Дисертації з теми "Community based tourism development"

Tourism is a lens that provides unique insights into the social, cultural, political and economic processes operating in specific environments. In this study, the lens is directed at community-based tourism initiatives in northern Viet Nam that have been ‘facilitated’ by international development agencies. The potential of tourism as a tool for development is gaining increased recognition and popularity around the globe, despite widespread criticism in the academic literature based on the poor record of success. In Viet Nam, community-based tourism initiatives are increasingly being established with assistance from international development agencies, as a means of diversifying agricultural livelihoods in the hope of alleviating poverty. Based on six weeks of ethnographic fieldwork in northern Viet Nam, this research joins only a handful of tourism studies that have used actor-network theory (ANT) as a methodological approach for studying tourism. This thesis therefore provides an important contribution to the emerging dialogue on the potential of ANT to inform new understandings about tourism, as well as opening the black box of development-assisted community-based tourism in Viet Nam. This research uses Callon’s (1986b) phases of translation to identify the actors in community-based tourism in Viet Nam, exploring the roles, relationships and strategies (per)formed by these actors as they attempt to enact CBT actor-networks. A discourse analysis shows how dominant discourses around knowledge and power homogenize groups such as host communities and tour operators, in ways that legitimise the interventions and actions of other actors, such as development agencies and government institutions. Exploring the dominant discourses around CBT opens a window into spaces within the actor-network of CBT where the workings of the actor-network are prescribed, taken for granted, and thus appear stable. However there are also spaces where the actor-networks are constantly negotiated, where meaning is contested and relationships between actors are fluid and dynamic. Out of these negotiated spaces agency emerges, and actor-networks are reconfigured as power relations shift and actors are transformed. This thesis explores some of these prescribed and negotiated spaces, showing the impact of specific power relations on material CBT outcomes and providing new understandings to inform development policy and practice.

Master of Science
Department of Landscape Architecture/Regional Community Planning
Stephanie A. Rolley
As bicycle tourists seek interesting experiences along low traffic roads, rural communities are poised to embrace bicycle tourism as a community development strategy. Asset based community development provides a methodology for communities to utilize assets that already exist within their communities to meet the needs of these tourists. The community capitals framework then provides a platform for analyzing and discussing the existing assets, as well as helping hone in on ways communities can develop further. The Sunken Lands region of Northeast Arkansas is one such rural region seeking to embrace bicycle tourism. Two case studies of communities that have capitalized on their existing assets to accommodate bicyclists were completed to explore potential for using the community capitals framework to guide pursuit of bicycle tourism. A snowball approach to interviewing community members in Collinwood, Tennessee and Farmington, Missouri was used to discover the details of bicycle accommodations, the processes of pursuing bicycle tourism, the people and groups involved, the types of assets used, and any challenges faced in implementation. Additionally, existing literature was used to substantiate each case and provide a more robust community picture. Emerging from the case studies were commonalities that aligned with the community capitals framework and Emery and Flora’s (2006) theory that community change is driven by social capital. The result is a tool that aligns community assets with the needs of bicycle tourists with the community capitals framework.

Community-Based Tourism (CBT) is a bottom-up approach to sustainable developmentused in developing countries to enhance the conservation of natural resources, preservetraditional culture, and generate income at the local level. The study aims to understandthe effectiveness of community associations for CBT development in developingcountries. Ghana is selected as the primary case of this study. Published data on CBTassociations in Namibia, Uganda, Kyrgyzstan and Costa Rica are used as supporting casesof the study. The research was conducted primarily, using library resources, incombination with fieldwork conducted by the author. The findings describe a viciouscircle of poverty in Ghana’s CBT development as well as describe successes andchallenges of supporting cases. It is clarified that the studied CBT associations haveplayed a significant role in creating networks and making linkages among the variousstakeholders involved. Further, these efforts increase the possibility of expanding CBTbenefits to the whole country, especially by creating interaction with governmentalagencies. However, obtaining a sustainable funding source for their activities is still agreat challenge, facing the associations. The study concludes that the establishment ofCBT associations can solve some of the problems identified as limiting Ghana’s CBTdevelopment. In particular, CBT associations could be useful for enhancing collaborationamong stakeholders. Unfortunately, the study could not identify any concrete solutionsfor the many financial issues which many developing countries face. An empirical studyon introducing microfinance or other soft loan system to CBT associations could be avaluable subject for further studies.

