Дисертації з теми "Dual diagnosis – Patients – Scotland"

Dual Diagnosis (DD) is the co-occurrence of a Severe Mental Illness (SMI), commonly a major psychotic or affective disorder, and a Substance Use Dependence Disorder (SUD). It is a highly prevalent disorder with a large impact in clinical and health care systems due to the complications arising from the comorbidity between both conditions. The aim of this work is twofold: the study of the cognitive performance and the Health Related Quality of Life (HRQOL) in patients with DD. The first one, because few studies have examined this question and its assessment is of great interest, since cognitive functioning is related to the clinical course and may even be a predictor of failure or success of the therapeutic interventions. Although major cognitive impairments can be expected in DD due to the additive effects of both psychiatric disorder and SUD, a wide review of published results on the scientific literature suggest that their cognitive functioning depends, among others, on the main substance of choice, the assessed cognitive domain and the age of the participants. Thus, we focus on the assessment of the executive functioning on one hand, and on the domains of attention, memory and speed of processing on the other, in a sample comprised by subjects with schizophrenia and cocaine dependence (SZ+; n = 30) compared to subjects with schizophrenia without SUD history (SZ-; n=30) and to cocaine dependent subjects without psychiatry comorbidity (COC; n=35). Although in the last decades there has been an increased interest in the Quality of Life as an assessment measure as well as an indicator of the effectiveness of interventions in both SMI and SUD, few studies had focused on DD. For this reason, the second objective of this work was to assess HRQOL in a group with DD (n = 35) and compare it to a group with SMI (n=35) and to another one with SUD (N=35) without comorbidity. Regarding the cognitive functioning, the results showed a similar pattern of performance in the SZ+ and COC groups in neuropsychological tasks related to executive functions, being their performance better than the SZ- group. This may suggest that patients with SZ+ have higher cognitive skills than the SZ- ones. Therefore, the SZ+ patients may be a subgroup of SZ with lower biological vulnerability to develop the illness and maybe, a better psychosocial premorbid functioning, making them more able to acquire the illegal substance of abuse. In the domains of attention, memory and speed of processing, the COC group performed better than both SZ+ and SZ- groups, without differences between them. However, the age was negative related to the cognitive performance in the SZ+ group. So, the older SZ+ showed worse cognitive functioning. Otherwise, the SZ- patients showed a stable cognitive functioining regardless of the age. This, in agreement with the idea of an additional cognitive impairment to the psychiatric disorder manifested in older SZ+ patients because of the long term expression of the neurotoxic consequences of consumption. Concerning HRQOL, all the groups showed lower scores compared with the normative Spanish data. The DD group showed the worst scoring in most of assessed scales and in the mental domain, while the SUD group obtained the best, and the SMI obtained intermediate scores. The worse state in the mental domain appeared strongly related to the number of suicide attempts, daily intake of medication and to the caffeine consumption, only in the DD group. The systematic assessment of the HRQOL status could be a useful tool in the detection of specific care areas, helping to improve the treatment goals as well as an assessment measure of the effectiveness of interventions applied to DD patients. Overall, our results suggest particular characteristics in subjects with DD regarding cognitive performance and HRQOL status, which make them different to the subjects with SMI and SUD. This demonstrates the interest to study DD as a specific diagnostic entity. However, further research in this field, incorporating long term measures and biological parameters, could help to a better understanding of the current knowledge in DD and to increase the benefits in the clinical management of these patients.
Se denomina Patología Dual (PD) a la coocurrencia de un Trastorno Mental Severo (TMS), especialmente de la esfera psicótica y/o afectiva y un trastorno por uso de sustancias (TUS). Se trata de un trastorno de elevada prevalencia, con una gran repercusión clínica y asistencial debido a las complicaciones asociadas a la comorbilidad entre ambas patologías. El presente trabajo se propuso dos objetivos, estudiar el rendimiento cognitivo y la calidad de vida Relacionada con la Salud (CVRS) en pacientes con PD. El primero dada la escasez de estudios y la importancia de su evaluación, puesto que el funcionamiento cognitivo se relaciona con el curso clínico de la PD y puede incluso ser un factor predictivo del éxito o fracaso de las intervenciones terapéuticas. Si bien cabrían esperar importantes déficits cognitivos en los pacientes duales, debido a los efectos aditivos del trastorno psiquiátrico y del TUS, una revisión bibliográfica exhaustiva de los principales resultados publicados sugiere que su funcionamiento cognitivo depende, entre otros factores, de la sustancia principal de abuso, del dominio cognitivo evaluado y de la edad de los participantes. Así, nos centramos en evaluar el funcionamiento ejecutivo por una parte y los dominios de atención, memoria y velocidad del procesamiento de la información por otra, en una muestra de pacientes con esquizofrenia y dependencia a la cocaína (SZ+; n=30) comparados con esquizofrénicos sin historia de TUS comórbido (SZ-; n=30) y un grupo con dependencia a la cocaína sin comorbilidad psiquiátrica (COC; n=35). Aunque en las últimas décadas se ha producido un aumento en el interés de la Calidad de Vida como medida de evaluación y como un indicador de la eficacia de las intervenciones en los TMS y en los TUS, los estudios en la PD son pocos. El segundo objetivo de este trabajo fue evaluar la CVRS en pacientes con PD (n=35), con sólo TMS (n=35) y con sólo TUS (n=35). Los resultados del rendimiento cognitivo mostraron un patrón de actuación similar en los grupos SZ+ y COC en tareas neuropsicológicas dependientes del funcionamiento ejecutivo, siendo el rendimiento de ambos grupos mejor que el del grupo SZ-. Esto podría sugerir que los pacientes SZ+ poseen mayores habilidades cognitivas que los SZ-, y por tanto, pudiendo ser un subgrupo de SZ con menor vulnerabilidad biológica a desarrollar la enfermedad, presentando mayores habilidades ejecutivas y quizás, un mejor funcionamiento psicosocial premórbido que les haría más hábiles para adquirir las sustancias ilegales. En los dominios de atención, memoria y velocidad del procesamiento de la información, el grupo COC presentó un mejor rendimiento que los grupos SZ+ y SZ-, los cuáles no presentaron diferencias entre ellos. Sin embargo, la edad mostró una asociación negativa con la ejecución cognitiva en el grupo SZ+, los pacientes de mayor edad mostraban peor rendimiento cognitivo. En cambio, el grupo SZ- presentaba un déficit cognitivo estable independiente de la edad. Esto es coherente con la idea de un déficit cognitivo adicional al del trastorno psiquiátrico manifestado en los pacientes duales de mayor edad, debido a la expresión a largo plazo de las consecuencias neurotóxicas del consumo. En cuanto a la CVRS, todos los grupos aportaron peores puntuaciones de CVRS respecto a los valores normativos españoles. En la mayoría de subescalas y especialmente en el dominio de salud mental, el grupo con PD mostró las peores puntuaciones, el grupo TUS las mejores y el grupo TMS se situó en una posición intermedia. El peor estado en el dominio mental de la CVRS apareció estrechamente relacionado con los intentos de suicidio, el número de medicamentos diarios y el consumo de cafeína en el grupo PD. La evaluación sistemática del estado de la CVRS puede ser útil en la detección de áreas de atención específica para los objetivos del tratamiento, así como medida de la eficacia de las intervenciones aplicadas a la PD. Nuestros resultados sugieren características de rendimiento neuropsicológico y de CVRS particulares de los pacientes con PD, que los diferencian de aquellos con diagnóstico sólo de TMS o TUS. Ello evidencia el interés de estudiar la población dual como una entidad diagnóstica específica. Sin embargo, se requieren investigaciones futuras que progresen en esta línea de trabajo incorporando además, parámetros neurobiológicos y medidas longitudinales, lo que puede ayudar a mejorar el conocimiento actual de la PD y revertir en beneficios para el manejo clínico de los pacientes.

