Дисертації з теми "Criminal enterprises"

Cybercriminal activity may be a relatively new concern to small and medium enterprises (SMEs), but it has the potential to create financial and liability issues for SME organizations. The problem is that SMEs are a future growth target for cybercrime activity as larger corporations begin to address security issues to reduce cybercriminal risks and vulnerabilities. The purpose of this study was to explore a small business owner's knowledge about to the principal elements of decision making for SME investment into cybersecurity education for employees with respect to internet access and employee vulnerabilities. The theoretical framework consisted of the psychological studies by Bandura and Jaishankar that might affect individual decision making in terms of employee risks created through internet use. This qualitative case study involved a participant interview and workplace observations to solicit a small rural business owner's knowledge of cybercriminal exploitation of employees through internet activities such as social media and the potential exploitation of workers by social engineers. Word frequency analysis of the collected data concluded that SME owners are ill equipped to combat employee exploitation of their business through social engineering. Qualitative research is consistent with understanding the decision factors for cost, technical support, and security threat prevention SME organizational leadership use and is the focus of this study as emergent themes. The expectation is that this study will aid in the prevention of social engineering tactics against SME employees and provide a platform for future research for SMEs and cybercriminal activity prevention.

This thesis develops a theoretical account of the basis and justification for the doctrine of Joint Criminal Enterptise in international criminal law by examining principles governing the ascription of criminal responsibility in English and German criminal law. The first part consists of a comprehensive review of the development of the JCE doctrine, including its historical antecedents, its initial formulation by the ICTY, its subsequent explication by tribunals and academics, and recent alternatives doctrines proposed by the ICC and by commentators. It identifies the main loopholes and contradictions in the construction of these theories, and presents factual scenarios for which these theories, particularly JCE, either have no answers, or problematic ones. The second part examines whether any of the variants of JCE can be justified as principal responsibility. It first identifies elements that distinguish international crimes from their domestic counterparts, and which are pertinent in developing an account of criminal responsibility for international crimes. It also examines the concept of perpetration responsibility in English and German criminal law and theory. It then combines the insights gleaned from these analyses to conclude that only JCE I can be appropriately considered as perpetrator responsibility and proposes a modified version of the doctrine of Organisationsherrschaft in German criminal law as a more accurate characterisation of the role and function of high level participants in mass atrocity. The final part focuses on the concept of accomplice responsibility in German and English criminal law and doctrine to address whether JCE II and JCE III can be justified as modes of secondary criminal responsibility. It concludes that JCE II and JCE III can be retained as distinct modes of accomplice liability using expressive and risk justifications, provided their operation is limited in ways that correspond to principles of secondary responsibility in domestic jurisdictions.

This thesis explores the English doctrine of joint criminal enterprise by way of a comparative study. Joint enterprise allows for the conviction of an accomplice (S) of an offence (crime B) committed by his associate-in-crime (P) on the basis of S's foresight of its commission by P as a possible incident to their joint criminal venture (crime A). While it is generally accepted that this common law principle needs reforming, successive governments have declined to take on the task. Against this backdrop, this thesis explores whether the contentious features of joint enterprise liability might be reformed by way of common law development. To this end, the thesis examines the doctrine's constituent elements, its function, underlying rationale and place within the structure of primary and secondary liability. Particular emphasis is put on the specific problems associated with the application of joint enterprise liability in the context of murder. Looking at the functional equivalents of joint enterprise in German law, the thesis challenges the orthodox view that joint enterprise is a head of liability available to the prosecution alongside co-perpetration and aiding and abetting. Indeed, it argues that an inculpatory function of the principle is difficult to justify and suggests that, both historically and as a matter of principle, it is better seen as an exculpatory device aimed at delineating the scope of co-perpetration and aiding and abetting. The thesis concludes that the current law does not serve this function very well, as its mens rea threshold (some form of recklessness, when proof of intention is needed to convict the principal offender) sets the hurdle for conviction of secondary parties indefensibly low. Informed by ideas taken from German law - especially an extended concept of intention known as dolus eventualis - the thesis's principal contention is that English law would do better defining joint enterprise liability in terms of foresight plus endorsement. Indeed, the thesis aims to show that English law was very close to such a conception, and that the common law took a wrong turn in Powell. It concludes that it is still open to the Supreme Court to adopt an endorsement-focussed approach to joint enterprise liability, thereby alleviating concerns that the law in this area is too harsh and over-inclusive, and bringing it closer to the threshold of liability for principal offenders which requires proof of intention. Such an approach would also make the law of complicity more principled and coherent.