During the past several decades, globalization forces in general and mechanization of coal mining jobs more specifically have sharply changed the economic and social conditions of many of the coal towns in the Central Appalachian region of the United States. Efforts to identify and seek alternatives to replace the ongoing decline of their traditional way of life are deeply entangled with community identity and culture due to the historical hegemonic role and power of coal mining and other extractive industries and their critical role in forming residents' identities. Many of the small communities in this region are pursuing initiatives to highlight their natural and cultural assets in efforts to develop tourism as a new foundation for their economies. However, to avoid tourism simply becoming another extractive industry, researchers and practitioners have suggested that these communities must develop capacity to participate in and take ownership of tourism-related decision-making processes. In an effort to examine the dynamics of one such effort in detail this study drew on Community Capacity theory as interpreted by Chaskin (2001a) to explore the relationships between Community Cultural Development (CCD) and the sustainability of tourism in a small town located in Central Appalachia seeking to transition to a visitor-based economy. This dissertation explored whether and in what ways engaging in CCD projects and community capacity are related and identified ways such interactions influence the sustainability of tourism. Along with personal observation and a review of relevant archival data, I conducted 10 semi-structured interviews with a sample of individuals from a community cultural development organization regarding their efforts to build possibilities for sustainable tourism in their rural jurisdiction. This study's findings contribute to the existing literature by suggesting Chaskin's framework of community capacity as an apt model for charting progress towards sustainable community-based tourism. Moreover, this research found that employing CCD methods can enhance community capacity by encouraging a sense of shared identity among the group's members and through them among a broader cross-section of residents. Lastly, this inquiry suggested that CCD contributed to the sustainability of tourism in the case study community by increasing residents' effective participation in decision-making processes concerning such efforts, encouraging locals' partnership and ownership of tourism development projects and providing space for negotiating the tourist gaze in guest-host relationships.
Doctor of Philosophy
Since at least the late 1960s and the advent of the ongoing decline of mining, the populations of many small coal-dependent towns in Central Appalachia have fallen into economic hardship (e.g., high rates of poverty, too few and/or inadequate jobs and public services), now confront a range of social issues arising from that harsh reality (e.g., youth out-migration, rapidly aging populations, the current opioid epidemic). In response to those conditions, many affected communities are investing in their wealth of natural resources and unique cultural assets to promote tourism as a palliative, if not replacement, for their previous economies. Tourism has the potential to reduce poverty and to boost shared prosperity among host communities, but it also, if poorly managed, could become another extractive industry. This study focused on the ways that residents in one Central Appalachian community have individually and as groups sought to assume ownership of their area's tourism-related efforts. I specifically analyzed participation in that jurisdiction's cultural activities (e.g., community theatre and story circles) to understand whether and how involvement in them affected participants' awareness of their capability to address the conditions in their community. My interviews with 10 active participants in my sample community's collective cultural projects revealed that residents did come to perceive themselves as possessing capacity as individuals and as groups to address the challenges that have arisen in their community as its traditional economy has declined. This study also found that participants in culture-based group activities were better prepared to participate effectively in tourism-related decision-making processes in their community. Indeed, many of those I interviewed have become owners and/or partners in tourism development projects because of the information and networks they developed during their participation in cultural activities. Finally, this analysis found that community cultural activities created a space for residents to interact regardless of their socio-economic status, ideological predisposition or other characteristics; an outcome that interviewees indicated they had come to cherish.

This research goes beyond the traditionally studied intricacies and contentions within northern Tanzania’s community-based conservation by looking at how the state’s engagement, through wildlife tourism, with local communities in and around protected areas impacts the country’s development and conservation of its wildlife. It draws heavily on Tanzania’s Development Vision 2025 and how the wildlife tourism industry feeds into achieving its objectives. This research looks through the theoretical lens of political ecology, the theory of access, and the powers of exclusion. It applies a qualitative content analysis by coding different types of existing literature in NVivo, and includes semi-structured interviews with key respondents. The research concludes that the government’s recentralization of wildlife management is working opposite to its development ambitions as per Vision 2025, and it is doing very little to address the crisis within its ecosystems and to enhance wildlife conservation. Ultimately, it is through the government’s efforts to protect Tanzania’s ecological uniqueness that both conservation and development have faced increased challenges in its efforts to improve.

Encouraging local people to participate in tourism planning and management can enhance local sustainable development because the host community plays a major role in the future direction of tourism (Murphy, 1985 and Mowforth and Munt, 1998). However, tourism sites in developing countries have limitations in terms of local participatory actions (Tosun, 2000). From the 1990s onwards, creative tourism has increased in popularity in many places around the world. This is thought to be due to its generation of profits that can be used to develop and preserve communities and provide a motivation for local participation. Previous studies have indicated creative tourism is one appropriate solution for challenges in cultural tourism because it can respond to the needs of cultural-based tourism sites to revive and differentiate themselves and provide for active tourists’ needs. There have only been a few studies that have explored the links between sustainable development and creative tourism (Solène, 2011; and Vide 2013). No study has yet linked community-based management with creative tourism. In this study, grounded theory was applied to provide an intensive explanation of the phenomenon and to produce a framework to assist with sustainable development in a community that has value in terms of local wisdom and culture in Kanchanaburi, Thailand. It presents the factors and processes of community-based creative tourism management which can encourage a higher level of local participatory action and lead to local sustainable development. It is the result of collaboration among local stakeholders, residents and tourism networks and was produced to create a sustainable process of community-based development and management of creative tourism activities that provide valuable knowledge and skills for tourists while developing and preserving the community. The research results can add to previous literature with a new theoretical perspective into community-based creative tourism management in rural areas.