Comorbidity between Axis I mental disorders and substance use disorders range from 5%--60% (Farrell, 1998; Fowler, 1998). It has been suggested that dually diagnosed patients are inadequately treated for both disorders and that they are problematic from a diagnostic, clinical management and economic perspective. Dual Diagnosis (DD) maybe associated with a number of issues including increased aggression, increased non-compliance with medication (Swartz, 1998), and exacerbated psychopathology (Tomasson, 1997). However, contradictory evidence has also been found (Leon, 1998), which suggests that patients with DD may be a higher functioning population of mentally ill patients. The objectives of the present study were to determine the prevalence and clinical characteristics of dual diagnosis patients in a chronic psychiatric population. A sample of 217 patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders was randomly sampled from the psychiatric facilities of the Montreal General Hospital. Almost half of the sample presented with comorbid addictive disorders; the most common drugs abused were alcohol, cannabis and cocaine. Those patients who had a lifetime diagnosis of substance abuse or dependence were more likely to be male, had a more severe course of psychiatric illness, higher rates of psychiatric symptomology, were more likely to be tobacco smokers and had higher rates of non-compliance with psychiatric medications. Further analyses revealed lower levels of social support and more legal problems in patients with DD, all of which may negatively impact on the quality of care for dual diagnosis patients in the clinical setting.

Dual Diagnosis (DD) refers to the co-existence of a Severe Mental Illness (SMI) and a Substance Use Disorder (SUD) in the same individual. The comorbid prevalence of these two diagnoses is very common, with Schizophrenia (SZ), Bipolar Disorder (BD), and Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) as the three most prevalent SMI among patients with SUD. The co-existence of SUD and these SMIs includes several clinical characteristics, related to evolution and prognosis, which may complicate a patient`s recovery from both disorders. However, nowadays there is an evident need to carry out studies that provide both theoretical and practical knowledge transferable to the clinical management of patients with DD. The present study aimed, as the first objective, to study personality characteristics in a sample of patients with SUD taking into account their comorbid SMI. We evaluated a sample of 104 male patients undergoing SUD treatment, considered in three groups according to the comorbid SMI: SZ+ Group (SUD and SZ; N=37), BD+ Group (SUD and BD, N=32), and MDD+ Group (SUD and MDD; N=35). Two instruments were used to measure personality, the Cloninger's Temperament and Character Inventory-Revised (TCI-R) and the Zuckerman-Kuhlman Personality Questionnarie (ZKPQ), both based on psychobiological models. In addition, we explored the influence of the SMI in the relationship among personality and clinical variables related to both SUD and SMI diagnoses. Our second objective was to explore the influence of DD in the coping strategies used in relation to addiction treatment. SUD treatment represents a challenging situation for all patients, but given DD clinical complications, we studied the possible differential profile in the coping strategies used between patients with SZ+ (the most prevalent diagnosis in our sample) and SUD only. To elucidate the influence of comorbidity, a sample of 89 male patients undergoing treatment for addiction was included and distributed in two groups: SZ+ Group (SUD and SZ; N=39) and SUD Group (SUD only; N=43); these patients were assessed using the Coping Strategies Inventory (CS) from Tobin and completed an exhaustive clinical evaluation as well. The main personality results indicate that patients with SZ+ are characterized by an increased anxiety and fear of uncertainty (high Harm Avoidance from the TCI-R), difficulties in persevering when facing frustration and fatigue (lower Persistence from TCI-R), and the preference for solitary activities or small groups (lower Sociability from ZKPQ). Our findings suggest that patients with SZ+ are the ones who would especially need strategies to manage negative expectations and anxiety, motivational strategies, and if possible, a gradual incorporation to the group therapy sessions used during SUD treatment. Regarding personality characteristics for patients with BD+, these are characterized by an exploratory activity in response to novel stimulation, being more impulsive, getting easily bored, and by the willingness to experiment strong emotions for the sake of these types of experiences (high Novelty Seeking from the TCI-R and Impulsivity- Sensation Seeking from the ZKPQ). In addition, BD+ diagnosis is highlighted by a higher level of worries, fears, tension, and general emotional upset (high Neuroticism-Anxiety from the ZKPQ). Therefore, patients with BD+ are the ones who would require a therapeutic approach which emphasizes impulsivity management, as well as, achieving the general activity and stimulation they require. Finally, considering patients with MDD+, these are characterized by being more pragmatic, realistic, having an unstable self-image, and an erratic world-view (lower Self-transcendence from the TCI-R). Taking also into account that in previous studies a lower Self-transcendence is linked to worse general well-being and dropping-out SUD treatment, it may be suggested that interventions with MDD+ patients could benefit from therapeutic strategies that aim to increase creativity and spirituality, which are both associated with a higher Self-transcendence. With regards to the main relationships founded among personality and SUD and SMI clinical variables, we observed that such relationships are also influenced by the type of comorbid SMI. Results from the TCI-R indicate that higher scores in Novelty Seeking for patients with BD+ are related to a higher severity of addiction. Harm Avoidance is only linked to clinical variables for patients with SZ+, with a higher Harm Avoidance in patients having a greater presence of negative symptoms and general psychopathology. While Persistence did not show any clinical implications for none of the groups, Self- transcendence only showed clinical implications for the MDD+ group, in which a later age of SUD onset is associated with a lower Self-transcendence. Regarding results from the ZKPQ, we observed a positive relationship between Neuroticism-Anxiety and manic symptoms for patients with BD+, and the number of suicide attempts for patients with SZ+. Lastly, a higher Sociability is related to a later age of SUD onset for patients with SZ+, and to a later age of SMI onset for patients with MDD+. The study about coping strategies using the CSI in patients with SZ+, revealed that they are less likely to employ Engagement Strategies (Problem Solving and Social Support) and they have a lower self-perceived capacity to cope with treatment, compared with patients with SUD only. Among patients with SZ+, a major use of the Problem Solving strategy is related to a later age of SUD onset, and the self-perceived capacity to cope with treatment is negatively linked to severity of addiction and to positive symptoms. According to normative data, both groups (SUD and SZ+) use the Disengagement Strategy of Self-Criticism frequently; although