A partir de la notion de milieu criminel et de celle de mafia, la thèse prend en examen 94 affaires d’association de malfaiteurs jugés à la Cour d’Appel d'Aix-en-Provence pour décrire les évolutions du grand banditisme français, et notamment corso-marseillais. Ce dernier est réputé comme le plus important en France, grâce à sa présence de longue date et son organisation autochtone. Nous souhaitons confronter la notion française de “grand banditisme” à celles internationales de “criminalité organisée” et de “mafia”, afin de comprendre les évolutions de ces groupes en termes d’organisations, de réseaux et de pouvoir.Dans la première partie, après avoir présenté la méthodologie, l’on passe en revue les mythes qui informent une grande partie de la littérature généraliste sur le changement social dans les groupes criminels, puis l’on analyse la législation récente concernant les groupes criminels. Dans la deuxième,l’on prend en examen la composition sociale de la population construite à partir des dossiers, la structure des entreprises délictueuses enfin la structure du réseau défini par ces groupes.Parmi les principaux résultats, la thèse montre la présence de formes de gouvernance extra-légale sur les marchés illicites français, où la position d’autorité est mise en lumière par la détection de trous structuraux au sein du réseau général, ce qui représente une première forme d’organisation de type mafieux dans plusieurs études anglo-saxonnes et italiennes
: Based on the notion of criminal milieu and mafia, thethesis examines 94 cases of criminal conspiracy tried at the Court of Appeal of Aix-en-Provence todescribe the evolution of French organized crime, particularly Corso-Marseille. The latter is reputedto be the most important in France, thanks to its long-standing presence and its indigenousorganisation. We wish to confront the French notion of "grand banditism" with the internationalnotions of "organised crime" and "mafia", in order to understand the evolution of these groups interms of organisation, networks and power.In the first part, after presenting the methodology, the myths that inform much of the generalliterature on social change in criminal groups are reviewed, followed by an analysis of recentlegislation concerning criminal groups. The second examines the social composition of the populationconstructed from the records, the structure of criminal enterprises and the network structure definedby these groups.Among the main results, the thesis shows the presence of extra-legal forms of governance in theFrench illicit markets, where the position of authority is highlighted by the detection of structural holeswithin the general network, which represents a first form of mafia-like organisation in several AngloSaxon and Italian studies

La ricerca affronta una particolare forma di responsabilità concorsuale per crimini internazionali chiamata ‘joint criminal enterprise’ (JCE), creata dal Tribunale Penale Internazionale per l’ex-Yugoslavia. Il perno attorno al quale la ricerca si svolge è la suscettibilità di un tale criterio di imputazione di trasformarsi in un veicolo di responsabilità penale collettiva. Al fine di discutere dei punti di frizione di questo meccanismo ascrittivo con il fondamentale principio di responsabilità penale individuale e colpevole, l’autrice si propone di tracciare innanzitutto una cornice teorica più ampia. Il punto di partenza va individuato nella polarizzazione tra due forze che agiscono in senso opposto: una macro-dimensione, composta da fattori collettivizzanti (fattore storico, sistemico e teleologico), e una micro-dimensione che tenta di comprimere la responsabilità penale nei rigidi confini della colpevolezza. Collocata dunque al centro della “tensione” tra queste due forze opposte, la ‘joint criminal enterprise’ rivela i suoi caratteri più problematici, specialmente con riferimento ai requisiti di un nesso eziologico “indiretto” e a un elemento soggettivo fortemente indebolito. Addentrandosi infine nell’analisi comparata di sistemi di common law e civil law, l’autrice propone all’interprete internazionale diverse argomentazioni e correttivi al fine di un’applicazione della JCE che sia maggiormente conforme al principio di responsabilità penale personale e colpevole.
The thesis discusses a particularly problematic mode of liability for international crimes: the doctrine of ‘joint criminal enterprise’ (JCE) created by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia. The core issue is the suitability of this mechanism of attribution to turn into a vehicle of collective criminal responsibility. In order to discuss its points of friction with the principle of individual culpability, the author designs a broader theoretical framework. The point of departure is a polarization between two opposing forces: a macro-dimension of collectivizing factors (historical, contextual and teleological) and a micro-dimension that strives to contain liability into the strict boundaries of individual guilt. Placed within the “strain” between these two opposing forces, JCE reveals its highly problematic features, especially in relation to the requirements of an indirect causal nexus and a very weak mens rea. Finally, by venturing into a comparative analysis of common law/civil law domestic systems, the author proposes to the international interpreter several arguments and correctives in order to apply JCE liability in a manner that is more consistent with the fundamental principle of individual culpability.