This study examines the existing policy and planning frameworks in relation to tourism and local development in Namibia and the level of integration for the respective rural communities. The focus is on the Torra Conservancy in the north-western part of Namibia. The specific objectives are to assess the relative degree to which the local communities have had control in the community-based tourism (CBT) through the community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) programme in terms of rights, empowerment and economic benefits. The study involves a retrospective review of literature on integrative tourism and rural local development and through a survey of key community based tourism (CBT) actors in Bergsig and in Windhoek, Namibia. This study is mainly based on quantitative approach. In addition, thematic interviews were used, where possible, to understand and deepen the views expressed in the survey results. Respondents representing the three main clusters of the tourism industry; government, private sector and the host local communities were examined on their interpretation of the current development of the tourism industry in Namibia. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and factor analysis indicated statistical significant differences between different groups. The research findings revealed that the extent to which local communities participate in the tourism development process depends on the idealistic, and perhaps to some degree unrealistic, expectations, of community-based tourism in the national tourism policy spectrum. Since community perceptions match what is on the ground from development, problems are socially real and necessitated a viable solution for amelioration. Implications are discussed for building a more integrative policy approach that could help guide research, planning, development and evaluation of community-based tourism projects.
Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2014.
tm2015
Tourism Management
PhD
Unrestricted

Community-based tourism (CBT), according to Dodds, R. Ali, A. & Galaski, K. (2016), has historically been developed based on a host community’s assets and objectives due to the fact that the "core of CBT planning has been to determine how best to use it as a development tool." As a result, the established CBT development model typically prioritizes community potential as supply at the expense of the market potential of tourism (demand), disregarding to a certain extent the commercial aspects of tourism. From this perspective, questions regarding product strategy, idea generation, business analysis, and how cross-sectoral knowledge production and exchange can strengthen the sustainability and viability of the CBT product have not yet been fully answered in academic literature. This paper builds on the academic literature regarding market access and is further supported by interviews and participant observation conducted in Brazil. This research indicates that these analyses should be complemented with additional questions about product development, capacity-building, knowledge co-production, collaborative networking, and more. The business life cycle of CBT could be considered a foundational pillar in understanding the business viability of community-based tourism projects, and therefore, the expected findings of this study include the proposal of an amended CBT model and practical recommendations that may be implemented into existing CBT projects.
Le tourisme communautaire (CBT), selon Dodds, R. Ali, A. et Galaski, K. (2016), a été largement développé sur la base des atouts et des objectifs d'une communauté en raison du fait que le en raison du fait que “le cœur de la planification de le tourisme communautaire a été de déterminer la meilleure façon de l'utiliser comme outil de développement” (p. 16). En conséquence, le développement du CBT a donné la priorité au potentiel communautaire (offre) au détriment du potentiel touristique (demande), sans tenir compte, dans une certaine mesure, des aspects commerciaux du tourisme. Dans cette perspective, les questions concernant la stratégie de produit, la génération d'idées, l'analyse commerciale et les moyens par lesquels la production et l'échange de connaissances intersectorielles peuvent renforcer la durabilité et la viabilité du produit CBT n'ont pas encore trouvé de réponse complète dans la littérature universitaire. Bien que les analyses concernant l'accès aux marchés soient abondantes dans la littérature (Dodds et al. 2016; Mitchell & Hall, 2005; Mitchell & Muckosy, 2008; Forstner, 2004; Iorio & Corsale, 2014), cet article, informé par des entretiens semi-structurés et l'observation des participants menée pendant le séjour de deux ans de l'auteur au Brésil, soutient que ces analyses devraient être complétées par des questions supplémentaires sur le développement de produits, la formation des capacités, la coproduction de connaissances, le réseautage collaboratif et plus encore. Le cycle de vie des entreprises du tourisme communautaire pourrait être considéré comme un pilier fondamental de la compréhension de la viabilité commerciale des projets de tourisme communautaire, et par conséquent, les conclusions attendues de cette étude incluent la proposition d'un modèle CBT modifié et des recommandations pratiques qui pourraient être mises en œuvre. dans les projets CBT existants.
Doctorat en Sciences
info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

