Статті в журналах: "Cost of walking"

1

Workman, J. M., and B. W. Armstrong. "Metabolic cost of walking: equation and model." Journal of Applied Physiology 61, no. 4 (October 1, 1986): 1369–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1986.61.4.1369.

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Twenty years of published experience with the Workman-Armstrong equation for predicting walking VO2 is reviewed. The equation is reexpressed in currently accepted terminology, and it is shown that the equation serves well as a basic model of normal walking. Employing this model to analyze VO2/step leads to the elaboration of a three-compartment model of the metabolic cost of walking. This three-compartment model provides a rational estimate of the fraction of walking's metabolic cost that powers the actual walking movement. Doubt is expressed that “comfortable speed of walking” is definable in energy terms. It is suggested that the requirements of maintaining balance while walking may determine both the comfortable speed of walking and the curvilinearity of the relationship between ground-speed and freely chosen step frequency of walking.

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2

Stallard, John. "Energy cost of walking." Spinal Cord 33, no. 12 (December 1995): 739–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sc.1995.158.

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3

Banta, J., K. Bell, E. Muik, and J. Fezio. "Parawalker: Energy Cost of Walking." European Journal of Pediatric Surgery 1, S 1 (December 1991): 7–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-2008-1042527.

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4

Motl, Robert W., Deirdre Dlugonski, Yoojin Suh, Madeline Weikert, Stamatis Agiovlasitis, Bo Fernhall, and Myla Goldman. "Multiple Sclerosis Walking Scale-12 and oxygen cost of walking." Gait & Posture 31, no. 4 (April 2010): 506–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gaitpost.2010.02.011.

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Huynh, Ashleigh, Melissa A. Mache, and John L. Azevedo. "Metabolic Cost And Kinematics Of Walking." Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 47 (May 2015): 645–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1249/01.mss.0000478478.46309.ae.

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6

Bernardi, M., A. Macaluso, E. Sproviero, V. Castellano, D. Coratella, F. Felici, A. Rodio, M. F. Piacentini, M. Marchetti, and J. F. Ditunno. "Cost of walking and locomotor impairment." Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology 9, no. 2 (April 1999): 149–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s1050-6411(98)00046-7.

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7

Calbeck, C., R. M. Otto, J. Wygand, L. Boalini, and S. Weber. "83 THE ENERGY COST OF TREADMILL WALKING VS SIMULATED HYDRO-WALKING." Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 22, no. 2 (April 1990): S14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1249/00005768-199004000-00083.

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8

Wong, Jeremy D., Jessica C. Selinger, and J. Maxwell Donelan. "Is natural variability in gait sufficient to initiate spontaneous energy optimization in human walking?" Journal of Neurophysiology 121, no. 5 (May 1, 2019): 1848–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.00417.2018.

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In new walking contexts, the nervous system can adapt preferred gaits to minimize energetic cost. During treadmill walking, this optimization is not usually spontaneous but instead requires experience with the new energetic cost landscape. Experimenters can provide subjects with the needed experience by prescribing new gaits or instructing them to explore new gaits. Yet in familiar walking contexts, people naturally prefer energetically optimal gaits: the nervous system can optimize cost without an experimenter’s guidance. Here we test the hypothesis that the natural gait variability of overground walking provides the nervous system with sufficient experience with new cost landscapes to initiate spontaneous minimization of energetic cost. We had subjects walk over paths of varying terrain while wearing knee exoskeletons that penalized walking as a function of step frequency. The exoskeletons created cost landscapes with minima that were, on average, 8% lower than the energetic cost at the initially preferred gaits and achieved at walking speeds and step frequencies that were 4% lower than the initially preferred values. We found that our overground walking trials amplified gait variability by 3.7-fold compared with treadmill walking, resulting in subjects gaining greater experience with new cost landscapes, including frequent experience with gaits at the new energetic minima. However, after 20 min and 2.0 km of walking in the new cost landscapes, we observed no consistent optimization of gait, suggesting that natural gait variability during overground walking is not always sufficient to initiate energetic optimization over the time periods and distances tested in this study. NEW & NOTEWORTHY While the nervous system can continuously optimize gait to minimize energetic cost, what initiates this optimization process during every day walking is unknown. Here we tested the hypothesis that the nervous system leverages the natural variability in gait experienced during overground walking to converge on new energetically optimal gaits created using exoskeletons. Contrary to our hypothesis, we found that participants did not adapt toward optimal gaits: natural variability is not always sufficient to initiate spontaneous energy optimization.

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Malatesta, Davide, David Simar, Yves Dauvilliers, Robin Candau, Fabio Borrani, Christian Préfaut, and Corinne Caillaud. "Energy cost of walking and gait instability in healthy 65- and 80-yr-olds." Journal of Applied Physiology 95, no. 6 (December 2003): 2248–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.01106.2002.

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This study tested whether the lower economy of walking in healthy elderly subjects is due to greater gait instability. We compared the energy cost of walking and gait instability (assessed by stride to stride changes in the stride time) in octogenarians (G80, n = 10), 65-yr-olds (G65, n = 10), and young controls (G25, n = 10) walking on a treadmill at six different speeds. The energy cost of walking was higher for G80 than for G25 across the different walking speeds ( P < 0.05). Stride time variability at preferred walking speed was significantly greater in G80 (2.31 ± 0.68%) and G65 (1.93 ± 0.39%) compared with G25 (1.40 ± 0.30%; P < 0.05). There was no significant correlation between gait instability and energy cost of walking at preferred walking speed. These findings demonstrated greater energy expenditure in healthy elderly subjects while walking and increased gait instability. However, no relationship was noted between these two variables. The increase in energy cost is probably multifactorial, and our results suggest that gait instability is probably not the main contributing factor in this population. We thus concluded that other mechanisms, such as the energy expenditure associated with walking movements and related to mechanical work, or neuromuscular factors, are more likely involved in the higher cost of walking in elderly people.

