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1
Banasik, Mirosław. "Znaczenie odstraszania strategicznego dla bezpieczeństwa międzynarodowego." Przegląd Wschodnioeuropejski 12, no. 1 (September 24, 2021): 165–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.31648/pw.6467.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The aim of the article was to clarify the essence of the strategic deterrence and to characterize the deterrent mechanisms used to shape international security. The article explains the nature of the deterrent and mechanisms to guarantee international security. It presents the genesis of deterrence and characterizes its evolution. It also indicates the need for changes in the theory and practice of deterrence. As a result of the studies, it has been established that, nowadays, thanks to the complementary use of hard and soft power, strategic deterrence has a multi-faceted character and its importance for international relations is increasing. It is closely linked to diplomacy and constitutes a mechanism, by means of which the foreign political interests of states are realized and the international security order is shaped.
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Nye, Joseph S. "Deterrence and Dissuasion in Cyberspace." International Security 41, no. 3 (January 2017): 44–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/isec_a_00266.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Understanding deterrence and dissuasion in cyberspace is often difficult because our minds are captured by Cold War images of massive retaliation to a nuclear attack by nuclear means. The analogy to nuclear deterrence is misleading, however, because many aspects of cyber behavior are more like other behaviors, such as crime, that states try (imperfectly) to deter. Preventing harm in cyberspace involves four complex mechanisms: threats of punishment, denial, entanglement, and norms. Even when punishment is used, deterrent threats need not be limited to cyber responses, and they may address general behavior as well as specific acts. Cyber threats are plentiful, often ambiguous, and difficult to attribute. Problems of attribution are said to limit deterrence and dissuasion in the cyber domain, but three of the major means—denial by defense, entanglement, and normative taboos—are not strongly hindered by the attribution problem. The effectiveness of different mechanisms depends on context, and the question of whether deterrence works in cyberspace depends on “who and what.” Not all cyberattacks are of equal importance; not all can be deterred; and not all rise to the level of significant national security threats. The lesson for policymakers is to focus on the most important attacks and to understand the context in which such attacks may occur and the full range of mechanisms available to prevent them.
3
Abdulridha, Jaafar Naser, Qusay Ali Abbas, and Salwan Jaber Hashim. "The philosophy of private deterrence in the penal code." Cuestiones Políticas 38, Especial II (December 8, 2020): 141–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.46398/cuestpol.382e.10.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The aim of article was to discuss the philosophy of private deterrence under Iraq's penal code. The methodology adopted was the inductive approach, which helps to extrapolate legal texts with this study and the jurisprudence of legal jurists. The Legislator applies to the threat with punishment the harm and pain that will be inflicted on them if the crime is eaten by law, what is known as public deterrence speech. For its part, the special deterrent will be responsible for reforming the meaning and morality of the offender, following various means provided by the legislature and designing a method of education of the deprived of liberty, allowing them the voluntary work determined by the conditions of each penance conditions or even by the subsequent formal and informal reintegration mechanisms of ex-convictions. It is concluded that these methods and others can contribute significantly to the achievement of the deterrence objectives, which is to reform and evaluate the offender's conduct according to criminal gravity on a case-by-case basis.
4
Giardini, Francesca. "Deterrence and transmission as mechanisms ensuring reliability of gossip." Cognitive Processing 13, S2 (October 9, 2011): 465–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10339-011-0421-0.
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Nkundabanyanga, Stephen Korutaro, Gorettie Kyeyune Nakyeyune, and Moses Muhwezi. "Management mechanisms, deterrence measures and public finance regulatory compliance in Uganda." Journal of Public Budgeting, Accounting & Financial Management 31, no. 2 (June 3, 2019): 178–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/jpbafm-02-2018-0008.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Purpose Despite the advancement of the assumptions of agency and institutional theories whereby monitoring structures and controls form the basis of management, inadequate public finance regulatory compliance among public entities has continued to be a challenge. The purpose of this paper is to examine how to break out of the apparent cycle of failures to comply with public finance regulations. Design/methodology/approach A cross-sectional study that integrates two approaches (cooperative and coercive models) drawing from the view that in central government agencies, there may be stewards and also agents motivated by self-interest, suggesting that the most promising framework is that which renders the traditional ways of achieving regulatory compliance to be supplemented with the stewardship model. Thus, the authors focus on four variables: management mechanisms, ethical climate, deterrence measures and public finance regulatory compliance all drawn from agency, institutional and stewardship theories. The authors collect data from 67 central government agencies in Uganda using a structured questionnaire. Findings The authors find that management mechanisms dimensions of leadership support and organisational commitment significantly associate with public finance regulatory compliance and so too are deterrence measures particularly oversight organs, penalties and procedural justices. Research limitations/implications Public finance regulatory compliance can be improved through management mechanisms and deterrence measures. Originality/value The study generates empirical evidence on the applicability of stewardship theory in the management of public entities for regulatory compliance
6
Abrams, David S. "Estimating the Deterrent Effect of Incarceration Using Sentencing Enhancements." American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 4, no. 4 (October 1, 2012): 32–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/app.4.4.32.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Increasing criminal sanctions may reduce crime through two primary mechanisms: deterrence and incapacitation. Disentangling their effects is crucial for optimal policy setting. I use sentence enhancements due to the introduction of state add-on gun laws to isolate the deterrent effect of incarceration. Using cross-state variation in the timing of law passage dates, I find that the average add-on gun law results in a roughly 5 percent decline in gun robberies within the first 3 years. This result is robust to a number of specification tests and does not appear to be associated with large spillovers to other types of crime. (JEL K14, K42)
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Khrishkevich, Tatiana. "Modern Germany in the architecture of NATO's nuclear deterrence." Russia and America in the 21st Century, no. 4 (2021): 0. http://dx.doi.org/10.18254/s207054760017960-3.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The article discusses the features of the participation of the Federal Republic of Germany in the NATO nuclear deterrence system. The main attention is paid to two key levels of nuclear participation - technical, related to the deployment of American missiles at German air bases, and political, consisting of state cooperation in disarmament programs. The objectives and mechanisms of nuclear participation, the attitude of leading political parties to the problem of nuclear deterrence within NATO, including the content of coalition agreements and election programs are analyzed. It is noted that there are currently no operational reasons why there is still a need for military participation in nuclear deterrence. The conclusion is made about the predominantly political grounds for Germany's participation in NATO.
