Дисертації з теми "Cyclage électrique"
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Sadoun, Redha. "Intérêt d’une Source d’Energie Electrique Hybride pour véhicule électrique urbain – dimensionnement et tests de cyclage." Thesis, Ecole centrale de Lille, 2013. http://www.theses.fr/2013ECLI0009/document.
Повний текст джерелаCurrently, the main embedded storage system supplying the electric vehicles is composed of Li-ion batteries. This thesis is one of the common themes of work that ESTACA leads in collaboration with L2EP. The objective of this work is to study the interest of a hybrid source composed of Li-ion batteries and supercapacitors to supply an urban electric.Firstly, an energy management strategy based on deterministic rules is developed to control the power between the battery and supercapacitor. To demonstrate the combination utility, different Li-ion battery technologies (Li-ion high power, high-Li-ion energy) are used on the sizing step. Through this study, we could propose an optimal solution (masses, volumes, costs...) consisting of battery and supercapacitor. In the second part, we have followed the evolution of capacity and the internal resistance losses of high power and high energy batteries type in, respectively, single-source and hybrid configurations. For this study, a test bench, developed for cycling and characterization of storage systems, was used. The results obtained provide the opportunity to choose Li-ion battery technology that could be the most interesting for the supply of electric vehicles
Sadoun, Redha. "Intérêt d'une Source d'Energie Electrique Hybride pour véhicule électrique urbain - dimensionnement et tests de cyclage." Phd thesis, Ecole Centrale de Lille, 2013. http://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-00980484.
Повний текст джерелаLajnef, Walid. "Modélisation des supercondensateurs et évaluation de leur vieillissement en cyclage actif à forts niveaux de courant pour des applications véhicules électriques et hybrides." Phd thesis, Université Sciences et Technologies - Bordeaux I, 2006. http://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-00979055.
Повний текст джерелаRedondo, Iglesias Eduardo. "Étude du vieillissement des batteries lithium-ion dans les applications "véhicule électrique" : combinaison des effets de vieillissement calendaire et de cyclage." Thesis, Lyon, 2017. http://www.theses.fr/2017LYSE1203/document.
Повний текст джерелаStudying the ageing of batteries is necessary because the degradation of their features largely determines the cost, the performances and the environmental impact of electric vehicles, particularly of full electric vehicles. The chosen method in this thesis is divided in two distinct phases, namely characterisation and modelling. The first phase is based on accelerated ageing testing of battery cells. Despite being accelerated, ageing test campaigns are expensive in terms of workforce and equipments: an a priori knowledge of ageing factors is necessary, either by the means of bibliographic studies or by performing preliminary test campaigns. These initial studies lead to an experimental design setup including a certain number of ageing tests. The obtained results may reveal the influence of use conditions on the degradation of batteries. In the second phase, the battery ageing is modelled applying the knowledge acquired in the first phase. Here, the ageing laws are generalised to predict the performance degradation of a battery subjected to variable use conditions. The resulting ageing model can be used to optimally design and use the battery in a vehicle by minimising both energy and natural resources consumption. Given that battery degradation occurs in a different way if the battery is in rest condition or if a current flows through, a major challenge is to determine how calendar and cycling ageing effects combine together. In electric vehicle applications, batteries are not used (in rest condition) most of the time and current levels are relatively low when they are used. The results from accelerated ageing tests which have been carried out during this thesis confirm the non-linearity of the combination of calendar and cycling ageing when usage profiles are applied to the batteries. The usage profiles are similar to the considered application: the electric vehicle. In the last chapter of this manuscript a simple but effective ageing model is proposed. It lies in a low number of equations (2) and parameters (6) and enables to simulate the capacity fade of a battery cell subjected to ageing conditions combining cycling and rest periods. The application examples prove the usefulness of this model for the development of battery use strategies for the purpose of extending their lifespan
Rizoug, Nassim. "Modélisation électrique et énergétique des supercondensateurs et méthodes de caractérisation : Application au cyclage d'un module de supercondensateurs basse tension en grande puissance." Phd thesis, Université des Sciences et Technologie de Lille - Lille I, 2006. http://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-00012169.
Повний текст джерелаEn premier lieu, la modélisation du composant nous a paru indispensable pour représenter le comportement de ces composants. Pour cela, deux modèles représentant le comportement énergétique et électrique des supercondensateurs ont été développés. Différentes approches connues ont été confrontées pour aboutir à une méthode simple d'identification, associant des mesures temporelles et fréquentielles.
En utilisant ces modèles, une caractérisation de quatre éléments du module avec un suivi de l'évolution des caractéristiques de chaque élément a été effectuée en fonction de la température. D'autre part, l'observation du vieillissement du module et d'un élément de ce dernier pour les 200.000 premiers cycles a permis de suivre la dégradation des caractéristiques (R, rs et C) des supercondensateurs en fonction du nombre de cycles effectués.
Enfin, un des objectifs initiaux était d'aborder le problème de mise en série du composant afin de l'utiliser en Génie Electrique. Les essais de cyclage réalisés sans dispositif d'équilibrage (hormis les impédances du système de mesure) ont permis d'observer une dispersion naturelle des tensions dépendant de la localisation du composant dans le module.
El, Brouji El Hassane. "Prise en compte du vieillissement dans la modélisation des supercondensateurs." Thesis, Bordeaux 1, 2009. http://www.theses.fr/2009BOR13947/document.
Повний текст джерелаAbstract
EDDAHECH, Akram. "Modélisation du vieillissement et détermination de l'état de santé de batteries lithium-ion pour application véhicule électrique et hybride." Phd thesis, Université Sciences et Technologies - Bordeaux I, 2013. http://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-00957678.
Повний текст джерелаMesbahi, Tedjani. "Influence des stratégies de gestion d’une source hybride de véhicule électrique sur son dimensionnement et sa durée de vie par intégration d’un modèle multi-physique." Thesis, Ecole centrale de Lille, 2016. http://www.theses.fr/2016ECLI0004/document.