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10

Das Gupta, Sauvik, Maarten Bobbert, Herre Faber, and Dinant Kistemaker. "Metabolic cost in healthy fit older adults and young adults during overground and treadmill walking." European Journal of Applied Physiology 121, no. 10 (June 21, 2021): 2787–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00421-021-04740-2.

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Abstract Purpose The purpose of this study was to determine whether net metabolic cost of walking is affected by age per se. Methods We selected 10 healthy, active older adults (mean age 75 years) and 10 young adults (mean age 26 years), and determined their preferred overground walking speed. On the same day, in a morning and afternoon session, we had them walk at that speed overground and on a treadmill while we measured oxygen consumption rate. From the latter we subtracted the rate in sitting and calculated net metabolic cost. Results Anthropometrics were not different between the groups nor was preferred walking speed (1.27 m s−1 both groups). There was no difference in net metabolic cost of overground walking between older and young adults (e.g., in the morning 2.64 and 2.56 J kg−1 m−1, respectively, p > 0.05). In the morning session, net metabolic cost of walking was higher on the treadmill than overground in our older adults by 0.6 J kg−1 m−1 (p < 0.05), but not in young adults. Conclusion First, there is no effect of age per se on metabolic cost of overground walking. Second, older adults tend to have higher metabolic cost of walking on a treadmill than walking overground at preferred speed, and adaptation may take a long time. The commonly reported age-related elevation of metabolic cost of walking may be due to confounding factors causing preferred walking speed to be lower in older adults, and/or due to older adults reacting differently to treadmill walking than young adults.

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11

Otman, S., O. Basgöze, and Y. Gökce-Kutsal. "Energy cost of walking with flat feet." Prosthetics and Orthotics International 12, no. 2 (August 1988): 73–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/03093648809078203.

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A comparative study has been conducted to assess the effects of arch support on oxygen consumption in 20 subjects with flat feet who were generally complaining about fatigue, and also to explore whether their feeling of weariness was objective or not. The resting, walking and final recovery heart rates, blood pressures, and walking oxygen consumption values of the patients with flat feet were measured and calculated and compared to a control group using treadmill and oxygen consumption devices. In stage one the patients did not wear any arch support. Then suitable arch supports were prepared for each patient and in stage two they wore these arch supports. The results did not show any significant difference between the resting heart rates, blood pressure and oxygen consumptions. However, differences in walking heart rate, systolic blood pressure, final recovery heart rate, oxygen consumption, and energy cost values were found to be significant between stage one and two of the test in the patient group. The difference in walking diastolic blood pressure values without and with arch support were found to be insignificant. It may therefore be deduced that oxygen consumption during walking is decreased when a suitable arch support is applied to patients with flat feet.

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12

Seethapathi, Nidhi, and Manoj Srinivasan. "The metabolic cost of changing walking speeds is significant, implies lower optimal speeds for shorter distances, and increases daily energy estimates." Biology Letters 11, no. 9 (September 2015): 20150486. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2015.0486.

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Humans do not generally walk at constant speed, except perhaps on a treadmill. Normal walking involves starting, stopping and changing speeds, in addition to roughly steady locomotion. Here, we measure the metabolic energy cost of walking when changing speed. Subjects (healthy adults) walked with oscillating speeds on a constant-speed treadmill, alternating between walking slower and faster than the treadmill belt, moving back and forth in the laboratory frame. The metabolic rate for oscillating-speed walking was significantly higher than that for constant-speed walking (6–20% cost increase for ±0.13–0.27 m s −1 speed fluctuations). The metabolic rate increase was correlated with two models: a model based on kinetic energy fluctuations and an inverted pendulum walking model, optimized for oscillating-speed constraints. The cost of changing speeds may have behavioural implications: we predicted that the energy-optimal walking speed is lower for shorter distances. We measured preferred human walking speeds for different walking distances and found people preferred lower walking speeds for shorter distances as predicted. Further, analysing published daily walking-bout distributions, we estimate that the cost of changing speeds is 4–8% of daily walking energy budget.

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13

Morss, G. M., T. S. Church, C. P. Earnest, and A. N. Jordan. "FIELD TEST COMPARING THE METABOLIC COST OF NORMAL WALKING VERSUS NORDIC WALKING." Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 33, no. 5 (May 2001): S23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00005768-200105001-00125.

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14

Jordan, A. N., T. P. Olson, C. P. Earnest, G. M. Morss, and T. S. Church. "METABOLIC COST OF HIGH INTENSITY POLING WHILE NORDIC WALKING VERSUS NORMAL WALKING." Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 33, no. 5 (May 2001): S86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00005768-200105001-00496.

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15

Kobberling, Gisela, Louis W. Jankowski, and Luc Leger. "Energy Cost of Locomotion in Blind Adolescents." Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly 6, no. 1 (January 1989): 58–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/apaq.6.1.58.