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Hong, Yuxiang, and Mengyi Xu. "Autonomous Motivation and Information Security Policy Compliance." Journal of Organizational and End User Computing 33, no. 6 (November 2021): 1–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/joeuc.20211101.oa9.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Many existing studies focus on the effect of external influence mechanisms (e.g., deterrence) impacting information security policy compliance (ISPC). This study explores the formation of ISPC from an autonomous motivation perspective, based on social exchange theory and self-determination theory. Data were gathered by conducting a survey of 261 employees, with hierarchical regression analysis being used to test our hypotheses.The results indicated the following: First, job satisfaction and personal responsibility positively impact ISPC. Second, job satisfaction perceived by employees is positively linked to personal responsibility, where deterrence severity has a negative moderating effect on this relationship. Finally, personal responsibility mediates the relationship between job satisfaction and ISPC. This study suggests that organizational support should focus on promoting perceived self-determination of employees, and that deterrence should be maintained at a moderate level to adapt to the organization's security strategy and information security environment.
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P. Harmon, Jason, and D. A. Andow. "Behavioral mechanisms underlying ants? density-dependent deterrence of aphid-eating predators." Oikos 116, no. 6 (June 2007): 1030–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.2007.0030-1299.15578.x.
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P. Harmon, Jason, and D. A. Andow. "Behavioral mechanisms underlying ants’ density-dependent deterrence of aphid-eating predators." Oikos 116, no. 6 (June 2007): 1030–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.0030-1299.2007.15578.x.
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Dootson, Paula, Kim A. Johnston, Ian Lings, and Amanda Beatson. "Tactics to deter deviant consumer behavior: a research agenda." Journal of Consumer Marketing 35, no. 6 (September 10, 2018): 577–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/jcm-10-2015-1575.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Purpose Deviant consumer behavior (DCB) has serious negative effects on organizations, employees and other customers. While research to date has largely focused on understanding why consumers engage in deviant behaviors, less focus has been placed on exploring how to deter them. This paper aims to shift the conversation from research exploring why consumers engage in deviant behaviors to understanding how DCB could be deterred. Design/methodology/approach In this conceptual paper, a research agenda of deterrence tactics is provided with associated propositions to guide future research in the field of DCB. Findings A deterrence–neutralization–behavior (DNB) framework is proposed to underpin the seven deterrence tactics outlined in this research agenda. The DNB framework illustrates the positive relationship between neutralization techniques and engagement in DCB, because the techniques reduce the level of cognitive dissonance associated with performing a deviant act beyond an individual’s deviance threshold. The framework adds a new proposed moderating role of deterrence tactics. Deterrence tactics are mechanisms that will reintroduce cognitive dissonance, previously reduced through a neutralization technique, by presenting the consumer with a competing piece of information that challenges their attitudes, beliefs or behavior. Therefore, the authors propose that certain deterrence tactics could diminish the positive effect of different neutralization techniques on DCB if the tactics challenge the justifications consumers are using to excuse their actions – subsequently reintroducing cognitive dissonance. Practical implications Practically, this paper is the next step in an effort to provide evidence-based solutions for managers seeking to reduce the negative impact that deviance has on the organization. Originality/value To date, research has focused on understanding why DCB occurs with limited attention on how it can be deterred. The value in this paper is in proposing a series of deterrence tactics that are theoretically matched to established antecedents and neutralization techniques associated with DCB. Overall, this paper provides a future research agenda with propositions to build knowledge on effective deterrence tactics for curbing instances of DCB.
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Dabee, Nadia. "The Health and Safety at Work Act 2015: the Myth of Increased Deterrence." Victoria University of Wellington Law Review 47, no. 4 (December 1, 2016): 585. http://dx.doi.org/10.26686/vuwlr.v47i4.4787.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
An assumption frequently made about the Health and Safety at Work Act 2015 is that the imposition of more responsibility on businesses and officers and higher criminal penalties will increase the deterrence of workplace accidents. This article argues that the anticipated increase in deterrence is a myth. In the new Act the definitions of duty-holders and their duties are broad and flexible. In theory, in the face of this broadness and flexibility, businesses who are risk-averse will over-comply with safety regulations to ensure they do not face a penalty. The new law appears to increase penalties and impose higher obligations on a greater number of duty-holders. However, in reality, the standard of care on employers remains unchanged, as do the enforcement mechanisms. Thus, in practice, the incentives to under-comply are higher than the incentives to over-comply and deterrence is unlikely to increase.
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Rustgi, Sachin, Edouard Boex-Fontvieille, Christiane Reinbothe, Diter von Wettstein, and Steffen Reinbothe. "Serpin1 and WSCP differentially regulate the activity of the cysteine protease RD21 during plant development in Arabidopsis thaliana." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 114, no. 9 (February 8, 2017): 2212–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1621496114.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Proteolytic enzymes (proteases) participate in a vast range of physiological processes, ranging from nutrient digestion to blood coagulation, thrombosis, and beyond. In plants, proteases are implicated in host recognition and pathogen infection, induced defense (immunity), and the deterrence of insect pests. Because proteases irreversibly cleave peptide bonds of protein substrates, their activity must be tightly controlled in time and space. Here, we report an example of how nature evolved alternative mechanisms to fine-tune the activity of a cysteine protease dubbed RD21 (RESPONSIVE TO DESICCATION-21). One mechanism in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana studied here comprises irreversible inhibition of RD21’s activity by Serpin1, whereas the other mechanism is a result of the reversible inhibition of RD21 activity by a Kunitz protease inhibitor named water-soluble chlorophyll-binding protein (WSCP). Activity profiling, complex isolation, and homology modeling data revealed unique interactions of RD21 with Serpin1 and WSCP, respectively. Expression studies identified only partial overlaps in Serpin1 and WSCP accumulation that explain how RD21 contributes to the innate immunity of mature plants and arthropod deterrence of seedlings undergoing skotomorphogenesis and greening.