The global environmental change affects rural communities in an unprecedented way and brings transformations in the livelihoods in rural households. Rural households have a growing vulnerability to climate and non-climate trends and they are searching for new adaptation strategies to face the impacts for upcoming transformations. Tourism is an adaptation strategy which is expanding globally amongst rural communities. The strength of tourism and its new currents represent a source of opportunities for rural communities in Ecuador, to the extent that they are able to offer products that combine attributes of originality and authenticity, sources of differentiation and competitiveness. The key objective of this research is to explore the factors influencing community-based tourism as an effective adaptation strategy of rural communities to global environmental change. To carry out the proposed analysis, a systematic review and a qualitative meta-analysis are done to identify the distinct pathways of vulnerability coexisting among the rural communities being involved in community-based tourism over the world. Also, semi-structured surveys have been implemented as a data collection technique. The Ecuadorian rural communities of San Clemente, Quilotoa, Chugchilan and Tumbabiro were chosen to collect the sample. In these four communities, we examine the different types of rural households and their livelihoods capital. Also, existing diversity of discourses, held by the local residents involved in community-based tourism (CBT) and ecotourism (ET) ventures. In addition, we examine the constituents of collective action in rural communities under study. Although there is still much research that needs to be done to understand the complexity of its effects and potential for sustainable development. Our purpose is to encourage the creation of more and new studies that result in identifying more inclusive forms of sustainable development in the rural communities of Ecuador.
El cambio ambiental global afecta a las comunidades rurales de una manera sin precedentes y trae transformaciones en los medios de vida de los hogares rurales. Los hogares rurales tienen una creciente vulnerabilidad a las tendencias climáticas y no climáticas y están buscando nuevas estrategias de adaptación para enfrentar los impactos de las próximas transformaciones. El turismo es una estrategia de adaptación que se está expandiendo a nivel mundial entre las comunidades rurales. La fortaleza del turismo y sus nuevas corrientes representan una fuente de oportunidades para las comunidades rurales de Ecuador, en la medida en que pueden ofrecer productos que combinan atributos de originalidad y autenticidad, fuentes de diferenciación y competitividad. El objetivo clave de esta investigación es explorar los factores que influyen en el turismo comunitario como una estrategia de adaptación efectiva de las comunidades rurales al cambio ambiental global. Para llevar a cabo el análisis propuesto, se realiza una revisión sistemática y un metanálisis cualitativo para identificar las distintas vías de vulnerabilidad que coexisten entre las comunidades rurales que participan en el turismo comunitario en todo el mundo. Además, se han implementado encuestas semiestructuradas como una técnica de recolección de datos. Las comunidades rurales ecuatorianas de San Clemente, Quilotoa, Chugchilan y Tumbabiro fueron elegidas para recolectar la muestra. En estas cuatro comunidades, examinamos los diferentes tipos de hogares rurales y sus capitales de subsistencia. También, la diversidad de discursos existentes, sostenida por los residentes locales involucrados en el turismo de base comunitaria (CBT) y las empresas de ecoturismo (ET). Además, examinamos los componentes de la acción colectiva en comunidades rurales bajo estudio. Aunque todavía hay mucha investigación que se necesita hacer para comprender la complejidad de sus efectos y el potencial para el desarrollo sostenible. Nuestro propósito es alentar la creación de más y nuevos estudios que resulten en la identificación de formas más inclusivas de desarrollo sostenible en las comunidades rurales de Ecuador.
El canvi ambiental global afecta les àrees rurals d'una manera sense precedents i comporta transformacions profundes per a les comunitats rurals. Les famílies rurals es troben cada vegada més exposades a tendències tant climàtiques com no climàtiques, i estan buscant noves estratègies d’adaptació per minimitzar els impactes perjudicials i optimitzar el benefici. El turisme és una de les estratègies d’adaptació que més es aquesta expandint a nivell mundial entre les comunitats rurals. La fortalesa del turisme, en les seves diferents modalitats, representa una font d'oportunitats molt important per a nombroses comunitats rurals, en la mesura que poden oferir productes que combinen atributs d'originalitat i autenticitat, fonts de diferenciació i competitivitat. Aquest és també el cas de l'Equador. Per tot això, l'objectiu d'aquesta tesi doctoral és identificar i examinar els factors clau que fan del turisme comunitari una estratègia d’adaptació efectiva de les comunitats rurals en un context de canvi ambiental global. Per dur a terme aquest anàlisi s'han conduit quatre estudis. Primer, una revisió sistemàtica i una metanàlisi qualitatiu per identificar els diferents camins de vulnerabilitat que coexisteixen entre les comunitats rurals que participen en el turisme comunitari a tot el món. Segon, mitjançant entrevistes semiestructurades a comunitats rurals andines de l'Equador -San Clemente, Quilotoa, Chugchilan i Tumbabiro- examinar els diferents tipus de llars que hi ha en funció de la seva vulnerabilitat i la capacitat de garantir la seva subsistència. Tercer, també s'identifica la diversitat coexistent de discursos sobre el paper del turisme en aquestes quatre comunitats, tenint en compte que dos estan involucrades en turisme comunitari i dos a ecoturisme. Finalment, s'examina els components que caracteritzen i condicionen l’acció col·lectiva a les quatre comunitats rurals. Tot i que encara hi ha molta investigació pendent a fi de comprendre millor la complexitat del que representa el turisme per a les regions rurals i el seu desenvolupament sostenible; nostre propòsit està en contribuir a omplir aquest buit, sobretot pel que fa a la identificació de formes més inclusives de desenvolupament sostenible a les comunitats rurals, molt especialment en l'Equador.

Thesis (MTech (Tourism and Hospitality)))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2010.
Local communities in Namibia have few options for alternative income apart from selling crafts and livestock farming. The main objective of this study was to create an in-depth understanding of the perceptions of the local community at Twyfelfontein Uibasen Conservancy regarding community based tourism (CBT), and to develop strategies that could be used to influence these perceptions with the main goal of using CBT as a vehicle towards the improvement of local peoples' livelihoods. The study also examined structures and institutions that impact the direction of CBT development at Twyfelfontein Uibasen Conservancy. Both qualitative and quantitative methods were employed for data gathering. A survey was undertaken by means of 67 structured questionnaires among local community members and key stakeholders, which resulted in a 100% return rate. Five in-depth interviews with stakeholders from government, NGOs, the private sector and financiers were also conducted. The findings reveal that local community measure development in line with socio-economic issues since 39% strongly disagreed that their needs are being met through CBT project implementation. They feel that the infrastructure for tourist is well developed for international standards, whilst conversely, community members live in squatter camps, burn candles and live in squalid conditions. Whilst the Namibian government has recognised tourism as a potential means of poverty alleviation, issues of ownership of cultural heritage resources are still not yet in the hands of locals. The study argues that tourism development has been pursued more for economic purposes than for sustainable tourism development. Whilst the conservancies were set up as a strategy for poverty alleviation, the study concludes that development has not yet filtered down to the needy. Therefore, perceptions among the local community are negative towards CBT as a vehicle for socio-cultural and economic development. This study recommends that in order for CBT development to be meaningful, local participation through ownership, capacity building and control should have precedence over pure economic issues. Currently, the biggest beneficiaries seem to be the private tourism sector and, to some degree, foreign investors. Further research should be conducted to evaluate the impact of community perceptions on the tourist in the long - run, since tourist arrival figures continue to increase at Twyfelfontein.