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The oxygen consumption (VO2) of 30 (10 females, 20 males) legally blind adolescents and their sighted controls were compared for treadmill walking (3 mph, 4.8 km/h) and running (6 mph, 9.6 km/h). The VO2 of the visually impaired subjects averaged 24.4% and 10.8% higher than those of their same-sex age-matched controls, and 42.8% and 11.2% higher than the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) norms for walking (p<.01) and running (p<.05), respectively. The normal association between aerobic capacity and locomotor energy costs was evident among the sighted controls (r= .44, p<.05) but insignificant (r=.35, p>.05) for the visually impaired subjects. The energy costs of both walking and running were highest among the totally blind subjects, and decreased toward normal as a function of residual vision among the legally blind subjects. The energy costs of walking and running for blind adolescents are higher than both those of sighted controls and the ACSM norm values.

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16

Kuroki, Hiroshi, Toshihiro Morinaga, and Hiromichi Hama. "Oxygen Cost of Walking in Hemiplegic Patients." Journal of Physical Therapy Science 8, no. 1 (1996): 5–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1589/jpts.8.5.

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17

SUZUKI, Kenji, Ryuichi NAKAMURA, Gen IMADA, Makoto ISHIGAKI, and Michiko IWAMA. "Physiological Cost Index of Walking of Amputees." Japanese Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine 29, no. 8 (1992): 637–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.2490/jjrm1963.29.637.

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18

Heino, Jacklyn G., S. J. Mulroy, and J. Perry. "Energy cost of endurance walking in myelomeningocele." Gait & Posture 7, no. 2 (March 1998): 189. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0966-6362(98)90291-0.

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19

Courtemanche, Francois, Elise Labonté-LeMoyne, Pierre-Majorique Léger, Marc Fredette, Sylvain Senecal, Ann-Frances Cameron, Jocelyn Faubert, and Francois Bellavance. "Texting while walking: An expensive switch cost." Accident Analysis & Prevention 127 (June 2019): 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2019.02.022.

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20

DeJaeger, D., P. A. Willems, and N. C. Heglund. "The energy cost of walking in children." Pfl�gers Archiv European Journal of Physiology 441, no. 4 (January 15, 2001): 538–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s004240000443.

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21

Vidal-Cordasco, M., A. Mateos, G. Zorrilla-Revilla, O. Prado-Nóvoa, and J. Rodríguez. "Energetic cost of walking in fossil hominins." American Journal of Physical Anthropology 164, no. 3 (August 19, 2017): 609–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.23301.

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Jones, Lynnette M., Debra L. Waters, and Michael Legge. "Walking Speed at Self-Selected Exercise Pace Is Lower but Energy Cost Higher in Older Versus Younger Women." Journal of Physical Activity and Health 6, no. 3 (May 2009): 327–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jpah.6.3.327.

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Background:Walking is usually undertaken at a speed that coincides with the lowest metabolic cost. Aging however, alters the speed–cost relationship, as preferred walking speeds decrease and energy costs increase. It is unclear to what extent this relationship is affected when older women undertake walking as an exercise modality. The aim of this study was to compare the energetic cost of walking at a self-selected exercise pace for 30 min in older and younger women.Methods:The energetic cost of walking was assessed using the energy equivalent of oxygen consumption measured in 18 young (25 to 49 y) and 20 older (50 to 79 y) women who were asked to walk at their “normal” exercise pace on a motorized treadmill for 30 min.Results:The mass-specific net cost of walking (Cw) was 15% higher and self-selected walking speed was 23% lower in the older women than in the younger group. When speed was held constant, the Cw was 0.30 (J · .kg−1 · m−1) higher in the older women.Conclusions:Preferred exercise pace incurs a higher metabolic cost in older women and needs be taken into consideration when recommending walking as an exercise modality.

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MacLean, Mhairi K., and Daniel P. Ferris. "Energetics of Walking With a Robotic Knee Exoskeleton." Journal of Applied Biomechanics 35, no. 5 (October 1, 2019): 320–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jab.2018-0384.

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The authors tested 4 young healthy subjects walking with a powered knee exoskeleton to determine if it could reduce the metabolic cost of locomotion. Subjects walked with a backpack loaded and unloaded, on a treadmill with inclinations of 0° and 15°, and outdoors with varied natural terrain. Participants walked at a self-selected speed (average 1.0 m/s) for all conditions, except incline treadmill walking (average 0.5 m/s). The authors hypothesized that the knee exoskeleton would reduce the metabolic cost of walking uphill and with a load compared with walking without the exoskeleton. The knee exoskeleton reduced metabolic cost by 4.2% in the 15° incline with the backpack load. All other conditions had an increase in metabolic cost when using the knee exoskeleton compared with not using the exoskeleton. There was more variation in metabolic cost over the outdoor walking course with the knee exoskeleton than without it. Our findings indicate that powered assistance at the knee is more likely to decrease the metabolic cost of walking in uphill conditions and during loaded walking rather than in level conditions without a backpack load. Differences in positive mechanical work demand at the knee for varying conditions may explain the differences in metabolic benefit from the exoskeleton.

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Franceschini, Marco, Anais Rampello, Maurizio Agosti, Maurizio Massucci, Federica Bovolenta, and Patrizio Sale. "Walking Performance: Correlation between Energy Cost of Walking and Walking Participation. New Statistical Approach Concerning Outcome Measurement." PLoS ONE 8, no. 2 (February 28, 2013): e56669. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0056669.