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Dadiani, Archil. "Traditional and Modern Mechanisms of Defence and Deterrence – Georgia’s Reality and Prospects." Works of Georgian Technical University, no. 2(524) (June 6, 2022): 154–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.36073/1512-0996-2022-2-154-166.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The traditional and modern mechanisms of defence and deterrence, the Georgia’s defence capabilities and its future prospects are discussed. Moreover, the international experience, implemented reforms and practices applied to cope with modern threats are highlighted. The paper analyzes Russian-Georgian 2008 war, 1994 Russia-Chechnya War and confrontation between Israel and Hezbollah, 2006 Lebanon war. In order to support the strengthening of Georgia's defense and detrrence mechanisms, the paper presents recommendations based on scientific-analytical documents of local agencies and international organizations.
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Dadiani, Archil. "Traditional and Modern Mechanisms of Defence and Deterrence – Georgia’s Reality and Prospects." Works of Georgian Technical University, no. 2(524) (June 6, 2022): 154–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.36073/1512-0996-2022-2-154-166.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The traditional and modern mechanisms of defence and deterrence, the Georgia’s defence capabilities and its future prospects are discussed. Moreover, the international experience, implemented reforms and practices applied to cope with modern threats are highlighted. The paper analyzes Russian-Georgian 2008 war, 1994 Russia-Chechnya War and confrontation between Israel and Hezbollah, 2006 Lebanon war. In order to support the strengthening of Georgia's defense and detrrence mechanisms, the paper presents recommendations based on scientific-analytical documents of local agencies and international organizations.
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Shastitko, A. "To Allow for Cartels?" Voprosy Ekonomiki, no. 6 (June 20, 2015): 143–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.32609/0042-8736-2015-6-143-150.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Opportunities for cartels study within the context of comparative analysis of mechanisms of governance structural alternatives are shown. The correlation between cartels and horizontal agreements restricting competition is described. Characteristics of antitrust control regimes of horizontal agreements are identified. The Russian agenda for cartel deterrence is presented.
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LLACER, TONI, FRANCISCO J. MIGUEL, JOSÉ A. NOGUERA, and EDUARDO TAPIA. "AN AGENT-BASED MODEL OF TAX COMPLIANCE: AN APPLICATION TO THE SPANISH CASE." Advances in Complex Systems 16, no. 04n05 (August 2013): 1350007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0219525913500070.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
In this paper, we present a new agent-based model for the simulation of tax compliance and tax evasion behavior (SIMULFIS). The main novelties of the model are the introduction of a "behavioral filter approach" to model tax decisions, the combination of a set of different mechanisms to produce tax compliance (namely rational choice, normative commitments and social influence), and the use of the concept of "fraud opportunity use rate" (FOUR) as the main behavioral outcome. After describing the model in detail, we display the main behavioral and economic results of 1,920 simulations calibrated for the Spanish case and designed to test for the internal validity of SIMULFIS. The behavioral outcomes show that scenarios with strict rational agents strongly overestimate tax evasion, while the introduction of social influence and normative commitments allows to generate more plausible compliance levels under certain deterrence conditions. Interestingly, the relative effect of social influence is shown to be ambivalent: it optimizes compliance under low and middle deterrence conditions, but not when deterrence is made harder. Finally, SIMULFIS economic outcomes are broadly in line with theoretical expectations, thus supporting the reliability of the model.
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Holbrook, Colin, Daniel M. T. Fessler, and Matthew M. Gervais. "Revenge without redundancy: Functional outcomes do not require discrete adaptations for vengeance or forgiveness." Behavioral and Brain Sciences 36, no. 1 (December 5, 2012): 22–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0140525x12000520.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
AbstractWe question whether the postulated revenge and forgiveness systems constitute true adaptations. Revenge and forgiveness are the products of multiple motivational systems and capacities, many of which did not exclusively evolve to support deterrence. Anger is more aptly construed as an adaptation that organizes independent mechanisms to deter transgressors than as the mediator of a distinct revenge adaptation.
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Roth, Benjamin J., Breanne L. Grace, and Kristen D. Seay. "Mechanisms of Deterrence: Federal Immigration Policies and the Erosion of Immigrant Children’s Rights." American Journal of Public Health 110, no. 1 (January 2020): 84–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2019.305388.
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ZEILINGER, ADAM R., DAWN M. OLSON, DAN MACLEAN, NAOKI MORI, RYU NAKATA, and DAVID A. ANDOW. "Behavioural and chemical mechanisms of plant‐mediated deterrence and attraction among frugivorous insects." Ecological Entomology 40, no. 5 (June 16, 2015): 532–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/een.12221.
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Bates, Lyndel, Millie J. Darvell, and Barry Watson. "Young and unaffected by road policing strategies: Using deterrence theory to explain provisional drivers’ (non)compliance." Australian & New Zealand Journal of Criminology 50, no. 1 (July 27, 2016): 23–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0004865815589824.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Newly licenced drivers are disproportionately represented in traffic injuries and crash statistics. Despite the implementation of countermeasures designed to improve safety, such as graduated driver licencing (GDL) schemes, many young drivers do not comply with road rules. This study used a reconceptualised deterrence theory framework to investigate young drivers’ perceptions of the enforcement of road rules in general and those more specifically related to GDL. A total of 236 drivers aged 17–24 completed a questionnaire assessing their perceptions of various deterrence mechanisms (personal and vicarious) and their compliance with both GDL-specific and general road rules. Hierarchical multiple regressions conducted to explore noncompliant behaviour revealed that, contrary to theoretical expectations, neither personal nor vicarious punishment experiences affected compliance in the expected direction. Instead, the most influential factors contributing to noncompliance were licence type (P2) and, counterintuitively, having previously been exposed to enforcement. Parental enforcement was also significant in the prediction of transient rule violations, but not fixed rule violations or overall noncompliance. Findings are discussed in light of several possibilities, including an increase in violations due to more time spent on the road, an ‘emboldening effect’ noted in prior studies and possible conceptual constraints regarding the deterrence variables examined in this study.
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Roman, Caterina G., Megan Forney, Jordan M. Hyatt, Hannah J. Klein, and Nathan W. Link. "Law Enforcement Activities of Philadelphia’s Group Violence Intervention: An Examination of Arrest, Case Processing, and Probation Levers." Police Quarterly 23, no. 2 (December 22, 2019): 232–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1098611119895069.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The number of jurisdictions implementing focused deterrence strategies targeted at gangs continues unabated. Although recent research suggests positive impacts of the strategy on reductions in gun violence, little is known about the particular mechanisms operating behind the strategy. This article provides a descriptive analysis of the law enforcement activities or levers undertaken after enforcement operations in Philadelphia as a part of the focused deterrence strategy. The article quantifies the execution of levers related to arrest, case processing, and probation sanctioning during enforcement activities after shootings. The results show that Philadelphia achieved success in implementing the enforcement levers as intended, and there was little evidence that arrest practices were overly aggressive. The authors suggest that future evaluations seek to carefully document the wide array of levers used in concert with an assessment of community understanding of and reactions to the strategy as well as an examination of reactions of group members targeted.