Повний текст джерелаThis thesis contributes to the improvement of hybrid embedded source performances supplies an electric vehicle. The studied solution is composed of Li-ion batteries and supercapacitors hybridization, with an aim to achieve improved performances in terms of weight and lifetime over traditional solutions. Our main goal is to take the best advantage of new energy management strategies of the hybrid embedded source and quantify obtained improvements. A multi-physic model including electric, thermal and aging behaviors is developed and integrated into the algorithm of energy management in order to evaluate the gradual degradation of storage components performances during driving cycles and implemented control strategy. New energy management strategies intended to act on the lifetime of hybrid embedded source have been evaluated. Their impact on the performances of the source in terms of weight, cost and lifetime has been quantified and clearly shows that it is possible to make better use of hybrid embedded source thanks to a good power sharing, thus opening the way to new approaches of energy management for these systems
Eddahech, Akram. "Modélisation du vieillissement et détermination de l’état de santé de batteries lithium-ion pour application véhicule électrique et hybride." Thesis, Bordeaux 1, 2013. http://www.theses.fr/2013BOR14992/document.
Повний текст джерелаIn this thesis, we focus on the reliability of lithium batteries used for automotive applications. For this purpose, electric and thermal characterization methodologies as well as aging tests under several modes (calendar, power cycling, calendar/power cycling) are carried out.In a first part of the work, battery modeling and battery state estimation (state-of-charge and state-of-health) are considered.Then, based on periodic characterization from electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, calendar aging is investigated. Next, we proposed an original process for precise battery state-of-health determination that exploits a full recharge and mainly constant-voltage charge step which allows easily its integration within a battery management system. Our experimental results, up to two years real-life data, confirm effectiveness of our technique.Finally, we study the capacity recovery phenomenon occurring due to combined battery aging (calendar/power cycling). This final part is almost dedicated to introduce strategies for battery use presenting at the same time a thermal behavior study
Roumy, Laurane. "Study of the Electro-Thermo-Mechanical Behaviour of a 4D Printed Actuator." Electronic Thesis or Diss., Chasseneuil-du-Poitou, Ecole nationale supérieure de mécanique et d'aérotechnique, 2024. http://www.theses.fr/2024ESMA0016.
Повний текст джерелаThe aim of this thesis was to develop an electro sensitive 4D printed hinge. 4D printing consists in using an additive manufacturing method coupled with an intelligent material that is sensitive to an external stimulus in order to create movement, the fourth dimension being time. For this study, the external stimulus is temperature, and heating is achieved by the Joule effect. Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF), which creates a three-dimensional structure by depositing melted polymer filaments, was chosen for its low cost, ease of use and low waste production. Polylactic acid (PLA) was used because it has excellent shape memory properties, is biosourced, is produced in Europe and is often used in FFF. To use the Joule effect, PLA reinforced with carbon black particles (CB/PLA) was considered. The result is a heat-sensitive material that can be heated remotely via an electrical circuit. An analysis of the electro-thermal and electro-mechanical couplings in this material was therefore carried out. The first step was to establish the link between the properties of the printed sample and the printing parameters. Rectangular specimens were then heated using the Joule effect and observed with a thermal camera in order to study the behaviour of the material when subjected to three different voltages. A model based on the heat equation was used to predict the temperatures reached within the material. Under electrical cycling, a change in the CB/PLA microstructure was observed, resulting in a change in electrical resistance. A study of the electro-mechanical coupling was then carried out using monotonic and cyclic tensile tests to analyse changes in electrical resistance under mechanical stress and in the context of repeated use. The advantages of a structure with a longitudinal printing angle, along the loading direction, were demonstrated by superior electrical and mechanical properties and improved durability. Other printing angles were also tested and the classical laminate theory was applied to the 3D printed specimens. Damage in the tensile specimens was monitored using acoustic emission, scanning electron microscopy and micro computed tomography. The development of crazes perpendicular to the loading direction was demonstrated. Finally, a hinge was designed and tested for a bending angle of 90°. The printing parameters were optimised to reduce the influence of residual stresses due to the manufacturing process during the programming step of the hinge. The results showed that the temperature of the plate and the printing speed had a noticeable influence. The reproducible deployment of a hinge with approximately 80% of recovery was obtained, and the force deployed and the deployment speed were measured. The repeated use of such a hinge and its durability were investigated by carrying out ten successive deployment cycles. The influence of programming and triggering temperatures was also studied. Finally, a first approach of reversible hinge was proposed. It was thus demonstrated that it is possible to create an optimised prototype of a 4D printed hinge that can be remotely triggered by Joule effect
Al, jed Habib. "Influence de la recharge rapide sur les performances des accumulateurs lithium des véhicules électriques dans le cadre de l'utilisation postale." Thesis, Bordeaux, 2014. http://www.theses.fr/2014BORD0290/document.
Повний текст джерелаThis thesis aims to study the influence of fast charging on the aging of lithium batteries, and its impact on the performances of electric vehicles as part of a postal use. The first part is devoted to the modeling of lithium batteries with an equivalent electric circuit model, whose parameters could be identified using linear characterization tests. The second part is dedicated to the study of aging, and results in an aging estimator using data collected from accelerated aging tests programs. Then the postal usage is studied, and a power profile representative of the actual load on the battery is provided. The latter was used to validate the model of the battery in the field of postal use. Then the postal use is studied, and a current profile representative of the real behavior of the battery is provided. This profile was used to validate the model of the battery in the postal use domain. Then a model of electric vehicles is presented, it integrates the battery model, which can simulates the aging state of the battery using the ageing estimator. Finally, the various possible strategies of recharge are listed and compared, which leads to conclusions about their influences on aging of batteries, and the vehicles performance
Fernandes, cardoso Juliana. "Démarche de pré-dimensionnement d’une machine électrique pour véhicule électrique : optimisation sur cycle de fonctionnement et avec contraintes de l’entraînement électrique." Thesis, Université Grenoble Alpes, 2020. https://thares.univ-grenoble-alpes.fr/2020GRALT046.pdf.
Повний текст джерелаThe environmental problem is changing the way to see our own needs. In order to make living the way we do sustainable, new solutions are being developed in every aspect of human life. In this context, the transport sector turned to the electrical vehicle. This technology is challenging from a powertrain design viewpoint, due mainly to the system complexity and the vehicle drive cycle.In this work, we propose a pre-design by optimization methodology for the electrical machine and the voltage inverter, considering a target drive cycle. In order to do so, we develop a semi-analytical model of a permanent magnet synchronous machine and present an analytical model of the voltage inverter losses. Then, we develop a method to simplify drive cycles so as to represent a whole cycle by a reduced number of operating points. Finally, we use the developed models and the cycle treatment method in order to create an optimization problem. By using the Sequential Quadratic Programming algorithm to solve this optimization problem, we perform the design by optimization of a reference machine considering different drive cycles
Picherit, Marie-Lou. "Evaluation environnementale du véhicule électrique : méthodologies et application." Phd thesis, Ecole Nationale Supérieure des Mines de Saint-Etienne, 2010. http://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-00666955.