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Wert, David M., Jennifer Brach, Subashan Perera, and Jessie M. VanSwearingen. "Gait Biomechanics, Spatial and Temporal Characteristics, and the Energy Cost of Walking in Older Adults With Impaired Mobility." Physical Therapy 90, no. 7 (July 1, 2010): 977–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.2522/ptj.20090316.

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BackgroundAbnormalities of gait and changes in posture during walking are more common in older adults than in young adults and may contribute to an increase in the energy expended for walking.ObjectiveThe objective of this study was to examine the contributions of abnormalities of gait biomechanics (hip extension, trunk flexion, and foot-floor angle at heel-strike) and gait characteristics (step width, stance time, and cadence) to the energy cost of walking in older adults with impaired mobility.DesignA cross-sectional design was used.MethodsGait speed, step width, stance time, and cadence were derived during walking on an instrumented walkway. Trunk flexion, hip extension, and foot-floor angle at heel contact were assessed during overground walking. The energy cost of walking was determined from oxygen consumption data collected during treadmill walking. All measurements were collected at the participants' usual, self-selected walking speed.ResultsFifty community-dwelling older adults with slow and variable gait participated. Hip extension, trunk flexion, and step width were factors related to the energy cost of walking. Hip extension, step width, and cadence were the only gait measures beyond age and gait speed that provided additional contributions to the variance of the energy cost, with mean R2 changes of .22, .12, and .07, respectively.LimitationsOther factors not investigated in this study (interactions among variables, psychosocial factors, muscle strength [force-generating capacity], range of motion, body composition, and resting metabolic rate) may further explain the greater energy cost of walking in older adults with slow and variable gait.ConclusionsCloser inspection of hip extension, step width, and cadence during physical therapy gait assessments may assist physical therapists in recognizing factors that contribute to the greater energy cost of walking in older adults.

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Gottschall, Jinger S., and Rodger Kram. "Energy cost and muscular activity required for propulsion during walking." Journal of Applied Physiology 94, no. 5 (May 1, 2003): 1766–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00670.2002.

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We reasoned that with an optimal aiding horizontal force, the reduction in metabolic rate would reflect the cost of generating propulsive forces during normal walking. Furthermore, the reductions in ankle extensor electromyographic (EMG) activity would indicate the propulsive muscle actions. We applied horizontal forces at the waist, ranging from 15% body weight aiding to 15% body weight impeding, while subjects walked at 1.25 m/s. With an aiding horizontal force of 10% body weight, 1) the net metabolic cost of walking decreased to a minimum of 53% of normal walking, 2) the mean EMG of the medial gastrocnemius (MG) during the propulsive phase decreased to 59% of the normal walking magnitude, and yet 3) the mean EMG of the soleus (Sol) did not decrease significantly. Our data indicate that generating horizontal propulsive forces constitutes nearly half of the metabolic cost of normal walking. Additionally, it appears that the MG plays an important role in forward propulsion, whereas the Sol does not.

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TANAKA, Yoshiko, Hitoshi MARUYAMA, and Yusuke NISHIDA. "The Comparison of the Energy Cost among Walking, New-Exercise-Walking and Jogging." Rigakuryoho Kagaku 17, no. 2 (2002): 83–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1589/rika.17.83.

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Silder, Amy, Thor Besier, and Scott L. Delp. "Predicting the metabolic cost of incline walking from muscle activity and walking mechanics." Journal of Biomechanics 45, no. 10 (June 2012): 1842–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbiomech.2012.03.032.

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Schifino, Albino G., and Chee-Hoi Leong. "Chronic Eccentric Cycling Training Improves Walking Economy in Healthy Individuals." Journal of Clinical Exercise Physiology 9, no. 2 (June 1, 2020): 45–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.31189/2165-7629-9.2.45.

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ABSTRACT Background: Low muscular strength is associated with decline in ambulatory function. Progressive strength training has been demonstrated to improve physical functional outcomes. Because eccentric exercise is a potent stimulus for increasing muscle size, strength, and power, it has the potential to serve as a time-effective intervention to improve ambulatory function at a lower metabolic cost compared with traditional strength training. We examined the effect of a 6-week eccentric cycling training intervention on walking economy in healthy individuals. Methods: Eleven healthy individuals (age = 24 ± 3 years; body weight = 71 ± 9 kg; height = 1.7 ± 0.1 m) trained on an eccentric ergometer for 6 weeks (3×/week; 10–30 min; 54%–66% of maximum heart rate). The metabolic cost of walking was assessed 1 week prior to and 1 week following eccentric cycling training. Cost of walking was determined as the net energy cost (J·kg−1·s−1), divided by walking speed (m·s−1) during steady-state walking at 5 walking speeds (0.7, 1.11, 1.39, 1.67, and 1.9 m·s−1) Results: Posttraining cost of walking was significantly improved across all 5 walking speeds (0.7, 1.11, 1.39, 1.67, and 1.9 m·s−1; all P < 0.01) following eccentric cycling training. Conclusion: These results demonstrate that 6 weeks of chronic eccentric cycling training was effective in improving walking economy and can be safely administered and tolerated by healthy individuals. Enhancing ambulatory function through eccentric cycling ergometry would be beneficial for both athletic and mobility-limited populations.

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Jin, Shanhai, Shijie Guo, Hashimoto Kazunobu, Xiaogang Xiong, and Motoji Yamamoto. "Influence of a Soft Robotic Suit on Metabolic Cost in Long-Distance Level and Inclined Walking." Applied Bionics and Biomechanics 2018 (July 5, 2018): 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2018/9573951.