the use of Self-Criticism was lower for patients with SZ+. Additionally, a higher use of Self-Criticism is related to a higher daily amount of medications for the SZ+ group. Hence, the presence of DD is associated with a lower use of active coping strategies and points to the need of training problem solving strategies, as well as, abilities to seek for social support during SUD treatment of patients with SZ+. Working on these two strategies could potentially improve treatment adherence and therapeutic outcomes. In conclusion, the findings of this thesis showed that patients with DD have different personality characteristics depending on their comorbid SMI diagnosis. Moreover, the relationship among personality and SUD and SMI clinical variables is also influenced by the type of SMI. Our findings extend to the DD field previous data about personality dimensions as potential endophenotypes for SZ (high Harm Avoidance) and BD (high impulsivity). Likewise, we observed the potential endophenotypes for developing an addiction (high Novelty Seeking and Impulsivity-Sensation Seeking, which are suggested especially for alcohol SUD) in polydrug users, regardless of the main SUD´s substance and adding nuances according to the comorbid SMI. On the other hand, a lower use of active coping strategies in relation to addiction treatment for patients with SZ+ extends to the DD field previous observations done in patients with SUD only and with SZ. Our data point to the potential usefulness of working different aspects, related to personality and coping, during DD treatment considering the comorbid SMI. However, future research is needed to advance in those lines of research, as well as, to overcome the limitations of our work. Additional studies should include a clinical, personality, and coping assessment, and longitudinal measures combined with objective data such as genetic polymorphisms and functional neuroimaging.
El concepto de Patología Dual (PD) hace referencia a la concurrencia de un Trastorno Mental (TM) y un Trastorno por Uso de Sustancias (TUS) en una misma persona. La prevalencia conjunta de estos dos diagnósticos es muy frecuente, siendo los tres TM severos comórbidos más prevalentes en pacientes con TUS la Esquizofrenia (SZ), el Trastorno Bipolar (TB) y el Trastorno Depresivo Mayor (TDM). La coexistencia del TUS y estos TMs conlleva una serie de características clínicas, de evolución y pronóstico, que dificultan la recuperación del paciente en ambos trastornos. Sin embargo, en la actualidad existe una necesidad evidente de realizar estudios que aporten tanto conocimiento teórico como trasladable al manejo clínico de los pacientes con PD. El presente trabajo se propuso, como primer objetivo, estudiar las características de personalidad en una muestra de pacientes con TUS atendiendo al diagnóstico de TM severo comórbido. Evaluamos una muestra de 104 pacientes hombres en tratamiento para el TUS, considerados en tres grupos según el diagnóstico de TM severo comórbido: Grupo SZ+ (TUS y SZ; N=37), Grupo TB+ (TUS y TB; N=32) y Grupo TDM+ (TUS y TDM; N=35). Se utilizaron dos instrumentos de medición de la personalidad, el Temperament and Character Inventory-Revised (TCI-R) de Cloninger y el Zuckerman-Kuhlman Personality Questionnarie (ZKPQ), ambos basados en modelos psicobiológicos. Además, se exploró la influencia del TM en la relación entre personalidad y variables clínicas tanto del TUS como del TM. Nuestro segundo objetivo consistió en explorar la influencia de la PD en las estrategias de afrontamiento utilizadas en relación al tratamiento de la adicción. El tratamiento para el TUS representa un desafío para todos los pacientes, pero dadas las complicaciones clínicas de la PD se estudió el posible perfil diferencial de las estrategias de afrontamiento entre pacientes con SZ+ (diagnóstico más prevalente en nuestra muestra) y con sólo TUS. Para elucidar la influencia de la comorbilidad, se incluyó una muestra de 89 pacientes hombres en tratamiento para la adicción considerados en dos grupos: Grupo SZ+ (TUS y SZ; N=39) y Grupo TUS (N=43), a quienes se les aplicó el Coping Strategies Inventory (CSI) de Tobin junto con una exhaustiva evaluación clínica. Los principales resultados sobre personalidad indican que los pacientes con SZ+ destacan por una mayor ansiedad y temor a la incertidumbre (elevada Evitación del Riesgo del TCI-R), dificultad para perseverar ante la frustración y la fatiga (menor Persistencia del TCI-R) y preferencia por actividades en solitario o en grupos pequeños (menor Sociabilidad del ZKPQ). Nuestros hallazgos sugieren que los pacientes con SZ+ son quienes necesitarían especialmente de estrategias de manejo de expectativas negativas y ansiedad, de estrategias motivacionales y, siempre que sea posible, una incorporación paulatina a las sesiones grupales utilizadas durante el tratamiento para el TUS. Respecto a las características de personalidad de los pacientes con TB+, éstos destacan por la excitación frente a estímulos novedosos, ser más impulsivos, aburrirse fácilmente y poseer una necesidad de experimentar sensaciones fuertes por el mero hecho de vivirlas (elevadas Búsqueda de Novedad del TCI- R e Impulsividad-Búsqueda de Sensaciones del ZKPQ). Además, el diagnóstico de TB+ destaca por un mayor nivel de preocupaciones, miedos, tensión y malestar general (elevado Neuroticismo-Ansiedad del ZKPQ). Por tanto, serían especialmente los pacientes con TB+ quienes requieren de un énfasis terapéutico en el manejo de la impulsividad y en la búsqueda de la activación y estimulación que necesitan. Finalmente atendiendo a pacientes con TDM+, éstos se caracterizan por ser más pragmáticos, realistas, poseer una imagen más inestable de sí mismos y una visión más errática del mundo (menor Trascendencia del TCI-R). Considerando además que en estudios previos se ha relacionado una menor Trascendencia con peor bienestar general y con el abandono del tratamiento para el TUS, cabe sugerir que las intervenciones con estos pacientes se podrían beneficiar de incluir estrategias terapéuticas que incrementen la creatividad y la espiritualidad, ambas asociadas a una mayor Trascendencia. Respecto a las principales relaciones encontradas entre personalidad y variables clínicas del TUS y del TM, observamos que éstas también se hallan influenciadas por el tipo de TM severo comórbido. Los resultados del TCI-R indican que las puntuaciones superiores en Búsqueda de Novedad de los pacientes con TB+ se asocian a una mayor gravedad de la adicción. La Evitación del Riesgo sólo se relacionó con variables clínicas en pacientes con SZ+, siendo ésta más elevada cuanto mayor es la presencia de síntomas psicóticos negativos y de psicopatología general. Mientras que la Persistencia no mostró relaciones con variables clínicas en ningún grupo, la Trascendencia sólo mostró implicaciones clínicas en el grupo con TDM+, en el cual, una mayor edad de inicio del TUS se asoció a una menor Trascendencia. Respecto a los datos aportados por el ZKPQ, observamos una relación positiva entre el Neuroticismo-Ansiedad y la presencia de síntomas maníacos en pacientes con TB+, así como con la cantidad de intentos de suicidio en pacientes con SZ+. Finalmente, una mayor Sociabilidad se relaciona con una edad más tardía de inicio del TUS en pacientes con SZ+ y de inicio del TM en pacientes con TDM+. El estudio de estrategias de afrontamiento mediante el CSI en pacientes con SZ+ mostró que éstos utilizan con menor