The overall aim of this qualitative study is to investigate the area of new sustainable tourism in theory and practice. The theoretical part, which consisted of a literature study, was made to help find the essence of new sustainable tourism. To bring out tourisms impact on society and environment in practice, a case study was made during an excursion with Södertörn University College to Babati in Tanzania. Semi structured interviews were held with people in Babati. The excursion is being evaluated according to WTO’s sustainable tourism development guidelines and management practices, and finally, these guidelines are analysed. The result of the literature study showed that there is no absolute true core in new sustainable tourism. It is a highly subjective judgment if a tourism venture is sustainable or not, depending on personal values, ideology and personal interests. There is features commonly associated and used in new sustainable tourism, like the sustainability of the three pillars of sustainable development, and the focus on the local, educational and conservational effects, but the essence is subjective. The evaluation of the excursion showed that it is by two third a sustainable tourism venture. It is the economic part that fails, since the guidelines put much focus on stable employments and frequency; ingredients that the excursion lacks. The analysis of the WTO guidelines resulted in confusion. They could be both very useful, but also very poor, according to how they were interpreted and used. The results highly depend on the user. Positive is that the guidelines address all pillars of sustainable development equal, and that the interaction between host and guest gets highlighted. Shortages are that the guidelines lack a gender perspective, a historical and political sensibility, a place specific flexibility and a perspective of inter- and intra-generational equity.

The research explored the training needs of Community-Based Tourism (CBT) structures, specifically for Tsodilo Hills, as well as the learning methods that best suit community members and how training can be used to strengthen Social Capital. Tourism is a means to alleviate poverty and empower communities, however, some CBT projects fail to deliver this due to a lack of skills, conflict and community disengagement. Nationally recognized vocational training does not impart the skills required for CBT and is not accessible to individuals in remote locations. The constructivist grounded theory methodology was used. Feedback was obtained from the Tsodilo Hills community, government bodies, hospitality and tourism associations, tourism operators and educational institutions through semi-structured interviews and focus groups. The data was transcribed, coded and analyzed. The findings indicate that training needs to focus on foundational, multi-disciplinary hard skills in hospitality and tourism, language, business, customer service and environmental sustainability, as well as soft skills, such as, in work attitude, innovation, conflict management, and communication. Training must be conducted in the community and tailored using an andragogical teaching approach. An Asset-Based Community Development approach, including CBT stakeholders, must be used to plan and implement training to ensure that learners and the community remain the focal point. Literature supports these findings. The research delivered a CBT Rapid Skills Development model which provided remote communities with access to relevant vocational training aligned to tourism principles and their specific needs, thereby increasing the likelihood of an inclusive and sustainable tourism industry.

As tourism expands across the globe, tourists seek “undeveloped” areas to explore. This influx of visitors has lasting impacts on the natural environment and the socio-economic structures of host communities. Ecotourism has the potential to positively implement tourism that values the natural environment and its’ people. I argue that ecotourism initiatives led by outside agents prioritize natural environment over the indigenous peoples who have lived on the lands for centuries. Indigenous-led tourism inherently is ecotourism, and in Aymara culture ties to Pachamama and their way of live are more sustainable than green tourists traveling to their communities. This thesis draws on the recognized need for local communities to lead tourism initiatives, and examines the difference in outside involvement. An analysis of Isla de la Luna (Coati) and Isla del Sol (Challapampa) in Lake Titicaca, I argue that autonomy and respect of the Aymara people and their cultures should be prioritized as the tourism industry develops in Bolivia. Safeguarding against reproducing and increasing class divisions amongst community members is necessary to preserving sustainable cultural and communal relationships.

This report is the result of the course, Environment and Development in the South, at University of Södertörn in Stockholm, Sweden. The report is about “new tourism” especially community-based tourism (CBT) and socio-cultural aspects relating to tourism. It is based on a literature study and a three weeks field course in Babati district in Northern Tanzania. The aim of this study is to describe how host peoples (communities) get affected especially, socio-culturally, by tourism. The aim is also to describe new tourism (especially CBT). A case-study of a Swedish student excursion to Babati is used as an example of how it affects a community (especially socio-cultural aspects) and if it qualifies as CBT.

The theory of the study is based on sustainable development (especially socio-cultural aspects) supported by the rules of World Tourism Organization (WTO) and United Nation Environmental Program (UNEP). The theory is connected to the principles of CBT and used in the analysis to judge if the Swedish student excursion qualifies as CBT.

The results show that the Swedish student excursion is in line with important principles of CBT, and therefore also in line with sustainable local development in some way. The major advantage with the excursion is the cross-cultural learning and the major problem is jealousness of benefit sharing according to the interviews done.