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Metabolic cost during walking is positively linked to exercise intensity. For a walking assistive device, one of the major aims should be the maximization of wearers’ metabolic benefits for different walking situations. Toward this goal, this paper experimentally evaluates the influence of an authors’ soft robotic suit, which has been developed to assist hip flexion for energy-efficient walking of elderly persons in daily life activities, on metabolic cost reduction in the long-distance level and inclined walking. Experiment results show that, for a 79-year-old healthy male subject, the robotic suit significantly reduced metabolic cost in the condition of the robotic suit worn and powered on compared with the condition of worn but powered off.

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MacDonald, Mhairi J., Samantha G. Fawkner, Ailsa G. Niven, and David Rowe. "Real World, Real People: Can We Assess Walking on a Treadmill to Establish Step Count Recommendations in Adolescents?" Pediatric Exercise Science 31, no. 4 (November 1, 2019): 488–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/pes.2018-0213.

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Background: Currently, it is not known how much walking should be advocated for good health in an adolescent population. Step count recommendations for minimum time in moderate-intensity activity have been translated predominantly from treadmill walking. Purpose: To compare the energy cost of walking on a treadmill with overground walking in adolescent girls. Methods: A total of 26 adolescent girls undertook resting metabolic measurements for individual determination of 1 metabolic equivalent using indirect calorimetry. Energy expenditure was subsequently assessed during treadmill and overground walking at slow, moderate, and fast walking speeds for 4 to 6 minutes. Treadmill step rates were matched overground using a metronome. Results: The energy cost of treadmill walking was found to be significantly greater than and not equivalent to overground walking at 133 steps per minute; (equivalent to the fast walking pace): 3.90 (2.78–5.01), P < .001, mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) = 18.18%, and metabolic equivalent 0.77 (0.54–1.00), P < .001, MAPE = 18.16%. The oxygen cost per step ( mL·step−1) was significantly greater and not equivalent on the treadmill at 120 and 133 steps per minute: 0.43 (0.12–0.56), P < .05, MAPE = 10.12% versus 1.40 (1.01–1.76), P < .001, MAPE = 17.64%, respectively. Conclusion: The results suggest that there is a difference in energy cost per step of walking on a treadmill and overground at the same step rate. This should be considered when utilizing the treadmill in energy expenditure studies. Studies which aim to provide step recommendations should focus on overground walking where most walking activity is adopted.

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Umberger, Brian R. "Stance and swing phase costs in human walking." Journal of The Royal Society Interface 7, no. 50 (March 31, 2010): 1329–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2010.0084.

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Leg swing in human walking has historically been viewed as a passive motion with little metabolic cost. Recent estimates of leg swing costs are equivocal, covering a range from 10 to 33 per cent of the net cost of walking. There has also been a debate as to whether the periods of double-limb support during the stance phase dominate the cost of walking. Part of this uncertainty is because of our inability to measure metabolic energy consumption in individual muscles during locomotion. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the metabolic cost of walking using a modelling approach that allowed instantaneous energy consumption rates in individual muscles to be estimated over the full gait cycle. At a typical walking speed and stride rate, leg swing represented 29 per cent of the total muscular cost. During the stance phase, the double-limb and single-limb support periods accounted for 27 and 44 per cent of the total cost, respectively. Performing step-to-step transitions, which encompasses more than just the double-support periods, represented 37 per cent of the total cost of walking. Increasing stride rate at a constant speed led to greater double-limb support costs, lower swing phase costs and no change in single-limb support costs. Together, these results provide unique insight as to how metabolic energy is expended over the human gait cycle.

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Valente, E. E. L., V. T. Filipini, L. C. Araújo, M. Stahlhofer, B. V. R. Melo, E. L. Bantle, D. F. Pilz, S. N. S. Arndt, M. L. Damasceno, and M. Barbizan. "Effect of heat load and dietary protein on oxygen pulse and energy cost for locomotion in heifers." Animal Production Science 59, no. 9 (2019): 1611. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/an18177.

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The objectives of the present study were to evaluate the effect of heat load, bodyweight and dietary protein on oxygen pulse of heifers, to obtain the energy cost of walking on flat and sloping terrain, and to compare the energy cost of heifers during continuous walking and intermittent walking. In Experiment 1, the correlations of oxygen consumption, heart rate and oxygen pulse (O2P) with bodyweight, black globe temperature and temperature and humidity index were examined. Moreover, the effect of dietary protein on O2P was evaluated. The temperature and humidity index and black globe temperature had a low positive correlation with O2P and oxygen consumption, and a low negative correlation with heart rate. However, weight had no correlation with O2P. There was a linear increase in O2P with a very low adjustment with an increasing dietary crude protein concentration. In Experiment 2, the energy cost of heifers walking continuously at a constant speed in a terrain with 0%, 6% and 12% gradient was measured. The energy expenditure was similar among the terrain gradients. The heifers walking had a 16.6% higher energy expenditure than when they were standing. In Experiment 3, a comparison of the energy cost was made among heifers standing, continuously walking and intermittently walking at a constant speed on flat ground. The energy cost for walking was similar between continuous and intermittent walking. The heat load, bodyweight and dietary protein concentration had a low effect on O2P in dairy heifers. Therefore, measurements over a short time (5–15 min) are a reliable estimator of O2P through the day. Both intermittent and continuous walking can be used to evaluate energy expenditure.

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34

Litman, Todd Alexander. "Economic Value of Walkability." Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board 1828, no. 1 (January 2003): 3–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.3141/1828-01.