Повний текст джерелаCazot, Mathilde. "Development of Analytical Techniques for the Investigation of an Organic Redox Flow Battery using a Segmented Cell." Electronic Thesis or Diss., Université de Lorraine, 2019. http://www.theses.fr/2019LORR0116.
Повний текст джерелаRedox Flow Batteries (RFBs) are a promising solution for large-scale and low-cost energy storage necessary to foster the use of intermittent renewable sources. This work investigates a novel RFB chemistry under development at the company Kemiwatt. Based on abundant organic/organo-metallic compounds, this new technology promises the deployment of sustainable and long-lived systems. The study undertakes the building of a thorough knowledge base of the system by developing innovative reliable analytical tools. The investigation started from the evaluation of the main factors influencing the battery performance, which could be conducted ex-situ on each material composing the cell. The two electrolytes were then examined independently under representative operating conditions, by building a symmetric flow cell. Cycling coupled with EIS measurements were performed in this set-up and then analyzed with a porous electrode model. This combined modeling-experimental approach revealed unlike limiting processes in each electrolyte along with precautions to take in the subsequent steps (such as membrane pretreatment and electrolyte protection from light). A segmented cell was built and validated to extend the study to the full cell system. It provided a mapping of the internal currents, which showed high irregularity during cycling. A thorough parameter study could be conducted with the segmented platform, by varying successively the current density, the flow rate, and the temperature. The outcome of this set of experiments would be the construction of an operational map that guides the flow rate adjustment, depending on the power load and the state of charge of the battery. This strategy of flow rate optimization showed promising outcomes at the lab-cell level. It can be easily adapted to real-size systems. Ultimately, an overview of the hydrodynamic behavior at the industrial-cell level was completed by developing a hydraulic modeling and a clear cell as an efficient diagnostic tool
Cousseau, Romain. "Contribution à la modélisation et à l’étude du vieillissement des condensateurs électrolytiques aluminium dédiés à des applications à hautes températures." Thesis, Compiègne, 2015. http://www.theses.fr/2015COMP2227/document.
Повний текст джерелаThis thesis is devoted to the modeling of aluminum electrolytic capacitors dedicatedto high temperatures. The purpose is also to understand their ageing while submitted to realistic use. Indeed, in the case of electric vehicle traction inverter, solicitations like temperature can vary a lot. This type of stress has already been studied for active components, but not yet on passive ones such as decoupling capacitors. However, it turns out that for this kind of application, they are most of the time aluminum electrolytic capacitors which is among the weakest technology. Consequently, this manuscript proposes at first a new electric model based on a diffusion phenomena which leads to a very accurate impedance description. It permits also a better understanding of the physical phenomena involved in these components. Because of their important temperature dependence, thermal modeling coupled to the electric model is also discussed. The very first purpose is to develop a tool that is able to estimate losses accurately at every moment. Thanks to it, the controller could so change the PWM strategy in order to act on the temperature. An online identification method is then proposed with the use of joint Kalman filters which led to very good results in simulation. The design and the creation of an accelerated cycling bench is developed and comparisons about the ageing obtained after 12 000 hours between thermally cycled components and others non-cycled are given. Results show a very good stability over time of the studied capacitors (PEG225MF470Q Kemet©) either on the impedance or visually. Nevertheless a significant impact can be observed on the cycled ones
Léveillé, Étienne. "Microgénérateurs électriques à base d'oscillateurs thermiques." Mémoire, Université de Sherbrooke, 2013. http://hdl.handle.net/11143/6192.
Повний текст джерелаCazot, Mathilde. "Development of Analytical Techniques for the Investigation of an Organic Redox Flow Battery using a Segmented Cell." Thesis, Université de Lorraine, 2019. http://www.theses.fr/2019LORR0116.
Повний текст джерелаRedox Flow Batteries (RFBs) are a promising solution for large-scale and low-cost energy storage necessary to foster the use of intermittent renewable sources. This work investigates a novel RFB chemistry under development at the company Kemiwatt. Based on abundant organic/organo-metallic compounds, this new technology promises the deployment of sustainable and long-lived systems. The study undertakes the building of a thorough knowledge base of the system by developing innovative reliable analytical tools. The investigation started from the evaluation of the main factors influencing the battery performance, which could be conducted ex-situ on each material composing the cell. The two electrolytes were then examined independently under representative operating conditions, by building a symmetric flow cell. Cycling coupled with EIS measurements were performed in this set-up and then analyzed with a porous electrode model. This combined modeling-experimental approach revealed unlike limiting processes in each electrolyte along with precautions to take in the subsequent steps (such as membrane pretreatment and electrolyte protection from light). A segmented cell was built and validated to extend the study to the full cell system. It provided a mapping of the internal currents, which showed high irregularity during cycling. A thorough parameter study could be conducted with the segmented platform, by varying successively the current density, the flow rate, and the temperature. The outcome of this set of experiments would be the construction of an operational map that guides the flow rate adjustment, depending on the power load and the state of charge of the battery. This strategy of flow rate optimization showed promising outcomes at the lab-cell level. It can be easily adapted to real-size systems. Ultimately, an overview of the hydrodynamic behavior at the industrial-cell level was completed by developing a hydraulic modeling and a clear cell as an efficient diagnostic tool
Jellid, Jihed. "Suivi du cycle de vie d'un composite CFRP hybride par mesure de résistance électrique." Ecully, Ecole centrale de Lyon, 2009. http://www.theses.fr/2009ECDL0014.