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Arlen, Jennifer, and Lewis A. Kornhauser. "Does the Law Change Preferences?" Theoretical Inquiries in Law 22, no. 2 (July 1, 2021): 175–213. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/til-2021-0021.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Abstract “I would prefer not” HERMAN MELVILLE, BARTLEBY THE SCRIVENER: A STORY OF WALL STREET (1853), reprinted in THE PIAZZA TALES 32, 48 (London, Sampson Low, Son & Co. 1856). Scholars have recently challenged the claim in classical deterrence theory that law influences behavior only through the expected sanction imposed. Some go further and argue that law may also “shape preferences,” changing people’s wants and values. In this Article, we analyze existing claims that criminal and civil law alter preferences and conclude that none suggest that the law shapes preferences. We first clarify this preference-shaping claim by elaborating the structure of rational choice theory generally and “preference” in particular. We then investigate three mechanisms of legal influence suggested by the preference-shaping literature: (1) the “serious harm” mechanism; (2) the “social norm” mechanism; and (3) the “self-improvement” mechanism. We then show that each of these mechanisms operates by changing the agent’s beliefs about the attributes or consequences of her choice options rather than by changing her preferences.
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Shymanovich, Tatsiana, Ashleigh M. Musso, Nadja B. Cech, and Stanley H. Faeth. "Epichloë endophytes of Poa alsodes employ alternative mechanisms for host defense: insecticidal versus deterrence." Arthropod-Plant Interactions 13, no. 1 (September 6, 2018): 79–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11829-018-9635-8.
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Akanmidu, Oludara. "The deterrence theory: A case for enhanced enforcement of directors’ duties." Corporate Governance and Organizational Behavior Review 1, no. 1 (December 14, 2017): 25–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.22495/cgobr_v1_i1_p3.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
This article is concerned with providing a justification for effective enforcement of directors’ duties. It aims to consider whether enforcement of directors’ duties is necessary. It argues that enforcement of directors’ duties is crucial to effective corporate governance. Drawing on the deterrence theory, it argues that there is a clear link between increased enforcement and increased compliance. Enhanced enforcement of directors’ duties is essential for securing compliance; countries, therefore, ought to put in significant effort to develop effective enforcement mechanisms.
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Mulligan, Deirdre K., and Fred B. Schneider. "Doctrine for Cybersecurity." Daedalus 140, no. 4 (October 2011): 70–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/daed_a_00116.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
A succession of doctrines for enhancing cybersecurity has been advocated in the past, including prevention, risk management, and deterrence through accountability. None has proved effective. Proposals that are now being made view cybersecurity as a public good and adopt mechanisms inspired by those used for public health. This essay discusses the failings of previous doctrines and surveys the landscape of cybersecurity through the lens that a new doctrine, public cybersecurity, provides.
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Williams, Colin C. "Tackling the Participation of the Unemployed in Paid Informal Work: A Critical Evaluation of the Deterrence Approach." Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy 19, no. 5 (October 2001): 729–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1068/c14m.
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In this paper I evaluate critically the use of deterrence to tackle the participation of the unemployed in paid informal work. On the basis of the assumption that the paid informal work of the unemployed is low-paid employment conducted for unadulterated economic reasons, the aim is to deter these rational economic actors by ensuring that the expected cost of being caught and punished is greater than the benefit of participating in such activity. Using structured interviews with the unemployed in UK lower income urban neighbourhoods, however, I found that pure economic motivations do not predominate when the unemployed participate in this work. Instead, such work is principally used to help out others, or to cement or forge social networks, or both. In consequence, I argue that there is a need to couple deterrence with the provision of alternative coping mechanisms in order to eradicate paid informal work. I conclude by proposing several policy initiatives that could act as a substitute for such work.
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Wang, Danny T., Flora F. Gu, and Maggie Chuoyan Dong. "Observer Effects of Punishment in a Distribution Network." Journal of Marketing Research 50, no. 5 (October 2013): 627–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1509/jmr.12.0142.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
In a distribution network, a punishment event not only affects the disciplined distributor but also changes the attitudes and behaviors of others in the network (i.e., observers). By moving beyond a dyadic view of punishment, this article considers the effects of punishment on observers and integrates insights from social learning, fairness heuristic, and social network theories. The resulting framework of the observer effects of punishment in a distribution network, empirically tested with a survey in China, reveals two mechanisms through which punishment leads to reduced observer opportunism: (1) a direct deterrence effect and (2) a trust-building process. Moreover, two information-related constructs moderate the observer effects differently. The disciplined distributor's relational embeddedness, which motivates greater information flow to observers, aggravates the problem of information asymmetry against the manufacturer, making punishment less deterrent for observers. In contrast, the manufacturer's monitoring capability, which reduces information asymmetry, strengthens observer effects. The authors discuss both theoretical and managerial implications of using punishment to achieve collaboration from a wide network of channel members.
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Müller, Michal. "A Review of how Behavioural Insights have been Applied to Tax-Related Policy and Field Experiments in the European Union." Ekonomski pregled 72, no. 6 (2021): 799–825. http://dx.doi.org/10.32910/ep.72.6.1.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Tax evasion is a problem in every country. Since taxes are the most important source of income for the state budget, finance ministers and tax authorities strive to increase tax compliance and secure higher tax revenues. In the context of European Union objectives to monitor the effects of behavioural insights and gather information for critical evaluation, this article contributes to these efforts by summarizing policies and measures related to increasing tax compliance. This article is based on a systematic review and is complemented by other relevant sources related to applying behavioural insights to tax policy. The article concludes that although there is empirical evidence to suggest that behaviourally informed initiatives and interventions have had a significant impact on tax compliance in the short term, there is not enough evidence to draw conclusions on the long-term effects. In addition, the real motives and causal mechanisms that have led to increased tax compliance are not entirely clear. The results of the research suggest that deterrence is an important factor. Although deterrence might increase tax compliance, it is uncertain whether it has any positive effect on tax morale in general. The article raises the argument that many behaviourally-informed techniques are actually based on deterrence. In this respect, the article calls for further research to reveal the real effects of behavioural insights. Further work on reviewing and evaluating research results will also be important, as individual initiatives across EU countries are not easily traceable. This fact represents the limits of this study and highlights opportunities for future research.