Thesis (M.A. in National Security Affairs)--Naval Postgraduate School, December 2005.
Thesis Advisor(s): Jeanne Giraldo, Douglas Porch. Includes bibliographical references (p. 119-130). Also available online.

The development of joint criminal enterprise at the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) has been controversial since the doctrine was first created in 1997. For the judgments rendered by the ICTY to be perceived as legitimate, the doctrines used to bring charges against defendants must also be perceived as legitimate. The purpose of my thesis is to study the application of joint criminal enterprise at the ICTY and examine how the doctrine has influenced the length of sentences given. I find that joint criminal enterprise may be influencing longer sentences and the three categories of joint criminal enterprise are being used differently on defendants of different power levels. By empirically analyzing the patterns developing at the ICTY, I can see how joint criminal enterprise is influencing sentencing and the fairness of trials.

Crime in South Africa is one of the serious challenges facing post- apartheid democracy. As a result, many people find themselves jailed for different crimes which impact their ability to obtain formal employment upon release from jail. Therefore, employment is considered to be a significant contributor to an ex-offender not returning to offending behaviour. It is thus proposed that society has an essential and active role to play in attempts to lower recidivism rates. The hypothesis of this research was that lack of job opportunities for ex-offenders contributes to them breaking parole conditions. Also, communities where ex-offenders come from are not well prepared to welcome them back as transformed people. This treatment of ex-offenders contributes to them reoffending. Furthermore, the brick making industry plays a crucial role in the lives of ex-offenders by giving them an opportunity to be employed after serving their sentences. Finally, employment in the brick making business brings dignity back to the lives of ex-offenders. This study used qualitative research methods to address the research questions and gather relevant data. The use of a qualitative approach was adopted as it allows a deeper exploration of the different research objectives and questions of the study. Thematic content analysis was used to analyse the data. The findings of this study have revealed that the brick making business in the Mthatha region, in the Eastern Cape region of South Africa, is making a big difference in the lives of ex-offenders by offering them the opportunity to gain paid employment, thus contributing to their proper reintegration in their communities.