Повний текст джерелаThis Thesis investigates the use of the electric resistance measurement technique in hybrid carbon fibre reinforced polymer/shape memory alloy (TiNiCu). The electric conductivity of the unidirectional carbon fibre reinforced epoxy will be treated by studying the effect of some parameters: carbon fibre orientation against current direction, carbon fibre volume fraction, dimensions of the sample… Since the most important factor which controls the properties of the matrix and of the fibre-matrix interface is the cross-linking density resulting from the manufacturing process, carbon fibres are used as sensors for the cure monitoring of the epoxy matrix. The results were compared to classical DMA technique. Another test consists in using the electric resistance variation of the SMA as a sensor for the cure monitoring. In the last part, the research dealt with the possibility to detect damage in the hybrid composite under bending stress by measuring the electric resistance variation and acoustic emission on the stretched side of the sample, and how to slow down the damage propagation by activating the memory alloy, heated by joule effect
Wang, Wenlu. "Eco-conception des systèmes de transmission de l'énergie électrique." Phd thesis, Ecole Centrale de Lyon, 2011. http://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-00627890.
Повний текст джерелаBerkani, Mohamed Said. "Conception par optimisation des machines électriques de traction ferroviaire sur cycles de fonctionnement ferroviaire." Thesis, Besançon, 2016. http://www.theses.fr/2016BESA2024.
Повний текст джерелаThe rail traction motor is designed to operate in wide range of torque/speed performance. The main aims of this thesis is to develop methods of designing by optimization electric machines over railway driving cycle. Then, to implement these methods in a usable software. Firstly, existing electromagnetic models were transferred to Matlab and two thermal models were developed and validated by experimental measurements. The use of accurate models for the optimization over à driving cycle is highly time consuming so, after identification of this constraint, some solutions to reduce this time without losing the accuracy were proposed and validated. Finally, multi-level optimization approach has been developed for electric machine design to solve mixed integer problem. This approach takes into account the driving cycle by using the methods of cycle reduction developed during this thesis
Bouarroudj-Berkani, Mounira. "Etude de la fatigue thermo-mécanique de modules électroniques de puissance en ambiance de températures élevées pour des applications de traction de véhicules électriques et hybrides." Phd thesis, École normale supérieure de Cachan - ENS Cachan, 2008. http://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-00346572.
Повний текст джерелаAinsi, la première partie de cette thèse présente les tests expérimentaux réalisés en cyclage actif durant lesquels nous avons cherché à évaluer la tenue des modules IGBT (600V-200A) fonctionnant à différentes températures ambiantes (température de semelle) et différentes températures de jonction (température des puces). Afin de chercher à comprendre les mécanismes physiques mis en jeu dans la dégradation de l'assemblage, les essais ont été arrêtés rapidement dès lors qu'un indicateur de défaillance laissait supposer une initiation de processus de dégradation.
Dans la deuxième partie, nous nous sommes focalisés sur la tenue des brasures substrat/semelle dans des conditions de cycles thermiques passifs. Sachant qu'habituellement le facteur d'accélération retenu pour le vieillissement de ces brasures est l'amplitude des cycles thermiques, nous avons cherché dans cette partie à évaluer non seulement l'effet de l'amplitude des cycles thermiques mais aussi les niveaux des paliers haut et bas sur l'initiation des fissures dans ces brasures et leurs propagation au cours du cyclage.
Enfin, pour comprendre et analyser le comportement de la brasure et de l'assemblage sous les contraintes de cycles thermiques, une étude par simulation numérique est présentée dans la dernière partie. Une étude numérique effectuée sous des conditions de température similaires à celles imposées dans la partie expérimentale a permis de localiser et d'évaluer les contraintes thermomécaniques que subissent les éléments de l'assemblage. Surtout, nous donnons des éléments de réponse permettant d'établir un lien entre les paramètres thermiques du cyclage passif et les grandeurs physiques qui sont influent sur la durée de vie des brasures. Enfin, cette partie se termine sur une étude numérique dans laquelle nous avons cherché à simuler l'effet combiné des cyclages actifs et passifs sur les contraintes mécaniques au sein des modules IGBT afin de rendre compte des contraintes imposées aux modules dans une application réelle.
Royer, Kevin. "Vers un entrepôt de données et des processus : le cas de la mobilité électrique chez EDF." Thesis, Chasseneuil-du-Poitou, Ecole nationale supérieure de mécanique et d'aérotechnique, 2015. http://www.theses.fr/2015ESMA0001/document.
Повний текст джерелаNowadays, the electrical vehicles (EV) market is undergoing a rapid expansion and has become ofgreat importance for utility companies such as EDF. In order to fulfill its objectives (demand optimization,pricing, etc.), EDF has to extract and analyze heterogeneous data from EV and charging spots. Inorder to tackle this, we used data warehousing (DW) technology serving as a basis for business process(BP). To avoid the garbage in/garbage out phenomena, data had to be formatted and standardized.We have chosen to rely on an ontology in order to deal with data sources heterogeneity. Because theconstruction of an ontology can be a slow process, we proposed an modular and incremental constructionof the ontology based on bricks. We based our DW on the ontology which makes its construction alsoan incremental process. To upload data to this particular DW, we defined the ETL (Extract, Trasform& Load) process at the semantic level. We then designed recurrent BP with BPMN (Business ProcessModelization & Notation) specifications to extract EDF required knowledge. The assembled DWpossesses data and BP that are both described in a semantic context. We implemented our solutionon the OntoDB platform, developed at the ISAE-ENSMA Laboratory of Computer Science and AutomaticControl for Systems. The solution has allowed us to homogeneously manipulate the ontology, thedata and the BP through the OntoQL language. Furthermore, we added to the proposed platform thecapacity to automatically execute any BP described with BPMN. Ultimately, we were able to provideEDF with a tailor made platform based on declarative elements adapted to their needs
Rakotoson, Vanessa. "Intégration de l'analyse de cycle de vie dans l'étude de la production électrique en milieux insulaires." Thesis, La Réunion, 2018. http://www.theses.fr/2018LARE0035/document.
Повний текст джерелаPopulation growth, the raising of the standard of living and quality of life, and energy-intensive activities are key parameters affecting the territory energy demand, through electricity consumption. To meet this demand, reliance on fossil fuels is the main adopted solution, particularly in insular context. The downside of this method is the large amount of greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) emitted, and vulnerability of the territories. Current policies are now in favor of the energy self-sufficiency as a medium-term objective, and put in place measures to support the use of sustainable energy sources to mitigate GHG emissions. This work aims to assess environmental impact of electricity production in Reunion island, to establish a territorial diagnosis. Based on a life cycle assessment approach, according to ISO 14044 standards, varying environmental impacts have been evaluated from existing power plants. An evaluating tool has been developed to identify the most emissive life cycle stage from 1 kWh electricity produced. The obtained results serve as a reference point to develop prospective scenarios. Eight scenarios have been presented and aim to satisfy environmental, technical, social and economic constraints
El, Bouchtioui Lamia. "Le cadre réglementaire des déchets d'équipements électriques et électroniques : de la conception à la fin de vie des équipements électriques et électroniques." Electronic Thesis or Diss., Bordeaux, 2023. http://www.theses.fr/2023BORD0491.