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Bystryakov, Igor. "PROBLEMS OF IMPLEMENTATION OF EUROPEAN PUBLIC-PRIVATE FORMS OF SUSTAINABLE ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN UKRAINE." Environmental Economics and Sustainable Development, no. 5 (24) (April 4, 2019): 14–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.37100/2616-7689/2019/5(24)/2.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The problem issues and points of inhibition of the introduction of public-private forms of sustainable management of European type in the national economy of Ukraine are determined in order to ensure the effective implementation of the relevant principles and mechanisms in the system of sustainable development of the state and its territories, in particular in the context of water, land, forest and mineral resources. The main limitations of the system, as well as the factors of deterrence and directions of the development of public-private relations in Ukraine are revealed.
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Srivastava, Shivani, Vishakha Anand Pawar, Anuradha Tyagi, Kanti Prakash Sharma, Vinay Kumar, and Surendra Kumar Shukla. "Immune Modulatory Effects of Ketogenic Diet in Different Disease Conditions." Immuno 3, no. 1 (December 25, 2022): 1–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/immuno3010001.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Interceding nutrients have been acquiring increased attention and prominence in the field of healing and deterrence of various disorders. In this light, the present article encompasses several facets of ketogenic diet as an immunomodulator with respect to its expansive clinical applications. Accordingly, several scientific records, models, and case histories, including viral infections, cancer, chronic diseases, e.g., cardiovascular diseases, epilepsy, as well as numerous other neuro-disorders, are assembled, revealing a profound influence of KD in favor of improvement in the patient’s condition. We accentuate possible manifold mechanisms of KD that require further exploration.
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Song, Mengmeng, Joseph Ugrin, Man Li, Jinnan Wu, Shanshan Guo, and Wenpei Zhang. "Do Deterrence Mechanisms Reduce Cyberloafing When It Is an Observed Workplace Norm? A Moderated Mediation Model." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 13 (June 23, 2021): 6751. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18136751.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Despite the documented individual, job, and organizational antecedents of cyberloafing at the workplace, few studies have addressed whether, how and when group factors affect employees’ cyberloafing behaviors. Drawing on social learning theory and general deterrence theory, the purpose of this study is to test if observability of coworkers’ cyberloafing behavior affects employees’ perceptions of norms related to cyberloafing and subsequent cyberloafing behaviors and to test if sanctions can play a role in buffering these effects. An investigation of 335 employees working at Chinese enterprises establishes that observing others engaging in cyberloafing influences the employees’ perceived norms and cyberloafing behaviors and that employees’ perceived norms related to cyberloafing play a partial mediating role in the relationship between observability and employees’ cyberloafing. As predicted, we also found that perceived certainty and severity of potential sanctions for cyberloafing moderate the effect of observability on employees’ cyberloafing as well as the indirect effect of observability on employees’ cyberloafing via perceived norms related to cyberloafing. This study enriched the cyberloafing literature by revealing how observability of cyberloafing influences employees’ cyberloafing and by unveiling two boundary conditions under which the cyberloafing learning effect can be buffered.
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Sohn, Injoo. "Asymmetrical Fairness: China’s Use of Antidumping Measures." Journal of World Trade 54, Issue 1 (February 1, 2020): 127–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/trad2020006.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
How and under what conditions do issues of fairness affect a state’s behaviour? This article argues, through the study of China’s behaviour in antidumping (AD) disputes, that there is utility in analysing economic conflict resolution by means of the capacity-based concept of asymmetrical fairness. This study seeks to develop theoretical hypotheses (‘systemic stability’ and ‘deterrence signal’) on the causal mechanism through which asymmetrical fairness can affect the policy choices of trade disputants. This study also presents some conjectures about conditions conducive to the elevation of fairness concerns within government: (1) the availability of punitive mechanisms; (2) unclear distributional implications; (3) domestic norms; and (4) in-group identity. The article concludes by discussing some implications of China’s fairness concern for global economic governance in today’s turbulent international system. China, America, fairness, anti-dumping, trade conflict, inequality, WTO, governance
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Viollaz, Julie, Jessica Bell Rizzolo, Barney Long, Cao Tien Trung, Josh Kempinski, Benjamin M. Rawson, Danielle Reynald, et al. "Potential for informal guardianship in community-based wildlife crime prevention: Insights from Vietnam." Nature Conservation 48 (May 19, 2022): 123–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.3897/natureconservation.48.81635.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The notion that indigenous people and local communities can effectively prevent conservation crime rests upon the assumption that they are informal guardians of natural resources. Although informal guardianship is a concept typically applied to “traditional” crimes, urban contexts, and the global North, it has great potential to be combined with formal guardianship (such as ranger patrols) to better protect wildlife, incentivize community participation in conservation, and address the limitations of formal enforcement in the global South. Proactive crime prevention is especially important for illegal snare hunting, a practice that has led to pernicious defaunation and which has proved difficult to control due to its broad scope. This paper uses interview data with community members in protected areas in Viet Nam where illegal snare hunting is commonplace to 1) analyze the conditions for informal guardianship in the study locations; 2) explore how community members can become more effective informal guardians; and 3) examine how formal and informal guardianship mechanisms can be linked to maximize deterrence and limit displacement of illegal snaring. Results indicate that conditions for informal guardianship exist but that respondent willingness to intervene depends upon the location, offender activity, and type of offender (outsider versus community member). While respondents generated numerous strategies for wildlife crime prevention, they also listed crime displacement mechanism offenders used to avoid detection. We discuss how informal guardianship can be integrated with formal guardianship into an overall model of situational crime prevention to protect wildlife and incentivize community-led deterrence of illegal snaring.
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de Prez, Paula. "Beyond Judicial Sanctions: The Negative Impact of Conviction for Environmental Offences." Environmental Law Review 2, no. 1 (March 2000): 11–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/146145290000200102.