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CAPES
Thinking about the development of a sector of the global economy committed to social, economic, political and environmental issues should be based on ethical principles. Therefore, developing tourism in a locality must respect the traditions and identity of the local community. Based on the mentioned aspects, the object of study is Ilha dos Lençóis, located in the archipelago of Maiaú, which has 70% of its area composed of white sand dunes. The island belongs to the municipality of Cururupu, located in the Amazonian part of the State of Maranhão, in the Environmental Protection Area (APA) of the Maranhão Reentrâncias,has about 560 hectares and 14 kilometers of perimeter, of mangroves and the rest of beaches, being the only form of access by sea. These characteristics were the basis of the project "Community Based Tourism on the Ilha dos Lençóis in the Cururupu Marine Extractivist Reserve", developed by the Centro Nacional de Pesquisa Associada a Povos e Comunidades Tradicionais (CNPT) of the Instituto Chico Mendes de Conservação da Biodiversidade (ICMBio) and financially supported by the United Nations Development Program (PNUD) through PNUD call BRA / 08/023. In this sense, the present dissertation had the objective of analyzing this experience in course since the year 2011 in the Ilha dos Lençóis. A qualitative approach was carried out and the instruments used were the application of questionnaires to the community and interviews scripted with public managers and local leaders. In order to reach the complexity of the object of study, the strategy of triangulation of methods was finally accomplished. Throughout the composition of the work, we sought to understand the approach to theory and what actually takes place in practice, given that community-based tourism should be promoted and managed by the community itself, with the support of public and private spheres .
Pensar no desenvolvimento de um setor da economia global comprometido com as questões sociais, econômicas, políticas e ambientais, deve basear-se em princípios éticos. Sendo assim, desenvolver o turismo numa localidade deve respeitar as tradições e identidade da comunidade local. Mediante os aspectos citados, tem-se como objeto de estudo a Ilha dos Lençóis, localizada no arquipélago de Maiaú, que possui 70% de sua área composta por dunas de areia branca. A ilha pertence ao município de Cururupu, situado na parte amazônica do Estado do Maranhão, na Área de Proteção Ambiental (APA) das Reentrâncias Maranhenses, possui cerca de 560 hectares e 14 quilômetros de perímetro, dos quais um terço constitui-se de manguezais e o restante de praias, sendo a única forma de acesso por via marítima. Tais características fundamentaram o projeto “Turismo de Base Comunitária na Ilha dos Lençóis na Reserva Extrativista Marinha de Cururupu”, desenvolvido pelo Centro Nacional de de Pesquisa e Conservação da Sociobiodiversidade Associada a Povos e Comunidades Tradicionais (CNPT) do Instituto Chico Mendes da Convervação da Biodiversidade (ICMBio) e amparado financeiramente pelo Programa das Nações Unidas para o Desenvolvimento (PNUD) através do edital PNUD BRA/08/023. Neste sentido, a presente dissertação teve por objetivo analisar essa experiência em curso desde o ano 2011 na Ilha dos Lençóis. Realizou-se uma pesquisa qualitativa e os instrumentos utilizados foram a aplicação de questionários junto a comunidade e entrevistas roteirizadas com os gestores públicos e lideranças locais. Com vista a alcançar com maior profundidade a complexidade do objeto de estudo, realizou-se, por fim, a estratégia de triangulação de métodos. Procurou-se compreender, ao longo da composição do trabalho, a aproximação entre a teoria e o que efetivamente ocorre na prática, haja vista que o Turismo de Base Comunitária deve ser promovido e gerenciado pela própria comunidade, com o apoio das esferas públicas e privadas.

Thesis (MTech (Tourism and Hospitality Management))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2015.
Research indicates that community-based tourism (CBT) has economic relevance and is often viewed as an alternative source of income for rural communities that are endowed with rich cultural and natural tourism resources, yet the success of CBT projects is negligible. This research was designed to explore the importance of considering pre-conditions for CBT before proceeding with the actual implementation of the project with a sample of CBT project members directly involved in CBT. Ignoring this fundamental step often led to failure of CBT projects. The research sought to establish whether the CBT projects in Mpondoland were either faced with challenges or presented with opportunities and to propose a CBT Pre-condition Management and Evaluation Model (PEM). The participants were selected because of their relevant knowledge and experience in relation to the case. All seventeen members who were operating a CBT business at the time of the study in the village of Noqhekwane and all five members from the village of Ndengane were approached to participate in the study. This study employed a mixed-methods approach for data collection, more specifically, the qualitative approach was used to gather more in-depth information from respondents, based on their CBT project in the context of their specific socio-economic status, their local environment, education levels, management and background of their project, and infrastructures of the area. Interpretive analysis was used to analyse the qualitative data using thematic categories from the analysis as sub-headings. Other data collected from the responses was analysed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 21.0.