frecuencia estrategias de Manejo Adecuado del problema (Resolución de Problemas y Apoyo Social), y perciben que tienen menor capacidad para afrontar el tratamiento respecto a pacientes con sólo TUS. En pacientes con SZ+ un mayor uso de la estrategia de Resolución de Problemas se relaciona con una edad de inicio de TUS más tardía, y la capacidad para afrontar el tratamiento se asocia negativamente a la gravedad de la adicción y a los síntomas psicóticos positivos. Según baremos normativos ambos grupos (TUS y SZ+) recurrían muy frecuentemente a la estrategia de Manejo Inadecuado de Autocrítica, aunque su uso era menor en pacientes con SZ+. Además, una mayor Autocrítica se relaciona con más cantidad diaria de medicación en SZ+. Por tanto, la presencia de PD se vincula a un afrontamiento del tratamiento para la adicción menos activo y apunta a la necesidad de entrenar a los pacientes con SZ+ en el uso de estrategias de resolución de problemas y búsqueda de apoyo social durante su tratamiento para el TUS, pudiendo ello mejorar tanto la adherencia como la respuesta terapéutica. Como conclusión, los hallazgos de esta tesis muestran que los pacientes con PD difieren en las características de personalidad según su diagnóstico de TM severo comórbido. Además, la relación entre la personalidad y las variables clínicas del TUS y TM también se halla modulada por el tipo de TM. Nuestros resultados extienden al ámbito de la PD los datos previos sobre dimensiones de personalidad como posibles endofenotipos de la SZ (elevada Evitación del Riesgo) y del TB (elevada impulsividad). Así mismo, los posibles endofenotipos de personalidad para el desarrollo de la adicción (elevadas Búsqueda de Novedad e Impulsividad-Búsqueda de Sensaciones, que se sugieren especialmente para el TUS por alcohol) los observamos en pacientes policonsumidores, con independencia del tipo de sustancia principal del TUS, añadiendo matices según el TM severo comórbido. Por otra parte, el menor uso de estrategias de afrontamiento activas en relación al tratamiento de la adicción en pacientes con SZ+ extiende al ámbito de la PD observaciones previas realizadas en pacientes con TUS y con SZ. Los datos apuntan a la posible utilidad de trabajar aspectos diferenciales, relacionados con la personalidad y el afrontamiento, durante el tratamiento de la PD atendiendo al TM severo comórbido. Sin embargo, para poder progresar en esta área y superar las limitaciones de nuestros estudios, se requieren futuras investigaciones que, junto con la evaluación clínica, de personalidad y afrontamiento, incluyan registros longitudinales y medidas objetivas como polimorfismos genéticos y de neuroimagen funcional.

The goal of this study was to determine the bio-psychosocial treatment needs of dual diagnosis patients with depressive episodes and alcohol misuse. In order to achieve this goal, a qualitative research approach was adopted to gain a holistic understanding of dual diagnosis, as well as to explore and to describe the bio-psychosocial treatment needs of these individuals. This research study aimed to contribute towards solving a practical problem in practice by offering recommendations for a multidisciplinary team approach with regard to the treatment of patients diagnosed with depressive episodes and alcohol misuse in South African treatment centres. To this end, the collective case study design guided the research study. A two-stage sampling strategy was implemented in the study. Firstly, purposive sampling was used to identify potential participants, and it was followed up with, secondly, volunteer sampling to recruit 10 individuals with co-occurring depressive episodes and alcohol misuse from a private psychiatric clinic in Pretoria, which formed the research sample. Furthermore, a semi-structured one-on-one interview, guided by questions contained in an interview schedule, was used as a data collection method. The researcher implemented the qualitative data analysis process of Creswell (1998, in Schurink, Fouché & De Vos, 2011) to extrapolate themes and sub-themes from the raw data through thematic analysis. The trustworthiness of the data interpretation was confirmed through peer debriefing, member checking, as well as the assurance of confidentiality. An analysis of two different sources of data, namely the literature review and interviews, was used to answer the following research question: What are the bio-psychosocial treatment needs of dual diagnosis patients suffering from depressive episodes and alcohol misuse? The key findings indicated that persons suffering from a dual diagnosis of depressive episodes and alcohol misuse have idiosyncratic biological, psychological and social treatment needs. On a biological level it was found that patients with a dual diagnosis lead a less active and an unhealthy lifestyle and are therefore more prone to the development of chronic illnesses, such as hypertension and cardiovascular disease. It was also found that these individuals exhibit addictive behaviours apart from the alcohol misuse. With regard to psychological needs, the research found that dual diagnosis patients experience difficulties in expressing their needs and emotions to others. In this regard the research indicated that these individuals have poorly developed coping mechanisms and limited resources for gaining an improved sense of well-being. Identified areas in which these individuals may need assistance on a psychological level include: general coping mechanisms, communication skills, problem solving skills, and conflict management. With regard to violent and aggressive behaviour, it was found that these individuals are more likely to internalise their frustration and aggress towards themselves. On a social level it was found that individuals with a dual diagnosis of depressive episodes and alcohol misuse experience more relationship breakdown and less social support. Additionally, on a social level these individuals experience difficulties in coping in the workplace, as well as having problems with financial management. It is recommended that the multidisciplinary team participate in the development of psycho-educational groups that focus on the education of dual diagnosis patients regarding their needs on each level of functioning. Furthermore, it is recommended that effective clinical communication patterns are in place to prevent fragmented service delivery to individuals with a dual diagnosis. It is recommended that service delivery takes place in all forms of service delivery, including individual therapy, psycho-educational groups, group work activities, as well as family counselling. Further research could focus on the following: 1) Extending the research population to areas outside the Gauteng Province, or even South Africa, in order to determine if these findings can be generalised to all patients with a dual diagnosis of depressive episodes and alcohol misuse; 2) Conducting the research in public health care centres to determine if the findings of this study are also prevalent in lower socio-economic classes (taking into consideration that the present study was conducted at a private psychiatric clinic); 3) Repeating the study with different combinations of psychiatric illnesses, as well as substances of abuse, to determine if the conclusions drawn from this study can be made applicable to dual diagnosis in general, or only to dual diagnosis with depressive episodes and alcohol misuse in particular.