Повний текст джерелаWaste electrical and electronic equipment (W.E.E.E.) is a challenge for society as a whole, as their management has quickly become an issue that is at once economic, political, social, environmental and health. Thus, they represent a burden that developed countries seek to get rid of at a lower cost. International traffic has emerged around their export to developing or emerging countries mainly marked by legal weaknesses in environmental matters. Several international and regional texts limit the transboundary movement of waste in order to prevent economically efficient methods of sending hazardous waste. Within the European Union, a specific regulation aims to frame the theme of W.E.E.E. It advocates sustainable management of W.E.E.E. to protect and improve the quality of the environment. It aims to contribute to sustainable production and consumption, as a priority, through the prevention of W.E.E.E. and, in addition, through the reuse and recycling of materials in order to reduce the amount of waste to be disposed of. Recent changes in European law highlight the desire for a transition to a circular economy. Nevertheless, there are still some difficulties in achieving the objectives set. This work aims to address the way in which the law in force today incorporates a global approach to the subject taking into account the entire life cycle of the W.E.E.E. reconciling environmental and economic objectives. This study highlights the advances but also the persistent difficulties that society must confront
Dang, Thanh Thuy Van. "Méthodes pour l'analyse de cycle de vie des batteries lithium-ion des véhicules électriques." Paris, ENMP, 2011. http://www.theses.fr/2011ENMP0051.
Повний текст джерелаA framework enabling an application of Life Cycle Assessment approach to various technologies of Lithium-ion Electric Vehicles batteries is created. It encompasses all the life cycle of the product (Manufacturing – Use – End of Life). More precisely, a specific LCA database for Li-ion batteries is constructed and batteries life cycle is successfully modeled. Others difficulties are discussed and solved during this works, such as the choice of batteries functional unit, system modularity, uncertainties of the Use phase and of batteries' lifetime, allocation rules for batteries End of Life… A sensibility analysis is carried out and shows that LCA results strongly depend on chosen data and scenarios. Main conclusions obtained from the base case of our studies are: - Climate change potential of a battery is about 10 - 15 kg CO2 éq/kg of batteries. This amount takes into account the manufacturing and the end of life. Others environmental impacts are also quantified (regional impacts such as acidification, eutrophisation; human toxicity and ecotoxicity…). - Batteries LCA results are sensitive regarding to the choice of its materials, of the manufacturing processes and of the geographic parameters. - Materials recovery during the End of Life phase leads to environmental benefit for the global impacts of the batteries. However, it depends on the recycling process (pyrometallurgical and/or hydrometallurgical), as well as on the nature of recovered materials. - Batteries leasing scenario can help minimizing environmental impacts of Electric Vehicles park. In order to facilitate eco-conception of Li-ion batteries, a simplified LCA model is created, which reduces times and costs of future LCA studies while ensuring the same accuracy
Boudot, Cécile. "Transitions de phase sous champ électrique dans la thiourée." Nancy 1, 1988. http://www.theses.fr/1988NAN10087.
Повний текст джерелаChandoul, Mohamed. "Contribution à l'étude du cycle de Lenoir pressurisé (sans combustion)." Valenciennes, 1985. http://www.theses.fr/1985VALE0002.
Повний текст джерелаBoughanmi, Walid. "Eco-conception des motorisations électriques : Application à la machine asynchrone." Thesis, Artois, 2012. http://www.theses.fr/2012ARTO0207/document.
Повний текст джерелаApproximately 300 million of electric motors, with average power range from 0.75 kW to 300 kW, are used in industry, infrastructure and large buildings. In addition, 30 millions are renewed each year. In France, the electrical power consumed by these motors is about two-third of the electrical energy consumed in the industry. Thus, an improvement, even small, of the environmental performance of each motor would provide substantial environmental benefits. Contrary to the conventional approaches, the eco-design of an electrical machine can introduce environmental aspects during the design of the machine, taking into account all phases of the life cycle from the extraction of raw materials to the decommissioning and the recycling. This approach has been applied in this study to design an electrical motor, which has a better global energetic eco-balance. Therefore, a Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) tool is used; it takes into account several impact criteria to avoid pollution transfers from one criterion to another. A first "Green" prototype motor made with a high energetic eco-efficiency was fabricated and tested. The study was dictated by the need to minimize its global environmental impact by using materials more environmentally friendly, but also in order to increase its energy efficiency. The prototype is made with a grain oriented steel sheets, an enameled wire polymerized by UV and without solvents, some plastic based on biopolymers and with eco-energetic bearings. The eco-designed motor has a high energetic eco-efficiency; its performance is increased by about 3 % compared to the standard motor and without increasing its mass
Herbert, Anne-Sophie. "Analyse de mix électriques pour la détermination d'inventaires électricité pour ACV conséquentielle." Phd thesis, Toulouse, INPT, 2018. http://oatao.univ-toulouse.fr/19906/7/Herbert_AnneSophie.pdf.
Повний текст джерелаLi, Guangjin. "Contribution à la conception des machines électriques à rotor passif pour des applications critiques : modélisations électromagnétiques et thermiques sur cycle de fonctionnement, étude du fonctionnement en mode dégradé." Phd thesis, École normale supérieure de Cachan - ENS Cachan, 2011. http://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-00618236.
Повний текст джерелаPerrin, Marion. "Contribution à l'amélioration des batteries au plomb fermées pour l'application au véhicule électrique." Nancy 1, 2001. http://docnum.univ-lorraine.fr/public/SCD_T_2001_0185_PERRIN.pdf.
Повний текст джерелаSabbah, Wissam. "Contribution à l’étude des assemblages et connexions nécessaires à la réalisation d’un module de puissance haute température à base de jfet en carbure de silicium (SiC)." Thesis, Bordeaux 1, 2013. http://www.theses.fr/2013BOR12013/document.