La création de juridictions internationales pour juger les responsables d'un crime international pose la question des techniques d'imputation. Il s'agit de la mise en oeuvre du principe de la responsabilité pénale individuelle (RPI) en droit international. D'une part, le DPI emprunte les techniques traditionnelles aux droits pénaux internes. Il s'agit des techniques dépendantes de la consommation du crime international : les formes différentes de « commission » et de « complicité ». Sont empruntées, aussi, d'autres techniques traditionnelles d'imputation qui sont indépendantes de la consommation du crime : la tentative et l'incrimination de quelques actes de complicité. Ces techniques correspondent aux exigences de la RPI, d'où la confirmation du principe. D'autre part, le DPI adopte des nouvelles techniques d'imputation pour faire face à la nature collective du crime international. Se fondant sur l'idée de « groupe », des techniques associatives sont mises en place : la responsabilité pour l'appartenance à une organisation criminelle ou bien de la responsabilité des actes du groupe à travers l'entreprise criminelle commune ou le contrôle conjoint sur l'action du groupe. En même temps, le fait que les crimes sont souvent commis par des « structures hiérarchiques » est pris en compte pour envisager des techniques structurelles ; à savoir la responsabilité pour commission indirecte par le contrôle d'une organisation ou de la responsabilité du supérieur hiérarchique pour les crimes commis par ses subordonnés. Chacune de ces techniques s'écarte de ce que l'on entend généralement par la RPI, d'où la métamorphose du principe. Une reconstruction de la notion est à l'ordre du jour
The establishment of International criminal tribunals raises the question of techniques of attributing criminal liability. Having the individual as « subject », the principle of individual criminal responsibility is at issue. On the one hand, International criminal law borrows traditional techniques of imputing liability from national law. Not only those techniques that depend on the completion of an international crime; as forms of perpetration and complicity, but also those that attribute responsibility independently of the completion of international crime; as attempt and specific incrimination of some forms of complicity. Individual criminal responsibility in its traditional connotation is confirmed. On the other hand, International criminal law forges new techniques of imputing liability to accommodate the collective nature of international crimes. Based on the idea of « group » action, associative techniques are introduced. As such, the responsibility for membership in criminal organisation, or even the responsibility for group crimes through notions like « joint criminal enterprise » or « joint control » are applied. In the meanwhile, the structural aspect of entities committing international crimes is taken in consideration. Superiors who manipulate organisations under their control are considered as indirect perpetrators. Also, superiors who fail to stop or to punish crimes committed by their subordinates are held responsible. Each one of these new techniques of imputing responsibility metamorphoses one or more aspects of what is generally intended by the principle of individual criminal responsibility. Reconstructing the notion seems due

L’internationalisation des échanges économiques inscrit les économies nationales dans un ordre mondialisé. Ce contexte de la mondialisation intensifie les échanges commerciaux et la concurrence des entreprises. Celles-ci doivent perpétuellement lutter pour survivre sur le marché. Pour ne pas disparaître, elles doivent devenir plus fortes, et plus grandes. Elles sont dès lors contraintes à un développement externe. Ce mode de croissance externe se matérialise par des opérations de concentration : fusion, scission, apports partiels d’actifs, cession de contrôle, offres publiques. Il s’agit d’étudier les fusions-acquisitions. Depuis quelques années, ces opérations sont devenues une réalité de la vie des affaires. Relayées à chaque réalisation - du moins les plus significatives - par les médias, elles sont le plus souvent connues pour la synergie qu’elles réalisent et/ou les conséquences sociales qu’elles emportent. Traitées dans les manuels de sciences économiques et de sciences juridiques de manière générale, les fusions-acquisitions sont rarement envisagées sous l’angle exclusif du droit pénal. C’est précisément l’objet de cette étude. Néanmoins, seules les opérations de fusions, scissions, et offres publiques, en droit pénal sont envisagées. Les risques juridiques liés à ces opérations, en particulier les risques pénaux, se situent à tous les étages. Dans le cadre de ces opérations, le droit pénal a vocation à protéger les différents intérêts en jeu, c’est-à-dire les divers intérêts des acteurs, personnes physiques ou morales. Mais certains obstacles obligent à une application mesurée du droit pénal en la matière. Le premier est la notion de personnalité juridique, fondement de plusieurs principes de droit pénal ; le second est une conjugaison de plusieurs difficultés : La diversité et/ou la spécificité des réglementations applicables à ces opérations, le caractère souvent international de ces dernières et la portée limitée du droit pénal accessoire. Cette étude se propose de concilier ces obstacles avec la nécessité et les exigences d’une vraie, juste et meilleure répression lors de la réalisation de ces opérations de ces opérations de fusions-acquisitions. En ce sens, notre contribution insiste sur un renouvellement de l’application du droit pénal lors de la réalisation de ces opérations. Deux principales pistes sont envisagées : considérer le caractère économique de l’opération pour consacrer une pénalisation – entendue ici comme l’action de sanctionner et de renforcer la sanction - des fusions-acquisitions eu égard au droit pénal économique ; prendre appui sur la notion d’entreprise pour apporter une réponse pénale adaptée à la répression. C’est à cette double condition que le droit pénal aura un réel intérêt dans le cadre de ces opérations
The Internationalization of economical exchanges inscribes national’s economies in a globalized order. This globalized context intensifies the business’s trades and the competition between companies. These have to perpetually struggle to survive on the market. To avoid disappearance, they have to become stronger and bigger. Thenceforth, they are constrained to an external growth. This type of external growth materializes itself by concentrations: such as mergers, scissions, acquisitions, partial transfers of assets, transfers of control, takeovers. We talk about mergers and acquisitions. For some years now, these transactions had become a reality in a business’s life. Relay at each realization – at least the most significant ones – by the media, they are most known for the synergy they realized and/or social consequencies they cary. Generally studied in economics sciences and legal sciences manuals, mergers and acquisitions are rarely considered exclusively by criminal approach. This is precisely the purpose of this study. Nevertheless, only concentrations such as mergers scissions and takeovers will be considered in this study. Legal risks tied to such transactions, in particular criminal ones, are found at all stages. In the context of those concentrations, criminal Law is intended to protect all different interests in presence, meaning actors, natural persons as well as legal persons. But some certain obstacles call for a measured or moderated application of criminal Law. The first one is the legal personality, the basis of multiples criminal Law principles. The second is a combination of many or multiples difficulties: the diversity and/or the specificity of the applicable rules to those transactions, usually the international character of the latter ones and the limited scope of the Law on secondary penalties. This study is proposing to conciliate those obstacles with the necessity of and the requirements of a true, just and better criminal repression during these transactions realization. For this purpose, our contribution lay stress on renewal of the criminal Law application during the mergers and acquisitions. Two mains avenues will be considered: consider the economic character of the transactions to apply a penalization; intended here as the act of sanctioning and re-enforce the penalty of mergers and acquisitions in view of economic criminal Law; laying on the notion of enterprise to bring a penal answer adapted to the penalty. It will be at this double condition that the criminal Law will have a real interest in the frame, limit of those transactions