Assignment (MFor)--Stellenbosch University, 2001.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The ongoing environmental destruction that results from the continuous use of the woodland resources for economic purposes has caused extensive changes in the original vegetation of Goba area of southern Mozambique. Developing alternative sources of income for communities can reduce their dependence on the production of charcoal, building materials and wood carvings. The lack of infrastructure and remoteness of these localities from the markets make alternatives economically unfeasible and thus unsustainable for rural development. Ineffective policy planning that does not address the problem in a holistic way causes the dilemma of local people in remote areas. The challenge at Goba is to develop alternative livelihoods that are economically, socially and ecologically sustainable. Nature-based tourism has been identified as such an alternative to realize this goal. However, this development requires incentives for sustainable resource use, which can be created either by expanding the benefits accruing from the efficient use of the resource or by changing the distribution of the benefits and cost in favor of the users. In many cases, local communities have developed tourism initiatives in ecologically fragile, remote areas, without sound planning based on detailed ecological and socio-economic information. Uncontrolled flows of tourists in unplanned tourist destinations degrade these areas. These destinations lose their aesthetic appeal; tourism flow decreases and consequently new attractions are opened. This study is of a land use planning nature and follows a combination of existing framework tools. The primary aim of this study was to develop simple guidelines for nature-based tourism that contribute to the conservation and management of the rural woodland areas as well as to the improved socio-economic welfare of rural communities in the Goba area. The study used baseline information for planning, focusing on the tourism market and on the ecological and socia-economical aspects of the siudy area. Two strategies were used to obtain the information, namely market research and attraction resources analysis. The market research in the southern part of Mozambique shows that: International tourist flows are at present from Southern African countries mostly South Africa (more than 50%), North America, Europe and Australia or Asia. Mozambique is perceived mainly as a sunny beach destination for vacations and weekends though most of the tourists were engaged in multi-destination itineraries that included safari, wildernesses, bird watching, touring and curiosity. There was no evidence from any tourist that nature tourism was the reason to visit Mozambique, but many of them said that they would visit ecotourism and nature tourism destinations if available. The average daily expenditure per tourist was found to be US$47. Tourists from long-haul distances had higher disposable expenditures and stayed longer in both attraction assets and in the country. Sixty nine per cent (69%) of surveyed tourists were over 50 years of age and they were mostly males (57%). The results show clearly that many issues must be taken into consideration where the development of ecotourism and nature-based tourism, especially in rural areas, is concerned. Such considerations should include (i) careful planning of the destinations based on the local developmental policy; (ii) developing saleable tourist products and packages and (iii), promotional strategies to expand the market to capture tourists with high average daily expenditure. The rural communities can then have a chance to develop nature-based tourism that uses outstanding natural resources. The resources analysis study results revealed that: The rugged topographic, climatic conditions of Goba water catchment area and the distance from settlements have naturally preserved local forest resources from human utilization. The area has well conserved and differentiated natural scenic landscape. These scenic landscapes have recreational values as well as environmental contrast, scientific discovery potential and retention of vanishing biological species. To preserve or improve the management of these landscapes, it is essential to consider recreation use in relation to all other potential values. Few existing landscapes showed a relative ability to absorb impacts produced by facility development with a minimum negative effect on the visual and ecological quality of the landscape. The majority of the landscapes have some potential for primitive and sensitive recreational spectrum. All these results are consistent with results from similar studies on watershed and water catchment ecology. Given the constraints on the environmental settings of the Goba landscapes, it is recommended that the basic and logic framework development should attract tourists interested in the more primitive portion of the recreational spectrum and should have fewer facilities of small-scale building. These facilities should be rustic in character with less service and more emphasis on self-reliance. Improved management of the Goba ecosystem is needed to maintain the ecological functions of the catchment and local culture and rurality. In conclusion, this study suggests that, if on these remote fragile ecosystems local communities can protect and market attractive quality-of-life-amenities, maintain a relatively low cost of living, and offer serviceable links to global telecommunication infrastructures in order to attract tourists and retirees, these communities can survive and may even thrive as local economies. An incentive planning method and sustained extension outreach effort in rural development, which focuses on nourishing local action at the grassroots level, will complement such a policy strategy.