Повний текст джерелаThe development of power components based on silicon carbide (SiC) allows for the design of power converter operating at high temperature (above 200 or 300°C). SiC is a semiconductor material with a large band gap that not only can operate in temperatures exceeding 300°C but also offers fast switching speed, high voltage blocking capability and higher thermal conductivity compared to silicon technology components. The classical die attach technology uses high temperature solder alloys which melt at around 300°C. However, even a soldered die attach with such high melting point can only operate up to a much lower temperature. Alternative die attach solutions have recently been proposed: Transient Liquid Phase Bonding, soldering with higher melting point alloys such as ZnSn, or silver sintering.Silver sintering is a very interesting technology, as silver offers very good thermal conductivity (429W/m.K, better than copper), relatively inexpensive (compared to alternative solutions which often use gold), and has a very high melting point (961°C).The implementation of two silver-sintering processes is made: one based on micrometer-scale silver particles, and one on nano-meter-scale particles. Two substrate technologies are investigated: Al2O3 DBC and Si3N4 AMB. After the process optimization, tests vehicles are assembled using nano and micro silver particles paste and a more classical high-temperature die attach technology: AuGe soldering. Multiple analyses are performed, such as thermal resistance measurement, shear tests and micro-sections to follow the evolution of the joint during thermal cycling and high-temperature storage ageing
Boughanmi, Walid. "Eco-conception des motorisations électriques : Application à la machine asynchrone." Electronic Thesis or Diss., Artois, 2012. http://www.theses.fr/2012ARTO0207.
Повний текст джерелаApproximately 300 million of electric motors, with average power range from 0.75 kW to 300 kW, are used in industry, infrastructure and large buildings. In addition, 30 millions are renewed each year. In France, the electrical power consumed by these motors is about two-third of the electrical energy consumed in the industry. Thus, an improvement, even small, of the environmental performance of each motor would provide substantial environmental benefits. Contrary to the conventional approaches, the eco-design of an electrical machine can introduce environmental aspects during the design of the machine, taking into account all phases of the life cycle from the extraction of raw materials to the decommissioning and the recycling. This approach has been applied in this study to design an electrical motor, which has a better global energetic eco-balance. Therefore, a Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) tool is used; it takes into account several impact criteria to avoid pollution transfers from one criterion to another. A first "Green" prototype motor made with a high energetic eco-efficiency was fabricated and tested. The study was dictated by the need to minimize its global environmental impact by using materials more environmentally friendly, but also in order to increase its energy efficiency. The prototype is made with a grain oriented steel sheets, an enameled wire polymerized by UV and without solvents, some plastic based on biopolymers and with eco-energetic bearings. The eco-designed motor has a high energetic eco-efficiency; its performance is increased by about 3 % compared to the standard motor and without increasing its mass
Kremer, François. "Amélioration de l’opérabilité des centrales électriques par l’intégration d’un système de stockage d’énergie." Electronic Thesis or Diss., Université de Lorraine, 2021. http://www.theses.fr/2021LORR0051.
Повний текст джерелаThe storage of electrical energy is now booming as it seems to be one of the necessary conditions to support the development of intermittent renewable energies in electrical networks. It competes, among other things, with historical sources of flexibility such as pumping stations or gas-fired power plants. The work of this thesis consists in the hybridization of two sources, namely the storage of energy in electrical form (lithium-ion battery) and a combined cycle (gas-steam cogeneration plant), in order to improve the stability of the networks and the operability of the plant. The main objectives are to specify the system specifications (functions, storage technology, pre-sizing), to create a configurable lithium-ion battery model based on the manufacturer's data and to define the control strategy for the hybrid. The pre-sizing methodology draws on both the similar work done by Gauthier Delille and the experience of General Electric, a manufacturer of combined cycles, to guide these systems towards suitable solutions. During the detailed dimensioning phase, the work led to the creation of a "system-oriented" lithium-ion battery model that can be implemented in GE's real-time software. This model, validated by tests in the GREEN laboratory, achieves a correct accuracy of about 95% (on cell voltage and energy). Finally, the energy management of this hybrid system is achieved by integrating a new controller in the power plant that provides instructions to the storage systems by processing both the internal data of the power plant and the data measured at the storage terminals. The choice was oriented towards simple commands (droop, PI, etc.) coupled with a fuzzy logic algorithm. This was configured using genetic optimization on data from an existing power plant. Despite several encouraging contacts with potential customers who showed interest in such a system, no prototype could be built
Kaloun, Adham. "Conception de chaînes de traction hybrides et électriques par optimisation sur cycles routiers." Thesis, Centrale Lille Institut, 2020. http://www.theses.fr/2020CLIL0019.
Повний текст джерелаDesigning hybrid powertrains is a complex task, which calls for experts from various fields. In addition to this, finding the optimal solution requires a system overview. This can be, depending on the granularity of the models at the component level, highly time-consuming. This is even more true when the system’s performance is determined by its control, as it is the case of the hybrid powertrain. In fact, various possibilities can be selected to deliver the required torque to the wheels during the driving cycle. Hence, the main obstacle is to achieve optimality while keeping the methodology fast and robust. In this work, novel approaches to exploit the full potential of hybridization are proposed and compared. The first strategy is a bi-level approach consisting of two nested optimization blocks: an external design optimization process that calculates the best fuel consumption value at each iteration, found through control optimization using an improved version of dynamic programming. Two different systemic design strategies based on the iterative scheme are proposed as well. The first approach is based on model reduction while the second approach relies on precise cycle reduction techniques. The latter enables the use of high precision models without penalizing the calculation time. A co-optimization approach is implemented afterwards which adjusts both the design variables and parameters of a new efficient rule-based strategy. This allows for faster optimization as opposed to an all-at-once approach. Finally, a meta-model based technique is explored
Balestrière, Pierrick. "Dynamique de l'aimantation assistée par un champ électrique dans des dispositifs à base de (Ga,Mn)As." Phd thesis, Université Paris Sud - Paris XI, 2011. http://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-00568896.
Повний текст джерелаLiu, Chao. "Dimensionnements et comparaisons de convertisseurs électromécaniques à bas coût et à grande disponibilité pour véhicules électriques." Thesis, Université Paris-Saclay (ComUE), 2016. http://www.theses.fr/2016SACLC049/document.