Dissertation (MSW)--University of Pretoria, 2014.
tm2015
Social Work and Criminology
MSW
Unrestricted

This study explores the dual diagnosis substance abuse phenomenon within the context of Vancouver area mental health boarding homes. The target population consisted of thirty-nine mental health boarding homes used by Greater Vancouver Mental Health Services, Mental Health Residental Services. An attempt was made to survey directors (n=37), staff (n=unknown), and residents (n = 422), to: estimate the prevalence of dual diagnosis substance abuse within these homes; look for associations between substance use/abuse and the demographic characteristics of staff, directors, and residents; examine boarding home policies; and to establish what, if any, services should be developed. Questionnaires were completed by twenty-nine directors (78%), twenty staff members (% unknown), and ten residents (3%), from twenty-nine boarding homes with a total resident population of 358. Results indicated that one hundred and fifteen residents (32%) consumed alcohol, and 57 residents (16%) had consumed alcohol during a specified two week period. Only eight residents (2%) out of a potential 358 (from four different facilities) reportedly had substance related problems during the specified two week period. However, substance abuse was identified in eleven facilities (38%), without referrence to the two week time limitation. Further, staff and directors from fifteen facilities (52%) had at some time tried to get help for a resident with a substance abuse problem. Thus, while very few residents reportedly had dual diagnosis substance abuse problems, a considerably greater number of boarding homes reportedly had problems related to dual diagnosis substance abuse. Twenty-four directors (86%) and thirteen staff (68%) were interested in receiving a workshop on dual diagnosis substance abuse. It is the recommendation of this author that a drug education program/workshop for boarding home directors and staff be developed through the Greater Vancouver Mental Health Services "dual diagnosis program."
Arts, Faculty of
Social Work, School of
Graduate

Part 1: Literature review. This review of the published literature examines the consequences for individuals with co-occurring substance use disorder and chronic mental illness in traditional treatment systems that provide separate mental health and substance use treatment and identifies barriers to effective service delivery. Barriers to effective assessment and treatment are related to a lack of integration of treatments, a Jack of networking among services, and a failure to identify and assess adequately for the presence of a dual disorder. The attitude of professionals towards DD individuals is indicated as a potential barrier. Professional education in dual disorders is emphasized and recommendations from the literature are discussed. Part 2: Research report. This study was undertaken to examine the attitudes and practice of psychologists towards patients with dual disorders, and to establish whether the acquisition of additional education in dual diagnosis made a difference regarding assessment and treatment. An 18-item questionnaire was developed and mailed to 200 registered psychologists throughout Australia. A total of 98 responded after receiving two reminder letters. Results of univariate tests and discriminant function analysis indicated that education in dual diagnosis was significantly related to better knowledge of, and practice by psychologists towards, dually disordered patients. These findings were significantly related to the successful identification of individuals with a dual disorder as well as effective assessment and treatment.

BACKGROUND: Methamphetamine (MA) use disorder in individuals with severe mental disorders (SMDs) has significant impact on clinical presentation and care. Although treatments exist, these are met by significant challenges. Notably, brief treatments for MA use within the general population have been feasible, acceptable and effective. An individualized, integrated treatment for MA use within a psychiatric inpatient setting would allow adjustment of the treatment according to individual patient needs. It is important to understand the patient needs and potential service barriers to care before formulating a treatment. This study begins to address this gap by seeking to understand the views of healthcare providers on a brief treatment to address MA use among patients with a dual diagnosis. METHODS: Thirteen key stakeholders working with patients with mental disorders including severe mental disorders and co morbid MA use were interviewed using an open-ended semi- structured interview schedule designed to explore their views on a brief treatment for MA use among patients with a dual diagnosis. Interviews were transcribed and the framework approach was used to conduct data analysis. RESULTS: Numerous themes emerged from the data. First, there are multiple risk factors for MA use. Second, this use has a significant impact on multiple aspects of patient presentation and care including individual impacts, family impacts, and impact on care. Third, although treatments for MA use disorders exist, these have significant challenges at multiple levels. Lastly, the integration of a modified brief treatment for MA use in patients with dual diagnosis would be possible if it was adjusted to patient-specific needs within the existing system and if the team adapting the treatment were cognizant of existing and potential challenges. CONCLUSIONS: The adaptation and integration of a brief treatment for MA use among patients with severe mental disorders was considered possible and even necessary if existing and potential challenges were carefully addressed.