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There are ways to quantify the value of walking (the activity) and walkability (the quality of walking conditions, including safety, comfort, and convenience). Walking and walkability provide a variety of benefits, including accessibility, consumer cost savings, public cost savings (reduced external costs), more efficient land use, community livability, improved fitness and public health, economic development, and support for equity objectives. Yet current transportation planning practices tend to undervalue walking. More comprehensive analysis techniques are likely to increase public support for walking and other nonmotorized modes of travel.

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35

ANDERSON, BRUCE D., MARTIN E. FEDER, and ROBERT J. FULL. "Consequences of a Gait Change During Locomotion in Toads (Bufo Woodhousii Fowleri)." Journal of Experimental Biology 158, no. 1 (July 1, 1991): 133–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.158.1.133.

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Most animals cannot sustain speeds above that at which the rate of oxygen consumption reaches a maximum (VOO2max). Fowler's toad (Bufo woodhousii fowleri), by contrast, has a maximum aerobic speed (MAS, the speed at VOO2max) of 0.27 km h−1 but can sustain speeds as high as 0.45 km h−1 without increasing the VOO2max above the VOO2max. The present study investigates the discrepancy between MAS and the maximum sustainable speed (MSS). Toads switched from walking to hopping as their speed increased. The cost of a hop (4.1×10−4 O2g−1hop−1) was greater than the cost of a walking stride (2.5 × 10−4 ml O2 g−1 stride−1) and was independent of speed for both hopping and walking. However, individual hops were much longer than walking strides, which more than offset the greater cost of a hop. The calculated cost to traverse a given distance was approximately 1.9 times as much for walking as for hopping. During natural locomotion animals used combined walking and hopping. Individual toads that favored walking had higher locomotor costs than those that favored hopping. The estimated cost of exclusive hopping was less than the cost of natural locomotion at all but the highest speeds. This discrepancy may reflect the fact that the natural gait is a combination of both the less economical walking gait and the more economical hopping gait. To achieve speeds above the MAS toads walked less and used the more economical hopping gait more, and thus did not increase energy cost above that of VOO2max. The speed at which the estimated cost of exclusive hopping exceeded the cost of a natural gait and approached the VOO2max was close to the MSS. Creatine phosphate and lactate concentrations in the muscles of the thigh and calf did not change from resting levels at sustainable speeds greater than the MAS. Note: To whom reprint requests should be addressed

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36

Farley, C. T., and T. A. McMahon. "Energetics of walking and running: insights from simulated reduced-gravity experiments." Journal of Applied Physiology 73, no. 6 (December 1, 1992): 2709–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1992.73.6.2709.

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On Earth, a person uses about one-half as much energy to walk a mile as to run a mile. On another planet with lower gravity, would walking still be more economical than running? When people carry weights while they walk or run, energetic cost increases in proportion to the added load. It would seem to follow that if gravity were reduced, energetic cost would decrease in proportion to body weight in both gaits. However, we find that under simulated reduced gravity, the rate of energy consumption decreases in proportion to body weight during running but not during walking. When gravity is reduced by 75%, the rate of energy consumption is reduced by 72% during running but only by 33% during walking. Because reducing gravity decreases the energetic cost much more for running than for walking, walking is not the cheapest way to travel a mile at low levels of gravity. These results suggest that the link between the mechanics of locomotion and energetic cost is fundamentally different for walking and for running.

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37

Browning, Raymond C., Emily A. Baker, Jessica A. Herron, and Rodger Kram. "Effects of obesity and sex on the energetic cost and preferred speed of walking." Journal of Applied Physiology 100, no. 2 (February 2006): 390–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00767.2005.

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The metabolic energy cost of walking is determined, to a large degree, by body mass, but it is not clear how body composition and mass distribution influence this cost. We tested the hypothesis that walking would be most expensive for obese women compared with obese men and normal-weight women and men. Furthermore, we hypothesized that for all groups, preferred walking speed would correspond to the speed that minimized the gross energy cost per distance. We measured body composition, maximal oxygen consumption, and preferred walking speed of 39 (19 class II obese, 20 normal weight) women and men. We also measured oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production while the subjects walked on a level treadmill at six speeds (0.50–1.75 m/s). Both obesity and sex affected the net metabolic rate (W/kg) of walking. Net metabolic rates of obese subjects were only ∼10% greater (per kg) than for normal-weight subjects, and net metabolic rates for women were ∼10% greater than for men. The increase in net metabolic rate at faster walking speeds was greatest in obese women compared with the other groups. Preferred walking speed was not different across groups (1.42 m/s) and was near the speed that minimized gross energy cost per distance. Surprisingly, mass distribution (thigh mass/body mass) was not related to net metabolic rate, but body composition (% fat) was ( r2 = 0.43). Detailed biomechanical studies of walking are needed to investigate whether obese individuals adopt novel energy saving mechanisms during walking.

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38

Handford, Matthew L., and Manoj Srinivasan. "Sideways walking: preferred is slow, slow is optimal, and optimal is expensive." Biology Letters 10, no. 1 (January 2014): 20131006. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2013.1006.