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This article examines the extent to which the criminal sanctioning mechanism of prosecution can be relied upon to provide a sufficient deterrent in environmental regulation. The implications of criminal law enforcement of pollution controls currently extend beyond the immediate financial burden of payment of fines and legal costs. Some of the dimensions of the adverse publicity attracted by enforcement action against non-compliant operators will be assessed (such as unfavourable entries on pollution control registers and loss of patronage) in order to determine whether they live up to the need for a real and substantial deterrent. Arguably, these publicity-based aspects of deterrence lack reliability: they operate only in exceptional cases and their impact is often sporadic. While the solution to inadequate deterrents is often thought to lie in increased levels of prosecution, this article highlights the disadvantages of such an approach and explores the Agency's more sophisticated practice of strategic litigation.
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PEREIRA, R. C., R. DONATO, V. L. TEIXEIRA, and D. N. CAVALCANTI. "Chemotaxis and chemical defenses in seaweed susceptibility to herbivory." Revista Brasileira de Biologia 60, no. 3 (August 2000): 405–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s0034-71082000000300005.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Recent studies have show that small marine herbivores with limited mobility (mesograzers) often feed on macroalgae chemically defended against fishes or sea-urchins. In order to verify the involved mechanisms of chemotaxis or chemical defense into this process in Brazilian littoral, two species of brown alga Dictyota menstrualis and Dictyota mertensii were studied against the limited mobility herbivores, the amphipod Parhyale hawaiensis and the crab Pachygrapsus transversus. These two species were studied in order to verify the action of their crude extracts in the defense and chemotaxis processes related to limited mobility of these herbivores. Feeding preference assays revealed that P. hawaiensis do not eaten these Dictyota species. P. transversus do not eaten D. menstrualis either, but consumed large amounts of D. mertensii. Chemical deterrence assays showed that extracts of these species act as feeding deterrent to both species of herbivores. In addition, chemotaxis assays demonstrated that both herbivores are significantly negative chemotactic probably due to the presence of complementary metabolites into artificial foods. Considering that both Dictyota species exhibit active extracts against these small herbivores, we suppose that the non-occurrence of these herbivore species in close relationship with the seaweeds D. menstrualis and D. mertensii may explain the defense action of both extracts related to these mesograzers.
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Axelrod, Robert. "An Evolutionary Approach to Norms." American Political Science Review 80, no. 4 (December 1986): 1095–111. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0003055400185016.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Norms provide a powerful mechanism for regulating conflict in groups, even when there are more than two people and no central authority. This paper investigates the emergence and stability of behavioral norms in the context of a game played by people of limited rationality. The dynamics of this new norms game are analyzed with a computer simulation based upon the evolutionary principle that strategies shown to be relatively effective will be used more in the future than less effective strategies. The results show the conditions under which norms can evolve and prove stable. One interesting possibility is the employment of metanorms, the willingness to punish someone who did not enforce a norm. Many historical examples of domestic and international norms are used to illustrate the wide variety of mechanisms that can support norms, including metanorms, dominance, internalization, deterrence, social proof, membership in groups, law, and reputation.
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Pușcașu, Gigel, and Dorin Eparu. "ENHANCEMENT OF THE NATIONAL DEFENCE POSTURE BY USING THE MILITARY POWER." STRATEGIES XXI - Security and Defense Faculty 17, no. 1 (November 1, 2021): 88–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.53477/2668-2001-21-10.
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The development of a national defence enhanced posture is a fundamental requirement in line with the developments of the current and possible future security environment, as well as regards the commitments made at North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and European Union (EU) level in relation with the development of capabilities and contributions to missions and operations. Romanian Army prepares, integrates at national level and, if necessary, makes use, in accordance with the law, of all available resources. While peacekeeping or peace-building operations are presented in the various defence and national security strategies as the last resort, the last option after all other measures have been actively explored, it remains in the eyes of public opinion and policy makers the first face of the armed forces, the heart of the profession of soldier. The conventional deterrence has always existed – if vis pacem para bellum. Two main mechanisms can discourage a potential opponent. The first is the threat of retaliation, also known as deterrence by punishment. The second mechanism consists in persuading him of the impossibility, or at least of great practical difficulty, of achieving his immediate objectives, thus prompting him to give up not for fear of the consequences of his action, but due to his low chances of success. The guarantee of sovereignty, independence and state unity, the territorial integrity of the country and constitutional democracy is the most fundamental task of the armed forces. It is, after all, the primary role of defending the land of the homeland when it is threatened. The most obvious expression of that is the concept of ensuring the capacity to implement defence plans drawn up at national level.
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Peterie, Michelle. "Technologies of control: Asylum seeker and volunteer experiences in Australian immigration detention facilities." Journal of Sociology 55, no. 2 (September 3, 2018): 181–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1440783318796301.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
This article documents the experiences of volunteer visitors to Australia’s onshore immigration detention facilities, and considers what they reveal about the operation of power within this detention network. While immigration detention systems (including Australia’s) have received considerable academic attention in recent years, few scholars have examined the experiences of volunteers. Further, while the existing scholarship points to the negative impacts of immigration detention on detainees, the question of how these outcomes are produced at the level of daily institutional life has gone largely unanswered. The testimonies presented here provide a valuable window onto daily life in Australia’s onshore immigration detention centres, highlighting the opaque and capricious mechanisms through which they produce emotional distress in both asylum seekers and their supporters. In documenting these mechanisms and their effects, this article shows how ‘deterrence’ is enacted through the small and seemingly innocuous details of institutional life.
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Van Vleck, Va Nee L., and David Vera. "Cops and/or courts? A heterogeneous panel Granger-causality analysis of DUI in California." International Journal of Social Economics 44, no. 3 (March 6, 2017): 286–311. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ijse-06-2015-0163.