Повний текст джерелаToday, the concerns of the energy crisis and the reduction of gas emissions stimulate the research in several electric vehicle domains. As the cost of rare earth magnetic materials has increased significantly in recent years, electrical motors without permanent magnets draw more attention, such as induction motors, wound-synchronous motors, switched reluctance motors, and synchronous reluctant motors. In this thesis, induction and synchronous reluctant machines are chosen to be studied for the electric vehicle traction application since they are low costly and fed up with similar power electronics and control strategies.Nonlinear analytical models of induction and synchronous reluctant machines are established and validated. Besides, economical and mechanical models are developed as well. Based on established analytical models, the geometry and the control parameters of these studied machines are calculated to define the total energy losses during the driving cycle. A bi-objective optimization is carried out to minimize total energy losses and motor costs. At last, the optimized machines are compared from their electric, energetic and economic performances, with the help of the Pareto Fronts obtained
Kocik, Rémy. "Optimisation des systèmes distribués temps réel embarqués : application au prototypage rapide d'un véhicule électrique autonome." Rouen, 2000. http://www.theses.fr/2000ROUES021.
Повний текст джерелаPatino, Diego. "Pilotage des cycles limites dans les systèmes dynamiques hybrides : application aux alimentations électriques statiques." Phd thesis, Institut National Polytechnique de Lorraine - INPL, 2009. http://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-00381971.
Повний текст джерелаKone, Joël-Louis. "Modélisation et suivi du vieillissement d’accumulateurs Li-ions par couplage avec modèle Dual-tank." Thesis, Université Grenoble Alpes, 2021. http://www.theses.fr/2021GRALI003.
Повний текст джерелаThe battery models used in system studies are generally based on electrical models with a single tank ("one tank model"), to which are coupled semi-empirical aging models predicting the evolution of the capacity of this one tank model.In these models, the state-of-health of a cell is therefore represented by a single value, which is too limiting. Moreover, these approaches make it difficult to understand the phenomena of capacity slope failures observed experimentally.In this thesis, empirical or physics-based aging models are coupled to a dual tank model. The first empirical approach aims to directly predict the evolution of the capacity of each electrode and the offset between electrode potential signals. The second, inspired by the physical phenoma that can occur within the battery, introduces the notion of parasitic current at the origin of the loss of cycling lithium.These different approaches are implemented using experimental calendar results from the MOBICUS project
Schayes, Claire. "Low cycle fatigue of the Fe-3Si steel : damage mechanisms and strain localisation by EBSD." Thesis, Lille 1, 2016. http://www.theses.fr/2016LIL10002/document.
Повний текст джерелаThe objective of the PhD work was to investigate the low cycle fatigue (LCF) behaviour of Fe-3Si steel employed for rotors of new starter-alternators developed by Valeo. The study took into account the relation between mechanical response and microstructure, the fatigue mechanisms, the assessment of strain at a mesoscopic scale and an optimisation of the rotor design. Low cycle fatigue tests performed on 350μm thick specimen pointed out a cyclic hardening of the material. The brittle crack propagation mode underlined the low toughness of the material. The formation of dislocations structures observed by Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) and controlled Electron Channelling Contrast Imaging (cECCI) was strain dependant. The total strain variation Δεt =0.7% appeared as a transition value. Below Δεt =0.7%, homogeneous arrangement of dislocations and transgranular crack initiation are observed. Above Δεt =0.7%, a mixture of veins-channels and wall-channels were observed inside the grains and cracking became intergranular. An Electron Back-Scattered Diffraction (EBSD) study was then performed on the specimen fatigued above Δεt=0.7% and approached with KAM, GROD and GOS parameters. It pointed out the strain gradient within grain and highlighted the strain localisation at grain boundaries. Finally, by taking into account LCF properties of the Fe-3Si steel in the material database of the finite element modelling, slight modifications of the rotor geometry have been performed which improves the electromagnetic performances of the machine
Patiño, Diego. "Pilotage des cycles limites dans les systèmes dynamiques hybrides : application aux alimentations électriques statiques." Electronic Thesis or Diss., Vandoeuvre-les-Nancy, INPL, 2009. http://www.theses.fr/2009INPL013N.
Повний текст джерелаThis work deals with limit cycle control for one particular class of hybrid dynamical systems (HDS): The cyclic switched systems. The HDS were born because the traditional dynamical models were not able to describe complex behaviors and most of all, behaviors with discontinuities. From an application point of view, one important class of HDS depicts a cyclic behavior in steady state. The main characteristic of these systems is that the operation point cannot be maintained: It does not exist a control that maintains the system on a desired operation point. However, this point can be obtained in average by turning into its neighborhood. Thus, a cycle is produced by switching among the system modes. A switched control law must satisfy stability and dynamic performance. Moreover, criteria related to the waveform must be verified. Nowadays, few methods take into account the cyclic behavior of the system. In this research, some generic methods are studied. They show good performance for controlling the cyclic switched systems. The proposed algorithms can be implemented in real-time. The approaches are based on an affine non-linear model of the system whose control explicitly appears. Two control methods are considered: i) A predictive control, ii) An optimal control. Since the predictive control is a good choice for tracking, it will be able to maintain the system in a cycle. The optimal control yields solutions that can be applied to the transients. Some experiments with both control methods applied to the power converters are shown. These tests were carried out not only in our laboratory (CRAN), but also in other laboratories as part of the HYCON excellence network
Butterbach, Stéphane. "Stockage d’énergie électrique par association de supercondensateurs et de batteries au plomb pour véhicule lourd." Compiègne, 2012. http://www.theses.fr/2012COMP2017.
Повний текст джерелаThis thesis presents a hybrid energy storage made of lead-acid batteries and supercapacitors for an urban waste collection electrical vehicle. The simulation of the waste collection vehicle takes into account a real-world driving cycle (daily cycle based on Artemis 400), a specific energy management and the sizing of the hybrid storage. Simulations show a 20% reduction of the consumed daily energy thanks to the brake recovered energy. The battery current clipping allows the reduction of battery losses with consequences on the battery lifetime. The battery cycling test bench developed in the laboratory confirmed the increase of the battery lifespan. An important part of the document was dedicated of the lead-acid battery model. This model is based on Randles equivalent circuit and takes into account the non linear relationship of the model parameters and the battery state of charge and the current. The charge acceptance was also modeled. The parameters identification is based on chronoamperometry and electrical impedance spectroscopy
Konieczny, Philippe. "Contrôle de stries pariétales par ondulation de surface au moyen d'actionneurs piézo-électriques." Toulouse 3, 2004. http://www.theses.fr/2004TOU30259.