Sleep is a critical part of the individual's daily performance and survival that is part of the primary sleep-wake circadian rhythm. Any sleep disturbance causes damage to wakefulness (fatigue, drowsiness) and can even lead to various health problems. The alteration of the circadian rhythm affects the quality of sleep, decreases the quality of life (QOL) and can motivate the development of various medical, neurological and mental pathologies such as major depressive disorder (MDD) and substance use disorder (SUD) The relationship between social time and endogenous rhythms is an individual difference called chronotype that classifies individuals into morning type, intermediate or no type, and evening type. There are numerous studies that point to the evening type as a risk factor for developing maladaptive behaviors, sleep disorders, psychiatric symptoms and mental disorders, among which SUD and MDD stand out. Substance use and sleep problems are mutual and feed off each other. Substance use influences sleep with detrimental effects, and the presence of a sleep problem can promote substance use as an attempt at self-medication. Although the available evidence on circadian rhythm, chronotype and SUD in the Iranian population is very limited, existing studies indicate a high prevalence of self-medication with the risk of entering a vicious cycle and developing both SUD and a more serious sleep problem. Substance use can also cause mental illness and vice versa. The presence of a mental disorder comorbid with SUD, which we refer to as dual pathology (DP), implies more clinical (hospitalizations, suicide attempt, relapses) and social problems compared to the presence of a single disorder. However, there is little research in this area and even less in the study of the affectation of circadian rhythmicity and QOL in patients with DP. The general objective of this study was to investigate the clinical characteristics and differences, circadian functioning and QOL in a sample of 238 Iranian male patients (38.14 ± 10.11 years) under treatment with a diagnosis of SUD (N = 81 ), with SUD and comorbid schizophrenia (SUD + SZ; N = 75) and with SUD and comorbid major depressive disorder (SUD + MDD; N = 82). Another objective was to create the Persian version of the Sleep Belief Scale (SBS) and explore its psychometric properties in the sample of patients studied. The history and presence of clinical symptoms were assessed together with circadian functioning, using various standardized instruments [hourly parameters for social jet-lag (SJL), the reduced morning-evening questionnaire (rMEQ), the Pittsburgh sleep quality index (PSQI) and SBS]. For QOL the scale developed by the World Health Organization (WHOQOL-BREF) was used. This study is the first investigation with clinical diagnoses and selected measurements developed in Iran. According to the sociodemographic and clinical variables, the SUD + SZ patients were much younger single people, with a higher number of substance use and an earlier age of onset of SUD compared to the other two groups. In the SUD + MDD group, there was more concomitance of organic pathology, a greater number of antecedents of psychiatric disorders and suicide attempts, as well as more illiterate individuals. SUD patients contributed the highest proportion of opium and crystal users. Both the SUD and SUD + SZ groups had a higher proportion of heroin users and polydrug users. Regarding sleep characteristics, although no differences were observed between the groups in the SJL, the SUD patients tended to go to bed later than the DP groups both during working days and on days off (weekend ) together with a greater presence of IT. In contrast, patients with SUD + MDD were more prone to the morning type and patients with SUD + SZ to the evening type. In the total sample of our study, the evening patients were those who showed the highest rate of polydrug users. The SUD + MDD group had the worst PSQI scores, even after controlling for age and age of onset of SUD, in addition to showing a greater number of drug prescriptions for sleep. In contrast, the SUD + SZ group was the one that showed the worst scores in the sleep disturbance parameter of the three. The age of onset of SUD and the severity of MDD showed a negative and positive relationship, respectively, with the total scores of the PSQI. Furthermore, since we did not find any interaction between the chronotype and the groups with respect to sleep quality, once the mental disorder has developed, it and its severity seem to be the best indicators of sleep disturbances, regardless of the patient's chronotype . The SBS in its original form did not show adequate psychometric properties in the patient sample, with unweighted items in any dimension and an internal reliability of less than 0.700. A reduced version with 13 items was created, which meets the minimum reliability criteria and requires less response time. The analyzes carried out with both the original proposal and our reduced one provided better scores for the SUD and SUD+MDD groups in both cases compared to the SUD + SZ group. This study highlights that a higher number of substance use and the greater severity of SZ or MDD are linked to poorer scores on the SBS, both on the original scale and on the reduced scale. Taking into account the dimensions of SBS (original and reduced), the severity of SZ was negatively related to the scores of Behaviors incompatible with sleep and Thoughts and attitudes towards sleep, while the number of substance use was negatively associated with the scores. Behaviors incompatible with sleep. In addition, in the SUD + MDD group, lower scores in Thoughts and attitudes towards sleep were related to a higher number of substance use, a lower age of onset of SUD and greater severity of MDD. The SUD group provided a better QOL than the DP groups in all dimensions, even after controlling for confounding factors. Except for Environmental Health in the SUD group, all QOL scores in the three groups were lower than the normative data for the healthy population. In the total sample, we found that the number of substance use was negatively related to the overall QOL score. In the SUD + SZ group, more suicide attempts and more SJL were associated with less Physical Health and Social Relationship. On the other hand, in the SUD + MDD group, the higher the SJL and the severity of MDD, the worse physical health was observed and the lower sleep latency was related to more mental health. Our results indicate that DP patients in most clinical and circadian characteristics –with an emphasis on sleep-, as well as QOL suffer more problems compared to patients with SUD. This highlights the importance of caring for these patients in treatment centers for those variables that may be modified during the therapeutic process. Future studies may consider our results for the promotion of knowledge in this area, with the aim of better understanding the associations between variables and overcoming the limitations of the present work with the ultimate aim of designing better and more effective treatments.