Qu’elle soit extranationale, transnationale ou internationale par nature, l’infraction internationale est toujours construite de la même manière : elle naît de la réunion d’un élément matériel et d’un élément moral, incluant parfois un élément contextuel. Cette constance structurelle dominant la diversité définitionnelle milite en faveur d’une unification des formes de la participation associées à ces infractions internationales : la spécificité de la participation à l’infraction internationale résiderait donc dans la spécificité, non des formes de la première, mais de la définition de la seconde. D’ailleurs, il n’existe que deux grands systèmes de participation applicables à l’infraction internationale : celui des juridictions pénales nationales et celui des juridictions pénales internationales. De leur comparaison, pourrait naître un système unique de participation à l’infraction internationale, permettant de mieux appréhender la criminalité collective en attribuant aux participants intellectuels une place plus juste au sein de la participation. En effet, après quelques adaptations nécessaires, il pourrait être fait appel au critère mixte du contrôle sur l’infraction internationale, développé récemment par la Cour pénale internationale, pour distinguer les formes principales des formes secondaires de la participation à l’infraction internationale. Ainsi, seraient des participants principaux les agents qui, avec l’état d’esprit idoine, prennent le contrôle de l’infraction internationale (coauteurs et auteurs intellectuels), tandis que seraient des participants secondaires les agents qui ne prennent pas un tel contrôle (complices par aide ou assistance et subordonnants)
Can it be extranational, transnational or international by nature, the international crime is always the same : it needs the reunion of a material element and a moral element, sometimes including a contextual element. This structural constancy, which dominates the definitional diversity, inclines us to campaign for the unification of the participation forms associated to the whole international crimes. In other words, the specifity of the participation in the international crime would be less due to the specifity of the first one’s forms than to the specifity of the second one’s definition. Now, there are only two grand systems of participation in the international crime : the one applied by the national criminal jurisdictions and the one applied by the international criminal jurisdictions. From the comparison of these two systems, it is possible to imagine a unique system of participation in the international crime, permitting a better understanding of the collective criminality by attributing a righter role to the intellectual participants within the participation. More precisely, and after a few necessary adaptations, control over the international crime, which is a mixed criterion recently developed by the International Criminal Court, could be used to distinguish the main forms from the secondary forms of participation in the international crime. Thus, main participants might be those who, with the suitable state of mind, take control over the international crime (co-perpetrators and intellectual perpetrators) while secondary participants might be those who don’t take such a control (accomplices by aid and assistance and “subordinators”)