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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine the interaction of enforcement and adjudication for general deterrence of drunk-driving. The authors present a triangular feedback model between three domains: police, courts and drunk-driving events. The authors’ deductive approach imposes no structural assumptions beyond the core of general deterrence theory. Design/methodology/approach Using a largely untapped data set for California’s 58 counties from 1990 to 2010, the authors estimate a series of heterogeneous panel Granger non-causality tests. This empirically based evidence is re-organized per the proposed triangular feedback model to objectively categorize local criminal justice systems as active, responsive or reactive (with respect to drunk-driving). Findings Our results suggest that state-level analyses obscure useful variations that empirical panel methods can now handle. The authors provide evidence that research based on empirically derived groupings, rather than inductively based preconceptions, is key to understanding enforcement and compliance. The authors provide a less confounded picture of the relationship between drunk-driving enforcement and adjudication. Research limitations/implications Our study addresses one offense for a particular state in the USA. It is an exploratory analysis. This analytical and empirical approach is new. Practical implications Our approach imposes very few a priori assumptions and requires a minimum of data series to be executed. The method can be broadly applied to a range of topics and observational units. Social implications The authors aim to expand identification of local systems’ effectiveness (or not) and mechanisms of for general deterrence of drunk-driving. The offense is one that can be committed easily and unintentionally; it does not presume anomie. The authors address general communities, not anomalies. Knowing how enforcement and compliance operate is essential to an array of behavioral externalities. Originality/value This is a new empirically based approach for analyzing social systems. It is a marriage of new macroeconomic time-series techniques with an old question, most often addressed by microeconomic research. This study uses an underutilized data source to construct a unique panel data set.
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Corsaro, Nicholas, and Rod K. Brunson. "Are suppression and deterrence mechanisms enough? Examining the “pulling levers” drug market intervention strategy in Peoria, Illinois, USA." International Journal of Drug Policy 24, no. 2 (March 2013): 115–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2012.12.006.
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Stanar, Dragan. "Strategic responsibility of the Armed Forces when making a political decision on military neutrality." Vojno delo 74, no. 4 (2022): 40–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.5937/vojdelo2204040s.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
In this paper, author aims to identify and define the existence of a special kind of responsibility, i.e. "strategic" responsibility, within the Armed Forces for incomplete and inaccurate reporting regarding real and existing capacities and capabilities for deterrence and protection of military neutrality. In order for proclaimed military neutrality to be recognized and respected by other countries, the neutrality itself has to be viable, i.e. a country that is proclaiming it has to be capable of protecting and defending its neutrality. The potential for deterrence is of the utmost importance in this regard. By analysing the impact that the assessment of capacities and capabilities of the Armed Forces done by military officers has on making a potential political decision about military neutrality, the author points out and highlights the fact that it is not only justified, but also necessary to identify and attribute strategic responsibility within the military for the defined phenomena of incomplete and inaccurate reporting. The author places special emphasis on military officers as the "managers of force". It is not just political decision-makers and politicians who can be held responsible for potential consequences of the wrong decision regarding military neutrality of a country, but also all those who take part in the development of inaccurate and distorted perception of capacities and capabilities for deterrence and protection of such neutrality. By analysing the very phenomenon of incomplete and inaccurate reporting in the military, in this paper the author recognizes and identifies two key causes of this phenomenon - the insufficiently developed moral awareness of military officers about potentially far-reaching and long-lasting implications and consequences of such actions and the irrational attribution of responsibility to officers in the Armed Forces. The author introduces the ethical and logical principle of Kant's dictum to explain the limits of moral responsibility for the military personnel, and also the limits of justification of potential sanctions for officers. The author also suggests several important mechanisms for the optimal removal or at least mitigation of the described key causes of this perilous problem - most importantly, adequate ethical education and continuous ethical training of military officers and all military personnel and critical re-examination of the institutional culture that attributes almost unlimited and irrational responsibility to all military officers for phenomena, processes and practices that they cannot logically be held responsible for, and thus there can be no justified sanctions, both formal and informal, for them. The implementation of these mechanisms would additionally strengthen and further develop the necessary and invaluable strategic culture within the Armed Forces.
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Lioliou, Eleni, and Angelika Zimmermann. "Vendor Opportunism in it Outsourcing: A TCE and Social Capital Perspective." Journal of Information Technology 30, no. 4 (December 2015): 307–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/jit.2015.3.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Academic researchers have paid significant attention to the drivers of opportunistic behavior, yet our understanding of how opportunistic behavior can be mitigated remains relatively fragmented. Our investigation will focus on the social context and more specifically on the role of social capital in the deterrence of opportunistic behavior. On the basis of two qualitative case studies in the financial sector, we will illustrate how the structural, cognitive and relational dimensions of social capital can reduce internal and behavioral uncertainty between the outsourcing partners, thereby facilitating the mitigation of opportunistic behavior. In our study we combine the theory of transaction costs with social capital theory and demonstrate how they can usefully complement each other to enhance our understanding of mechanisms that can deter opportunistic behavior.
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ALBA, JUAN MANUEL, JOSEPHINE BLAAZER, JIE LIU, CARLOS VILLARROEL, THOMAS VAN LEEUWEN, WANNES DERMAUW, and MERIJN KANT. "Searching for genes that make plants susceptible to spider mites as a target for resistance breeding." Zoosymposia 22 (November 30, 2022): 42. http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zoosymposia.22.1.12.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Herbivorous mites must have to overcome several barriers that are produced by plants to prevent herbivores from obtaining food and successfully colonize them. How this interaction plays out is determined by a set of complex molecular mechanisms that trigger physiological changes in plants to deter mites, and in mites to withstand deterrence and together these determine their degree of compatibility. We demonstrated that spider mites secrete specialized salivary proteins into plants that suppress plant defenses and therefore play a decisive role in the plant-mite interaction. To these proteins we refer as effectors (Villarroel et al. 2016; Jonckheere et al. 2016). Elucidating how effectors suppress plant defenses can aid plant resistance breeding and help to better understand plant-herbivore co-evolution.
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Trinkner, Rick. "Addressing the “black box” of focused deterrence: an examination of the mechanisms of change in Chicago’s Project Safe Neighborhoods." Journal of Experimental Criminology 15, no. 4 (June 14, 2019): 673–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11292-019-09364-3.
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Ffolkes-Goldson, Suzanne Cecile. "Corporate governance as a mechanism for the deterrence of economic crimes in the Commonwealth Caribbean." Journal of Financial Crime 22, no. 3 (July 6, 2015): 347–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/jfc-03-2014-0015.