El sueño es una parte fundamental del desempeño diario y la supervivencia del individuo que forma parte del ritmo circadiano principal de sueño-vigilia. Cualquier alteración del sueño provoca un perjuicio para la vigilia (fatiga, somnolencia) e incluso puede derivar en diversos problemas de salud. La alteración del ritmo circadiano afecta la calidad del sueño, disminuye la calidad de vida (CV) y puede motivar el desarrollo de diversas patologías médicas, neurológicas y mentales como el trastorno depresivo mayor (TDM) y el trastorno por uso de sustancias (TUS). La relación entre el tiempo social y los ritmos endógenos es una diferencia individual denominada cronotipo que clasifica a los individuos en tipo matutino, intermedio o ningún tipo y tipo vespertino. Existen numerosos estudios que apuntan al tipo vespertino como factor de riesgo para desarrollar conductas inadaptadas, trastornos del sueño, síntomas psiquiátricos y trastornos mentales, entre los que destacan el TUS y el TDM. El uso de sustancias y los problemas de sueño son mutuos y se retroalimentan. El uso de sustancias influye en el sueño con efectos perjudiciales y la presencia de un problema de sueño puede promover el consumo de sustancias como un intento de automedicación. Aunque la evidencia disponible sobre ritmo circadiano, cronotipo y TUS en la población iraní es muy limitada, los estudios existentes indican una alta prevalencia de automedicación con el riesgo de entrar en un círculo vicioso y desarrollar tanto TUS como un problema de sueño más graves. El uso de sustancias también puede causar enfermedades mentales y viceversa. La presencia de un trastorno mental comórbido con TUS, al que nos referimos como patología dual (PD), implica más problemas clínicos (hospitalizaciones, intento de suicidio, recaídas) y sociales en comparación con la presencia de un solo trastorno. Sin embargo, hay poca investigación en esta área y menos todavía en el estudio de la afectación de la ritmicidad circadiana y la CV de los pacientes con PD. El objetivo general de este estudio fue el de investigar las características y diferencias clínicas, el funcionamiento circadiano y la CV en una muestra de 238 pacientes varones iraníes (38,14 ± 10,11 años) en tratamiento con diagnóstico de TUS (N = 81), con TUS y esquizofrenia comórbida (TUS+SZ; N = 75) y con TUS y trastorno depresivo mayor comórbido (TUS+TDM; N = 82). Otro objetivo fue crear la versión persa de la Sleep Belief Scale (SBS) y explorar sus propiedades psicométricas en la muestra de pacientes estudiados. El historial y la presencia de síntomas clínicos se evaluaron junto con el funcionamiento circadiano, mediante diversos instrumentos estandarizados [parámetros horarios para el jet-lag social (JLS), el cuestionario reducido de matutinidad-vespertinidad (rMEQ), el índice de calidad del sueño de Pittsburgh (PSQI) y la SBS]. Para la CV se utilizó la escala desarrollada por la Organización Mundial de la Salud (WHOQOL- BREF). Este estudio es la primera investigación con los diagnósticos clínicos y mediciones seleccionadas desarrollado en Irán. Según las variables sociodemográficas y clínicas, los pacientes TUS+SZ eran personas solteras mucho más jóvenes, con un mayor número de consumo de sustancias y una edad más temprana de inicio del TUS en comparación a los otros dos grupos. En el grupo SUD+TDM se observó más concomitancia de patología orgánica, una mayor cantidad de antecedentes de trastornos psiquiátricos e intentos de suicidio, así como más individuos analfabetos. Los pacientes TUS aportaron la mayor proporción de consumidores de opio y cristal, mientras que los SUD+SZ mostraron la tasa más alta de número de sustancias consumidas. Tanto el grupo SUD como el SUD+SZ tenían una mayor proporción de consumidores de heroína y de policonsumidores. En cuanto a las características del sueño, si bien no se observaron diferencias entre los grupos en el JLS, los pacientes TUS tendían a una hora más tardía de acostarse que los grupos PD tanto durante los días laborales como en los días libres (fin de semana) junto a una mayor presencia del TI. En cambio, los pacientes con TUS+TDM eran más propensos al tipo matutino y los pacientes con TUS+SZ al tipo vespertino. En la muestra total de nuestro estudio, los pacientes vespertinos fueron los que mostraron la tasa más alta de policonsumidores. El grupo TUS+TDM aportó las peores puntuaciones del PSQI, incluso después de controlar la edad y la edad de inicio del TUS, además de mostrar una mayor cantidad de prescripciones farmacológicas para dormir. En cambio, el grupo SUD+SZ fue de los tres el que mostró las peores puntuaciones en el parámetro de alteración del sueño. La edad de inicio del TUS y la gravedad del TDM mostraron una relación negativa y positiva, respectivamente, con las puntuaciones totales del PSQI. Además, dado que no encontramos ninguna interacción entre la cronotipo y los grupos con respecto a la calidad del sueño, una vez desarrollado el trastorno mental éste y su severidad parecen ser los mejores indicadores de las alteraciones del sueño, con independencia de la cronotipo del paciente. La SBS en su forma original no mostró unas propiedades psicométricas adecuadas en la muestra de pacientes, con ítems sin ponderar en ninguna dimensión y una fiabilidad interna inferior a 0,700. Se creó una versión reducida con 13 ítems, que cumple con el mínimo criterio de fiabilidad y requiere menor tiempo de respuesta. Los análisis realizados tanto con la propuesta original como con la nuestra reducida aportaron en ambos casos mejores puntuaciones de los grupos TUS y TUS+TDM en comparación con el grupo TUS+SZ. Este estudio destaca que un mayor número de uso de sustancias y la mayor gravedad de SZ o MDD se vinculan a peores puntuaciones en la SBS, tanto en la escala original como en la reducida. Teniendo en cuenta las dimensiones de SBS (original y reducida), la gravedad de SZ se relacionó negativamente con las puntuaciones de Comportamientos incompatibles con el sueño y Pensamientos y actitudes hacia el sueño, mientras que el número de consumo de sustancias se asoció negativamente con los Comportamientos incompatibles con el sueño. Además, en el grupo TUS+TDM las puntuaciones más bajas en Pensamientos y actitudes hacia el sueño se relacionaron con un mayor número de consumo de sustancias, menor edad de inicio del TUS y mayor gravedad del TDM. El grupo SUD aportó una mejor CV que los grupos con PD en todas las dimensiones, incluso tras controlar los factores de confusión. A excepción de la Salud ambiental en el grupo TUS, todas las puntuaciones de CV en los tres grupos fueron inferiores a los datos normativos de la población sana. En la muestra total, encontramos que el número de consumo de sustancias se relacionó negativamente con la puntuación general de CV. En el grupo TUS+SZ, más intentos de suicidio y más SJL se asociaron a una menos Salud física y Relación social. En cambio, en el grupo TUS+TDM, a mayor JLS y gravedad del TDM se observó peor Salud física y la menor latencia del sueño se relacionaba con más Salud psíquica. Nuestros resultados indican que los pacientes con PD en la mayoría de las características clínicas y circadianas –con énfasis en el sueño-, así como la CV sufren más problemas en comparación con los pacientes con TUS. Ello resalta la importancia de la atención a estos pacientes en los centros de tratamiento de aquellas variables que puedan ser modificadas durante el proceso terapéutico. Los estudios futuros pueden considerar nuestros resultados para la promoción del conocimiento en este ámbito, con el objetivo de comprender mejor las asociaciones entre variables y superar las limitaciones del presente trabajo con la finalidad última de diseñar tratamientos mejores y más efectivos.

