetic-aperture radar strategy to map the spatiotemporal deformation of Shenzhen Bao'an International Airport in China using ascending and descending Envisat/ASAR data acquired from 2007 to 2010 and Sentinel-1 data from 2015 to 2019. The results show that uneven settlements of the airport concentrate in the new reclaimed land. Then we explore the settlement characteristics of each functional area. Furthermore, we separate out the dynamic-load settlement of runway No. 2 and confirm the settlements caused by dynamic load. This study provides new ideas for studying deformation in similar fields, and technical references for the future construction of Shenzhen Airport.

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Nieves, Jeremiah J., Maksym Bondarenko, Alessandro Sorichetta, Jessica E. Steele, David Kerr, Alessandra Carioli, Forrest R. Stevens, Andrea E. Gaughan, and Andrew J. Tatem. "Predicting Near-Future Built-Settlement Expansion Using Relative Changes in Small Area Populations." Remote Sensing 12, no. 10 (May 12, 2020): 1545. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs12101545.

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Advances in the availability of multi-temporal, remote sensing-derived global built-/human-settlements datasets can now provide globally consistent definitions of “human-settlement” at unprecedented spatial fineness. Yet, these data only provide a time-series of past extents and urban growth/expansion models have not had parallel advances at high-spatial resolution. Here our goal was to present a globally applicable predictive modelling framework, as informed by a short, preceding time-series of built-settlement extents, capable of producing annual, near-future built-settlement extents. To do so, we integrated a random forest, dasymetric redistribution, and autoregressive temporal models with open and globally available subnational data, estimates of built-settlement population, and environmental covariates. Using this approach, we trained the model on a 11 year time-series (2000–2010) of European Space Agency (ESA) Climate Change Initiative (CCI) Land Cover “Urban Areas” class and predicted annual, 100m resolution, binary settlement extents five years beyond the last observations (2011–2015) within varying environmental, urban morphological, and data quality contexts. We found that our model framework performed consistently across all sampled countries and, when compared to time-specific imagery, demonstrated the capacity to capture human-settlement missed by the input time-series and the withheld validation settlement extents. When comparing manually delineated building footprints of small settlements to the modelled extents, we saw that the modelling framework had a 12 percent increase in accuracy compared to withheld validation settlement extents. However, how this framework performs when using different input definitions of “urban” or settlement remains unknown. While this model framework is predictive and not explanatory in nature, it shows that globally available “off-the-shelf” datasets and relative changes in subnational population can be sufficient for accurate prediction of future settlement expansion. Further, this framework shows promise for predicting near-future settlement extents and provides a foundation for forecasts further into the future.

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Xianyong, Gong, Wu Fang, Liu Chengyi, Xing Ruixing, and Du Jiawei. "Spatial structure-preserving and conflict-avoiding methods for point settlement selection." Open Geosciences 14, no. 1 (January 1, 2022): 1113–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/geo-2022-0413.

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Abstract Point settlement selection is one of the critical tasks in map generalization, which should consider spatial distribution, spatial conflict, proximity to objects, and other factors. By analyzing the current research, spatial structure-preserving and conflict-avoiding methods are proposed in this article for point settlement selection. On the one hand, in view of the shortcomings of the Voronoi diagram in measuring settlement density and spatial distribution, a spatial conflict-avoiding strategy is proposed, which utilizes the minimum distance between adjacent settlements to weight the Voronoi diagram area to avoid local conflicts. On the other hand, in order to solve the problem of excessive temporary solidification of adjacent settlements, an adaptive temporary solidification strategy considering local spatial characteristics is proposed, with an improved novel distance-constrained Voronoi diagram model suggested and employed. Comparative experiments and related quantitative analysis on the National Land Survey of Finland Topographic Database confirm that the above methods have good effect. The conflict-avoiding strategy can effectively prioritize map readability and legibility, while the adaptive temporary solidification method can better deal with the boundary effect of settlement groups.

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Ogas-Mendez, A. Federico, and Yuzuru Isoda. "Examining the Effect of Squatter Settlements in the Evolution of Spatial Fragmentation in the Housing Market of the City of Buenos Aires by Using Geographical Weighted Regression." ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information 10, no. 6 (May 23, 2021): 359. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijgi10060359.

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The spatial fragmentation in the housing market and the growth of squatter settlements are characteristic for the metropolitan areas in developing countries. Over the years, in large cities, these phenomena have been promoting an increase in the spatial concentration of poverty. Therefore, this study examined the relationship between the squatter settlement growth and spatial fragmentation in the housing market of Buenos Aires. By performing a spatiotemporal analysis using geographically weighted regression in the house prices for the years 2001, 2010, and 2018, the results showed that while squatter settlements had a strong negative effect on house prices, the affected areas shifted over time. Our findings indicate that it is not the growth of the squatter settlement that causes spatial fragmentation, but rather the widening income disparities and further segregation of low-income households. However, squatter settlements determined the spatial demarcation of fragmented housing market by attracting low-income households to surrounding low house price areas.

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Vaishar, Antonín, and Jana Zapletalová. "To the Correct Application of Statistical Delimitation of Towns in Geography." Geografie 94, no. 2 (1989): 103–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.37040/geografie1989094020103.

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The paper deals with the problems of the delimitation of the town and the country. It responds to a new distribution of rural und urban communities on the basis of an administrative approach. It stresses the fact that the geographical research of the settlement structure must start from the objectively existing settlement system units - "settlements", and not from "communities" - administratively subjected delimited units.

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Matarira, Dadirai, Onisimo Mutanga, and Maheshvari Naidu. "Google Earth Engine for Informal Settlement Mapping: A Random Forest Classification Using Spectral and Textural Information." Remote Sensing 14, no. 20 (October 14, 2022): 5130. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs14205130.

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Accurate and reliable informal settlement maps are fundamental decision-making tools for planning, and for expediting informed management of cities. However, extraction of spatial information for informal settlements has remained a mammoth task due to the spatial heterogeneity of urban landscape components, requiring complex analytical processes. To date, the use of Google Earth Engine platform (GEE), with cloud computing prowess, provides unique opportunities to map informal settlements with precision and enhanced accuracy. This paper leverages cloud-based computing techniques within GEE to integrate spectral and textural features for accurate extraction of the location and spatial extent of informal settlements in Durban, South Africa. The paper aims to investigate the potential and advantages of GEE’s innovative image processing techniques to precisely depict morphologically varied informal settlements. Seven data input models derived from Sentinel 2A bands, band-derived texture metrics, and spectral indices were investigated through a random forest supervised protocol. The main objective was to explore the value of different data input combinations in accurately mapping informal settlements. The results revealed that the classification based on spectral bands + textural information yielded the highest informal settlement identification accuracy (94% F-score). The addition of spectral indices decreased mapping accuracy. Our results confirm that the highest spatial accuracy is achieved with the ‘textural features’ model, which yielded the lowest root-mean-square log error (0.51) and mean absolute percent error (0.36). Our approach highlights the capability of GEE’s complex integrative data processing capabilities in extracting morphological variations of informal settlements in rugged and heterogeneous urban landscapes, with reliable accuracy.

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