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When humans wish to move sideways, they almost never walk sideways, except for a step or two; they usually turn and walk facing forward. Here, we show that the experimental metabolic cost of walking sideways, per unit distance, is over three times that of forward walking. We explain this high metabolic cost with a simple mathematical model; sideways walking is expensive because it involves repeated starting and stopping. When walking sideways, our subjects preferred a low natural speed, averaging 0.575 m s −1 (0.123 s.d.). Even with no prior practice, this preferred sideways walking speed is close to the metabolically optimal speed, averaging 0.610 m s −1 (0.064 s.d.). Subjects were within 2.4% of their optimal metabolic cost per distance. Thus, we argue that sideways walking is avoided because it is expensive and slow, and it is slow because the optimal speed is low, not because humans cannot move sideways fast.

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39

Liu, Fangyu, Amal A. Wanigatunga, Pei-Lun Kuo, Vadim Zipunnikov, Eleanor M. Simonsick, Luigi Ferrucci, and Jennifer A. Schrack. "Association Between Walking Energetics and Fragmented Physical Activity in Mid- to Late-Life." Journals of Gerontology: Series A 76, no. 10 (May 8, 2021): e281-e289. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gerona/glab127.

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Abstract Background Physical activity becomes increasingly fragmented with age, which may be an early marker of functional decline. Energetic cost of walking and energy capacity are also linked with functional decline, but their associations with activity fragmentation, and the potential modifying roles of total daily physical activity and age, remains unclear. Method A total of 493 participants (50–93 years) from the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging underwent measures of energetic cost of usual-paced overground walking (mL/kg/m), energy demand during slow walking (mL/kg/min) on a treadmill (0.67 m/s, 0% grade), and average peak walking energy expenditure (mL/kg/min) during a fast-paced 400-m walk. A ratio of slow walking to peak walking energy expenditure (“cost-to-capacity ratio”) was calculated. Activity fragmentation was quantified as an active-to-sedentary transition probability (ASTP) using Actiheart accelerometer data. Linear regression models with ASTP as the dependent variable were used to test whether poorer energy cost and capacity were associated with higher ASTP and whether the associations differed by daily physical activity or age. Results After adjusting for demographics, body composition, comorbidities, and daily physical activity, every 10% higher cost-to-capacity ratio was associated with 0.4% greater ASTP (p = .005). This association was primarily driven by the least active participants (pinteraction = .023). Peak walking energy expenditure was only associated with ASTP among participants aged ≥70 years. Conclusions Higher cost-to-capacity ratio and lower energy capacity may manifest as more fragmented physical activity, especially among those less active or aged ≥70 years. Future studies should examine whether an increasing cost-to-capacity ratio or declining energy capacity predicts subsequent activity fragmentation.

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Liu, Fangyu, Yurun Cai, Laura Skow, Amal Wanigatunga, Qu Tian, Eleanor Simonsick, and Jennifer Schrack. "ASSOCIATIONS OF GAIT CHARACTERISTICS AND VARIABILITY WITH WALKING EFFICIENCY IN OLDER ADULTS." Innovation in Aging 6, Supplement_1 (November 1, 2022): 302. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/geroni/igac059.1194.

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Abstract Higher energetic cost of walking per unit distance has been linked to many adverse health outcomes in older adults. Aging-related changes in gait characteristics have been postulated to contribute to energetic inefficiency, but previous studies focused on younger adults, and/or examined only a few gait characteristics. In the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging, 507 older adults ≥50 years (72.3±9.8 years, 48.3% women, 48.3% black) without stroke and Parkinson disease had concurrent measurements of usual-paced gait characteristics using 3D motion analysis and energetic cost of walking using indirect calorimetry during a 2.5-min usual-paced overground walk. We tested the associations of the mean and the coefficient of variance (CV) of cadence (steps/min), swing time (ms), double support time (ms), stance time (ms), step time (ms), step length (cm), and step width (cm) with energetic cost of walking using linear regression models, adjusting for demographics, body composition, comorbidities, and gait speed. We found that a 5-cm shorter step length was associated with 0.40 ml/kg/100m higher cost of walking (p< 0.001). A 1% higher CV in swing time and 1% lower CV in step width was associated with 0.152 ml/kg/100m higher (p=0.044) and 0.023 ml/kg/100m lower (p=0.022) cost of walking, respectively. Our results suggest that mean step length and variability in swing time and step width could potentially contribute to the rising cost of walking in older adults. Future longitudinal studies are needed to understand whether changes in gait variability can predict increased energetic cost of walking and can be intervened to preserve energy efficiency.

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Roaldsen, K. S., B. Elfving, J. K. Stanghelle, and E. Mattsson. "Effect of multilayer high-compression bandaging on ankle range of motion and oxygen cost of walking." Phlebology: The Journal of Venous Disease 27, no. 1 (August 2, 2011): 5–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1258/phleb.2011.010084.

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Objective To evaluate the effects of multilayer high-compression bandaging on ankle range of motion, oxygen consumption and subjective walking ability in healthy subjects. Method A volunteer sample of 22 healthy subjects (10 women and 12 men; aged 67 [63–83] years) were studied. The intervention included treadmill-walking at self-selected speed with and without multilayer high-compression bandaging (Proforeº), randomly selected. The primary outcome variables were ankle range of motion, oxygen consumption and subjective walking ability. Results Total ankle range of motion decreased 4% with compression. No change in oxygen cost of walking was observed. Less than half the subjects reported that walking-shoe comfort or walking distance was negatively affected. Conclusion Ankle range of motion decreased with compression but could probably be counteracted with a regular exercise programme. There were no indications that walking with compression was more exhausting than walking without. Appropriate walking shoes could seem important to secure gait efficiency when using compression garments.