Bakgrund: Att ha ett substansbrukssyndrom samtidigt som en annan psykiatrisk sjukdom benämns dubbeldiagnos. Att ha en dubbeldiagnos är förknippat med sämre prognos och svårare återhämtning. Hur dubbeldiagnospatienter har uppfattat sin återhämtning och om kulturella aktiviteter kan ha påverkat återhämtningen har inte berörts mycket i tidigare forskning. Därför ansågs det viktigt att genomföra denna studie. Syfte: Att belysa patienters med dubbeldiagnos upplevelser av att delta i kulturella aktiviteter och dess påverkan på återhämtningen. Metod: En kvalitativ intervjustudie genomfördes med 12 dubbeldiagnospatienter som alla hade deltagit i kulturella aktiviteter. En innehållsanalys genomfördes med stöd av Burnard (1991) och Berg (2004). Resultat: Analysen resulterade i temat ”Bättre psykiskt hälsa genom gemenskapens kraft”. Temat var övergripande för samtliga fem kategorier ”Att våga ta steget”, ”att få känna samhörighet och gemenskap”, ”positiva känslor i ett tryggt sammanhang”, ”att våga vara sig själv” och ”försöka bryta sina gränser”. Resultatet visar att den psykiska hälsan förbättrades i samband med deltagandet i de kulturella aktiviteterna. Genom att gemensamt lämna mottagningen minskade isoleringen och stigmat. Även ett ökat självförtroende och ökade positiva känslor var en effekt av deltagandet. Slutsats: Kulturella aktiviteter kan ha påverkat dubbeldiagnospatienters återhämtning positivt, men det som hade störst påverkan var känslan av att få tillhöra en gemenskap.
Background: Having a substance use disorder at the same time as another psychiatric illness is called dual diagnosis. Having a dual diagnosis is associated with poorer prognosis and recovery. How patients with dual diagnosis have experienced their recovery and whether cultural activities may have affected the recovery has not been mentioned much in previous research. Therefore, it was considered important to conduct this study. Objective: To illustrate dualdiagnosis patients experiences of participating in cultural activities and their impact on the recovery. Method: A qualitative interview study was conducted with 12 patients with dual diagnoses who had all participated in the cultural activities. A content analysis was carried out with the support of Burnard (1991) and Berg (2004). Results: The analysis resulted in the theme "Improved mental health through the power of the community". The theme was general for all five categories. “To dare to take a step”, “feel togetherness and solidarity”, “positive emotions in a safe context”, “to dare to be yourself” and “try to break boundaries”. The results show that mental health improved when participating in cultural activities. Leaving the reception together reduced the isolation and stigma. Increased self-confidence and increased positive feelings were also an effect of participating. Conclusion: Cultural activities may have positive effects on the recovery of patients with dual diagnoses, but the greatest impact was the feeling of belonging to a community.

The purpose of this study was to investigate how women's perceptions of the helpfulness of services received at a substance abuse treatment clinic affected their compliance with the treatment program. The study surveyed thirty-two women who were receiving treatment from Inland Behavioral and Health Services. The study investigated the efficacy of these elements: parenting classes, health classes, substance abuse therapy groups, group therapy, drug screening, health clinics, Narcotics Anonymous meetings, Dual Diagnosis Anonymous meetings, Alcoholics Anonymous meetings, homeless support services, individual therapy, case managers, daycare, transportation.

Thesis (MPhil (Sociology and Social Anthropology))--University of Stellenbosch, 2009.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: South Africa has transformed its mental health service provision from in-hospital care to community-based rehabilitation. Although the idea is sound, the process places the caregiving families under an immense pressure. The aim of this study was to explore the impact that the de-institutionalisation process has had on the families as they care for their child with intellectual disability. The study was conducted by means of qualitative, unstructured interviews with families that have had a child de-institutionalised from Alexandra Hospital in the Western Cape. All of the patients were diagnosed with a dual diagnosis of intellectual disability and mental illness. Even though the patients were in group-homes or attended a day care centre, final responsibility for the patients lay with the parents. Three main themes emerged from the interviews that describe the impact of deinstitutionalisation, viz. the characteristics of the family member with intellectual disability (aggressive, abusive and self-destructive behaviour of the patient), the effect that these characteristics had on the family (marital stress and health risks to the care giver), and community and resource factors. The study placed the family central to its environment and discussed the impact deinstitutionalisation had on its environment as a whole. It was concluded that the burden that de-institutionalisation places on the families far exceeded their ability to cope with these circumstances. This status quo could be improved if adequate resources and skills are given to families prior to de-institutional
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: In Suid-Afrika is geestesgesondheidsorg van hospitaliserende na gemeenskapsgebaseerde rehabilitasie, omskep. Terwyl hierdie stap wel as lewensvatbaar mag voorkom, plaas die proses ‘n hewige las op die sorggewende gesin. Die doel van hierdie studie was om die omvang van die impak hiervan op ‘n gesin met ’n lid met intellektuele gestremdheid en psiegiatriese siekte, te bepaal – nadat so ‘n pasient uit die inrigting ontslaan is. Die ondersoek is uitgevoer by wyse van kwalitatiewe, ongestruktureerde onderhoude met gesinne wie se lede met die diagnose uitgeplaas is deur die Alexandra Hospitaal in die Wes-Kaap. Elkeen van die pasïente is gediagnoseer met ernstige intellektuele gestremdheid, asook bykomende gedragsafwykings. Ten spyte van die feit dat die betrokke pasïente deur groepshuise of dagsorg eenhede versorg word, bly hulle hul ouers se verantwoordelikheid. Drie temas het ontstaan wat die impak van ontslag uit die inrigting omskryf, te wete die karaktertrekke van die gestremde gesinslid (aggressie, misbruikende en vernielsugtige gedrag van die pasïent), die effek van hierdie karaktertrekke op die gesin (stres op die huwelik en potensiële gesondheidsrisiko wat dit vir die versorger inhou), en die gemeenskap en ondersteunende faktore. Tydens die ondersoek is die gesin sentraal geplaas ten opsigte van die omgewing. Die impak van ontslag van die gediagnoseerde pasïent uit die inrigting op die omgewing as geheel, word bespreek. Daar is tot die slotsom gekom dat die vermoë van die gesin wat die las moet dra as gevolg van die ontslag, ver oorspan word. Hierdie toedrag van sake sou egter verlig kon word indien toereikende hulpbronne en vaardighede aan sulke gesinne beskikbaar gestel word alvorens so ‘n pasïent ontslaan is.