碩士
國立臺灣大學
法律學研究所
100
The main gist of this paper is in establishing "criminal law" as the main body to combat enterprise crime. For many years, administrative jurist in Taiwan tend to affect the legislative policy by means of administrative supervision or administrative fines regulation for combating enterprise crime. Actually it is hard to prevent enterprise crimes, especially the global financial crime or monopoly of market. People often resorted to administrative measures, but can not restore their rights by the judicial organ. In fact, all of problems can point to that, we rely too much on the regulation of administrative law, and overemphasis on the "modestly restraining spirit of the criminal law". Enterprise crime is more unique than traditional crimes. Enterprise, as private juristic person, it is not acknowledged as independent subject in criminal prosecution, but in administrative law and civil law field, it has held very important position. Because of globalization, enterprise has been holding gigantic resource and manpower. Abusing its power often brings about gigantic economy loss. And sometimes its business actions commit crimes. Therefore, development of the enterprise crime theory is becoming necessary. Countries in the world, people, whether in academia or in practice sector, both apply their energy to research on countermeasures to prevent the occurrence of enterprise crime. Compared to this, in Taiwan, the criminal law field still remains in the traditional criminal offenses, such as murder and theft, ignoring that confrontation of enterprise crime is a serious issue. Moreover, our prosecutors often negatively wait for the transfer of administrative authority, it makes many crimes not be found. Hence, how criminal law can play a positive role to reduce enterprise crime is the focus of this paper. However, how to definite the enterprise crime and the penalty scope is a wide range of issues, inevitably involved with other academic discipline , such as civil law, administrative law, criminology, economics, sociology, etc . To face this complex and wide range of issues, integration of academic and legal fields is the main purpose which means not only to do the integration of criminal law and criminal policy but also to establish enterprise crime theory in practice. It includes enterprise crime theory, the conflict of criminal law and administrative law , the division of enterprise business actions and enterprise business crimes, the research on the legal interest of enterprise crime. Hope this paper will arouse scholars of criminal law to put proper attention in enterprise crime.

During the 1990s Yugoslavia and Rwanda were swept by wars accompanied by serious violations of international humanitarian law. Grave and severe crimes wiped away lives and destroyed properties. The United Nations Security Council determined that the violations committed constituted threats to international peace and security, declaring itself empowered to take action. It established international ad hoc criminal tribunals for Yugoslavia and Rwanda with the mandate of prosecuting individuals responsible for those crimes as an enforcement measure under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter. Investigating the tribunals’ effectiveness enables one to assess whether they achieved the anticipated outcomes based on the tribunals’ mission, goals, and objectives without creating other problems. The research relies on naturalism and positivism to put the tribunals in a moral and ethical perspective. By examining how the tribunals were established, their objectives, the investigation and prosecution processes, the reliance on guilty plea and judicial notice and the imputation of criminal responsibility by applying joint criminal enterprise and command responsibility doctrines; the study argues that prosecution has not been an effective tool as contemplated by the Security Council. An analytical and comparative review of various domestic and international legal resources helped to provide an insightful approach for an effective prosecution of international crimes. Credible, legitimate and legal judicial institutions in which professional judges and prosecutors discharge their function independently, impartially and are accountable may achieve justice for the victims of international crimes. Ad hoc tribunals failed to thoroughly investigate and assume the dual role of prosecution. They conveniently used legal procedural tools that fit petty domestic crimes; unfortunately demeaning the magnitude of international crimes of concern. Criminal responsibility was mostly imputed without properly scrutinising the legality, extent, actual participation and guilty mind of the alleged perpetrators. Effectiveness should be a value assessment. Imposed and overburdened ad hoc tribunals are inappropriate and should be abandoned.
Public, Constitutional, & International
LLD