Повний текст джерелаThe ability to control wall turbulence could be important for reducing skin friction, delaying transition and separation points. The use of new techniques could be potentially beneficial in many applications. This work aims at finding efficient means to reduce skin friction drag in a turbulent boundary layer. The central elements of the self-sustaining cycle which exists in turbulent boundary layers are the near-wall coherent structures whose dynamics control the turbulence production. Quasi-streamwise vortices and streaks of low and high-speed evolve through a secondary instability mechanism. Time and length scales of these structures have been known for quite some time. Recent results have shown that a spanwise forcing could lead to a conclusive control effect [Du, Symeonidis & Karniadakis, JFM 2002], results obtained by direct numerical simulations of a turbulent channel flow, with a body force (the control) which weakens the streaks and reduces the frequency of ejections. The present study aims at reproducing these effects experimentally, by replacing the body force with a "smart" moving wall generating the spanwise wave. The wall movement is achieved through piezo-electric actuators placed underneath the wall, producing a sizable deflection via an array of cantilever beams, yielding the desired wall movement. The control module has been built and tested at the LEEI (ENSEEIHT, INPT). Key elements of wall turbulence are first reproduced by embedding large scale streaks within a laminar boundary layer. Measurements have first been focused on quantifying the effect of the actuators. In the presence of organized streaks the results have shown that the control module generally excites the instability of the streaks; some of these effects corroborate the numerical findings: the travelling wave affects the mean flow. In the turbulent case the effect produced is less remarkable. Further developments for an amelioration of the technique are discussed
Ahmed, Mariam. "Optimisation de Contrôle Commande des Systèmes de Génération d'Electricité à Cycle de Relaxation." Phd thesis, Université de Grenoble, 2014. http://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-01071779.
Повний текст джерелаIslas, Sampério Jorge Marcial. "De la turbine à vapeur à la turbine à gaz électrique : compétition technologique et formation d'un nouveau paradigme." Grenoble 2, 1995. http://www.theses.fr/1995GRE21009.
Повний текст джерелаBy adopting an evolutionnary approach of technological change, this study in the domaine of applied economics shows that the present dynamism of gas turbines and the decline of steam turbines result in setting yp of a new technological paradigm in the evolution of the electricity production system. The first part analyses the transformation of the technical principle of the gas turbine in production technology. Gas turbine is presented here as proceeding from the formation of a new potential of technological development in an economi c system. Thus, the exposition is made in the following order : the genesis and the technical principle of gas turbine its co-evolution with the conventional technology, the forrmation of a new base of scientific and technical knowledge, the problems associated with its industrial development, and, the foundation of a new technical system in power production. In the second part, technological trajectory concept is used in understanding the competition between the gas turbine and steam turbine in electricity production. The study shows how the combined effects of technico-economic stagnation of steam turbine, economic and environmental constraints, and organizational changes favor the diffusion of efficient gas turbines. Finally, the study verifies the restructuring effects in electricity production systemes, electro-mechanic industry and gas industries; induced by the expansion of the gas turbine
Matz, Frédéric. "Développement d'un module de rendu graphique et d'un cycle de développement de scénarios pour le Framework Apia." Thesis, Université Laval, 2007. http://www.theses.ulaval.ca/2007/24475/24475.pdf.
Повний текст джерелаSadou, Ryad. "Dimensionnement sur cycle de chsînes de conversion optimales à motorisation synchrone pour des applications de drones autonomes à ailes fixes." Thesis, Nantes Université, 2022. http://www.theses.fr/2022NANU4020.
Повний текст джерелаAs part of the development of an autonomous fixed-wing UAV, the present sizing of the electric propulsion chain of the drone including the propeller, the electric motor and its power converter. This power chain, through which up to 90 % of the energy consumed by the UAV passes, represents a strong potential gain in term of energy efficiency and therefore in term of the autonomy of the UAV. Taking into account the entire operating cycle of the UAV requires the development of a particular sizing method that allows the simultaneous optimization of the geometry and the control strategy of the machine, while maintaining a reduced calculation time. This method, based on analytical models, allows the consideration of the thermal transient in order to avoid oversizing the machine, particularly with this type of application where the thermal steady state is rarely reached. In this study, it was demonstrated how it was possible to take into account the power converter and its control from the pre-sizing step of the machine, with the objective of reducing the mass of the PMSM and the losses of the {converter - machine} system
Nguyen, Phi-Hung. "Impacts des modèles de pertes sur l’optimisation sur cycle d’un ensemble convertisseur – machine synchrone : applications aux véhicules hybrides." Thesis, Cachan, Ecole normale supérieure, 2011. http://www.theses.fr/2011DENS0049/document.
Повний текст джерелаAlmost all studies of permanent magnet synchronous machines (PMSM) for for hybrid vehicle applications relate to their performances on a specific point of a driving cycle of the vehicle (the base point, the point at high speed or the most used point). However, these machines often operate at different torques and at different speeds. This thesis studies therefore PMSM performances in order to optimize during an entire driving cycle. In this thesis, the author contributed to develop models of torque, field weakening, copper losses and iron losses and methods of calculating these losses at no-load and at load for four MSAP (three concentrated flux machine and a surface mounted PMSM) and for three driving cycles (New Eurepean Driving Cycle, Artemis-Urban and Artemis-Road). An experimental validation of these models was realized on a test bench with two prototypes of MSAP. Then, the MSAP were sized for a minimization of average power losses during the cycle and of the RMS current at the base point. This combination is designed to increase the efficiency of the electrical machine and minimize the size of the associated voltage inverter. This problem of multi-objective optimization was performed using the genetic algorithm, Non-Dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm (NSGA-II). Thus, a Pareto front of optimal solutions can be derived. The impacts of loss models (at no-load and at load) on the PMSM optimization during the cycle are studied and the interest of each model is presented. Models and calculation methods proposed in this thesis can be applied to all cycles, at different MSAP and for other applications
Bouhouch, Lahoussine. "Élaboration des couches d'alliages NI-FE par voie électrolytique : Études électrique, magnétique et structurale." Nancy 1, 1988. http://www.theses.fr/1988NAN10089.
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