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Dougherty, Ryan, Fangyu Li, Amal Wanigatunga, Qu Tian, Eleanor Simonsick, Murat Bilgel, and Jennifer Schrack. "Association of Walking Energetics With Amyloid Status: Findings From the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging." Innovation in Aging 5, Supplement_1 (December 1, 2021): 369. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/geroni/igab046.1433.

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Abstract Higher energetic costs for mobility are associated with slow and declining gait speed. Slow gait is linked to cognitive decline and Alzheimer’s disease (AD), but the physiological underpinnings are note well-understood. We investigated the cross-sectional association between the energetic cost of walking and amyloid status (+/-) in 174 cognitively unimpaired men and women (52%) aged 78.5±8.6 years. The energetic cost of walking was assessed as the average oxygen consumption (VO2) during 2.5 minutes of customary-paced overground walking. Amyloid status was determined from 11C-Pittsburgh compound B (PiB) positron emission tomography (PET) imaging. Average energetic cost of walking was .169±.0379 ml/kg/m and 30% of the sample was PiB+. In logistic regression adjusted for demographics, APOE-e4, body composition and comorbidities, each 0.01ml/kg/m higher energy cost was associated with 12% increased odds of being PiB+ (OR=1.12; 95% CI:1.01-1.24). Inefficient walking may be a clinically meaningful physiological indicator of emerging AD-related pathology.

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Miller, J. F., and B. A. Stamford. "Intensity and energy cost of weighted walking vs. running for men and women." Journal of Applied Physiology 62, no. 4 (April 1, 1987): 1497–501. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1987.62.4.1497.

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The energy cost and intensity of exercise performed at 0% grade were determined for walking at 2, 3, and 4 mph, running at 5, 6, and 7 mph, and walking at 2, 3, and 4 mph with ankle and/or hand weights. Subjects were young moderately trained males (4) and females (3). The energy cost per kilogram of body weight was similar between sexes, and data were combined for among-treatment comparisons. Intensity of effort and energy cost per minute and per mile were increased when weight was added during walking and were increased more with hand weights compared with ankle weights regardless of speed. The average increase in O2 uptake (ml X kg-1 X min-1 X 100 g-1 of added wt) was 0.8% for ankle, 1.3% for hand, and 0.9% for ankle and hand weights. Gross energy cost per mile during weighted walking (120–158 kcal/mile) was comparable to and in some cases exceeded that of running which was independent of speed (120–130 kcal/mile). During nonweighted walking, the energy cost (kcal/mile) was significantly greater at 4 mph compared with 2 and 3 mph which did not differ. The intensity of walking at 4 mph with ankle and hand weights was comparable to running at 5 mph.

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Carbone, Giuseppe, and Marco Ceccarelli. "A Low-Cost Easy-Operation Hexapod Walking Machine." International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems 5, no. 2 (January 2008): 21. http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/5645.

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45

Moore, Carolyn A., Bahareh Nejad, Robert A. Novak, and Luciano S. Dias. "Energy Cost of Walking in Low Lumbar Myelomeningocele." Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics 21, no. 3 (May 2001): 388–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01241398-200105000-00024.

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46

Coyle, Peter C., Jenifer M. Pugliese, J. Megan Sions, Mark S. Eskander, Jennifer A. Schrack, and Gregory E. Hicks. "Pain Provocation and the Energy Cost of Walking." Journal of Geriatric Physical Therapy 42, no. 4 (2019): E97—E104. http://dx.doi.org/10.1519/jpt.0000000000000212.

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47

Thomas, Tom R., and Ben R. Londeree. "Energy Cost During Prolonged Walking vs Jogging Exercise." Physician and Sportsmedicine 17, no. 5 (May 1989): 93–102. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00913847.1989.11709785.

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48

Selinger, Jessica C., Shawn M. O’Connor, Jeremy D. Wong, and J. Maxwell Donelan. "Humans Can Continuously Optimize Energetic Cost during Walking." Current Biology 25, no. 18 (September 2015): 2452–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2015.08.016.

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49

Zielinska, Teresa. "Minimizing Energy Cost in Multi-Legged Walking Machines." Journal of Intelligent & Robotic Systems 85, no. 3-4 (June 20, 2016): 431–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10846-016-0398-0.

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AbstractDue to their ability to avoid obstacles and to move over difficult terrain, moreover having the ability to adjust their posture, walking machines for many years have been considered as very promising devices for inspection, exploration and surveyance tasks, however still they have not been widely applied. One of the main limitations is the power supply. Six legged walking machines are robust from the point of view of their walking stability in difficult terrain, but their actuators (18 if each leg has active 3 DOF’s) adds to their weight what increases the energy consumption. The higher energy consumption requires more efficient batteries, but usually those are heavier, what again increases the energy demand. Therefore at the design stage a detailed analysis is required of how to decrease the energy consumption. This paper studies energy consumption considering the tripod gait of hexapods. The method used for energy evaluation is presented and the results are discussed. The discussion of energy saving both for the leg transfer phase and during the support phase, which is the most demanding phase, is presented. The energy consumption is expressed in the normalized form, depending on the normalized leg proportions, body height and step length. The straight line forward/backward and side walking are analyzed. The aim of the studies is to provide to the designers the information about favorable leg proportions taking into account the reduction of required energy and to provide the information which leg posture should be selected.

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O’Connor, Shawn M., Henry Z. Xu, and Arthur D. Kuo. "Energetic cost of walking with increased step variability." Gait & Posture 36, no. 1 (May 2012): 102–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gaitpost.2012.01.014.

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