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Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to highlight the need for good corporate governance (CG) as one of the mechanisms to combat corporate misconduct and, by extension, to encourage economic growth and development, with special emphasis on Jamaica, which not only has seen the greatest financial sector meltdown in the region, but has also seen the greatest response to the need for CG initiatives. Design/methodology/approach – For the past 20 years, CG has been at the forefront of discussions, legislation and moral suasion regarding corporate transparency and accountability, especially in the wake of spectacular scandals from the Maxwell debacle in the United Kingdom (1992), to Enron in the USA (2001), to the world economic crisis (2008). Codes have been adopted and legislation drafted to meet the concerns regarding corporate abuse, which have not only had an impact on the corporations and their shareholders, but also on a wider group of stakeholders, which includes, in some cases, the countries in which they operate. Not only have these scandals rocked the developed world, but corporate misconduct has taken an especially debilitating toll on developing economies, such as those found in the Commonwealth Caribbean. The cost of corporate misconduct in the region has included government bailouts, loss of jobs and loss of confidence in the markets. These, in turn, have had some negative impact on the development of many of the countries, which includes slow, stagnant or negative economic growth. Findings – The attention to CG in the Commonwealth Caribbean has grown tremendously in the past 10 years by the introduction of codes and legislation with a focus on transparency and accountability in accordance with international standards. The challenge now appears to be the need to link these initiatives with the anti-corruption project. This may be best achieved through the acknowledgment of the need for the private sector to play a greater role in the prevention of corruption through CG initiatives. Put another way, there may be need for an increased focus on the demand side of bribery and corruption rather than simply on the supply side. Finally, the development of emerging economies relies heavily on the stemming of corruption and mismanagement both in the public sector and the private sector. Originality/value – The original value of this paper is the development of CG principles in the region.
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Yiu, Daphne W., William P. Wan, and Yuehua Xu. "Alternative Governance and Corporate Financial Fraud in Transition Economies: Evidence From China." Journal of Management 45, no. 7 (March 12, 2018): 2685–720. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0149206318764296.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
How corporate governance mechanisms function in transition economies is a key topic for corporate governance researchers and policy makers. We propose that alternative governance mechanisms are in place to mitigate corporate fraudulent behaviors in the fluid state of transition economies where the establishment and enforcement of corporate governance legislation are presently insufficient. Drawing on the twin set of institutional logics—the institutional embeddedness logic and the institutional substitution logic—we posit that three salient types of prevailing alternative governance mechanisms (relational, administrative, and foreign governance) play important roles in transition economies because they are complementary to the institutional conditions at the time of the transition process. Conducting a bivariate probit analysis of a matched sample of corporate financial fraud cases in China, we find that strategic alliances, business group affiliation, nontradable state shares, local government ownership, use of foreign auditors, and foreign listing can deter corporate financial fraud, while foreign listing is also effective in detecting fraud. We also find that the deterrence effects of strategic alliances and business group affiliation become weaker as law development improves, while foreign listing and legal governance are completely substitutive. Our study provides a contextualized view of corporate governance that connects its effectiveness with institutionalization and the institutional state of a country. Our study also enriches our understanding of some unfamiliar forms of governance mechanisms that are in place and complementary to a country’s institutional conditions.
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García-Verdugo, Javier, and Carlos Merino Troncoso. "An Economic Assessment of Antitrust Fines in Spain." World Competition 41, Issue 3 (September 1, 2018): 335–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/woco2018020.
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Fines remain an essential mechanism of competition enforcement and should deter anticompetitive practices. This article quantifies the deterrent power of fines imposed by the Spanish competition authority from 2011 to 2015. First, we compare the evolution of fines over three sub-periods: From January 2011 to the creation of the CNMC on October 2013, since then until the Supreme Court’s judgment on fines on January 2015, and for the rest of 2015. The average fine per firm is similar in the first two periods but significantly lower in the third period, and now fines are more concentrated around the mean than before. Second, we define three scenarios – according to low, average or high values of the relevant parameters – for which we compute deterrence ratios to compare actual and optimal deterrent fines. The results show that most of the fines were under deterrent – a deterrence ratio lower than one – even when using the lower optimal fines of the lower scenario. More specifically, 80% of the actual fines are under deterrent in that scenario (close to 100% in the other two scenarios), and the average value of the fines imposed to these companies was on average 64% below the optimal deterrent fine, with slight changes across subperiods. We conclude that the fining policy of the Spanish competition authority between 2011 and 2015 should be considered significantly under deterrent.
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Torres, M. S., A. P. Singh, N. Vorsa, T. Gianfagna, and J. R. Author. "Were endophytes pre-adapted for defensive mutualism?" NZGA: Research and Practice Series 13 (January 1, 2007): 63–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.33584/rps.13.2006.3087.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Defensive mutualism in many grass endophytes involves herbivore deterrence, enhanced disease suppression and drought tolerance. According to our current understanding of the mechanisms, these defensive effects are unique features of the fungi and specific fungal qualities are responsible for each. We examined a selection of species of family Clavicipitaceae for defensive traits including ergot alkaloids and loline production and development of endophytic and epiphytic mycelial states. When features responsible for defensive effects are mapped onto phylogenetic trees showing relationships in the family, it is apparent that all defensive features of endophytic fungi pre-existed evolution of endophytism. We suggest that once endophytism evolved, the alkaloids and other fungal-mediated defensive features switched from previous functions to serve host defense functions. Defensive mutualism in the Clavicipitaceae endophytes naturally evolved through use of pre-existing fungal features after the step to endophytism was made. Keywords: Clavicipitaceae, defensive mutualism, endophytes, ergot alkaloids, loline alkaloids
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Drake, Sara. "Delays, cancellations and compensation: Why are air passengers still finding it difficult to enforce their EU rights under Regulation 261/2004?" Maastricht Journal of European and Comparative Law 27, no. 2 (March 30, 2020): 230–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1023263x20904235.
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The aim of this article is to identify why air passengers travelling in the European Union, endowed with the highest standard of consumer protection in the world under EU law, are still being denied their rights and finding it difficult to seek effective legal redress. This article argues that the principal cause of airlines’ non-compliance is the poor regulatory design of Regulation 261/2004, which has been compounded by inadequate application by the Member States and regulatory resistance by the airlines. This contribution will then demonstrate how the European Commission (‘Commission’) has responded through the adoption of both deterrence and compliance-based enforcement strategies, and maps out the mechanisms, tools and actors harnessed by the Commission to create a complex hybrid, multi-layered system of enforcement. The article reveals that enforcement gaps persist and argues that the effectiveness of the regime is unlikely to improve without legislative reform.