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Omvattende verandering van die natuurlike plantegroei in die Goba area van suiderlike Mosambiek is teweeg gebring deur die deurlopende bentting van die omgewing deur die misbruik van die natuurlike hulpbronne vir ekonomiese wins. Die ontwikkeling van alternatiewe inkomstebronne vir plaaslike gemeenskap kan hul afhanklikheid van hout vir die produksie van houtskool, boumateriaal en houtsneewerk verminder. Die gebrek aan infrastruktuur en die groot afstande na markte maak die verkoop van die houtprodukte in stedelike gebiede onprakties en dus nie 'n volhoubare oplossing vir landelike ontwikkeling nie. Oneffektiewe beleidsbeplanning wat die probleem nie holisites benader nie veroorsaak 'n dilemma vir inwoners in afgeleë gebiede. Die uitdaging in Goba is om alternatiewe bronne van inkomste te ontwikkel wat ekonomies, sosiaal en ekologies volhoubaar is. Natuurgebaseerde toerisme is geïdentifiseer as 'n moontlike alternatief wat aan die doel kan beantwoord. Die ontwikkeling van eko-toerisme sal egter net slaag indien die plaaslike bevolking genoegsaam aangemoedig word om die natuurlike hulpbronne op 'n volhoubare basis te benut. Dit kan gedoen word óf deur winste terug te ploeg in die omgewing en so die toerisme basis te vergroot óf deur winsdeling op 'n gebruikersgunstige voordele- en kostebasis te behartig. In baie gevalle het plaaslike gemeenskappe toerisme inisiatiewe in sensitiewe, afgeleë gebiede ontwikkel, sonder deeglike beplanning wat op uitgebreide ekologiese en sosio-ekonomiese inligting berus. Die onbeheerde toeriste aanloop na onbeplande areas lei tot die stelselmatige vernietiging daarvan. Hierdie bestemmings verloor hul estetiese waarde en het tot gevolg dat toeriste ander ongerepte areas gaan soek. Hierdie studie handeloor die beplanning van grondgebruik en volg 'n kombinasie van bestaande raamwerk prosedure. Die primêre doel van hierdie ondersoek is om eenvoudige riglyne vir natuurgebaseede eko-toerisme te ontwikkel wat 'n bydra kan lewer tot die bewaring en bestuur van die natuurlike wonde en wat die sosioekonomiese welvaart van die plaaslike bevolking van Goba sal bevorder. Die studie maak gebruik van basiese inligting vir beplanning, en fokus op die toeristemark sowel as op die ekologiese en sosioekonomiese aspekte van die studie-area. Die twee strategieë wat gevolg is om inligting in te win is marknavorsing en die analise van toeriste-attraksie hulpbronne. Marknavorsing in die suide van Mosambiek toon dat die meerderheid internasionale besoekers aan Mosambiek afkomstig is van lande in Suidelike Afrika (Suid-Afrika alleen 50%), en daarna uit Noord- Amerika, Europa and Australië/Asië. Mosambiek word hoofsaaklik as 'n sonnige strandoord-bestemming vir vakansies en naweke beskou, hoewel die meeste toeriste 'n multi-bestemming reisplan volg wat safaris, ornitologie, reis en besoeke aan besienswaardighede insluit. Daar is geen bewys gevind dat enige toeris Mosambiek besoek het met eko-toerisme as doel nie, maar baie sou belangstelom dit te doen indien ekoen natuurgebaseerde toeriste-betemmings beskikbaar was. Die gemiddelde daaglikse uitgawe per toeris was US$47. Toeriste wat groot afstande moes aflê om hul bestemming te bereik het meer beskikbare fondse en bly langer, beide in die land en by verskillende attraksies. Van die toeriste by wie die opname gemaak is 69% ouer as 50 jaar en die meerderheid (57%) was mans. Die resultate toon dat daar talle faktore is om in ag te neem by die ontwikkeling van 'n landelike area vir natuurgebaseede en eko-toerisme. Daar moet aandag gegee word aan (i) deeglike beplanning van die bestemming gebaseer op die plaaslike ontwikkelingsbeleid; (ii) die ontwikkeling van verkoopbare toeriste produkte en pakkette;en (iii), promosie strategieë om die mark uit te brei om toeriste wat meer spandeer te lok. Die landelike gemeenskappe word sodoende die geleentheid gebied om hul besondere natuurlike hulpbronne te ontwikkel vir natuurgebaseerde toerisme. Die hulpbron-analise toon dat die afgeleë en bergagtige topografie en die klimaatsomstandighede van Goba se wateropvangsgebied as natuurlike beskerming vir inheense woude teen die benutting deur die plaaslike bevolking gedien het. Die area is goed bewaar met skouspelagtige natuurtonele. Die skouspelagtige landskap beskik oor rekreasiewaarde sowel as omgewingskontras, potensiaal vir wetenskaplike ontdekkings en vir bewaring van seldsame fauna en flora. Om hierdie landskap te bewaar of die bestuur daarvan te verbeter, moet gebruik vir rekreasie in verhouding tot die ander potensiële waardes beskou word. Daar is beperkte areas wat die vermoë besit om ontwikkeling te absorbeer en waar die verbouing van fasiliteite slegs 'n minimale negatiewe effek op die visuele en ekologiese kwaliteit sal hê. Die potensiaal bestaan egter vir alle areas om op 'n beperkte skaalontwikkel te word vir die primitiewe en sensitiewe sektor van die rekreasie spektrum. Die resultate van die vavorsing stem ooreen met soortgelyke studies van waterskeiding- en wateropvangsgebied-ekologie en ontwikkeling. Vir die gegewe omgewingsbeperkings van Goba word dit aanbeveel dat ontwikkeling op 'n basiese vlak geskied om daadie proporsie van die toeriste te lok wat in die sogenaamde wildernis-ervaring belangstel. Geboue en beperkte fasiliteite moet slegs op klein skaal opgerig word. Die fasiliteite moet by die omgewing inpas en die klem moet op selfvoorsiening eerder as op dienstelewering val. Die bestuur van die Goba ekosisteem moet egter verbeter om die ekologiese funksie en die plaaslike kultuur en landelikeid te behou. Die bevinding van die studie is dat indien ver-afgeleë en sensitiewe ekosisteme deur die plaaslike bevolking bestuur en beskerm word, dit tot ekonomiese welvaart van die landelike gebiede kan lei. Hierdie areas moet bestuur word sodat die landelike karakter as toeriste aantreklikheid behou word, dat die lewenskoste relatief laag bly en dat verbindings met die buitewêreld op telekommunikasie vlak ingestel word. Beplanning moet op 'n aansporingsbasis gegrond wees met uitreikingsprogramme met landelike ontwikkeling as doel. Aanmoediging van plaaslike aksie op grondvlak behoort so 'n beleidstrategie te versterk.

The launch of sustainable community based rural tourism (CBRT) programs in 1996 by the Ministry of Tourism of Malaysia (MOTOUR) indicated the government's commitment to incorporate sustainable development principles into the national tourism planning and development framework. Since then, the programs have been widely promoted by the government through various agencies and strongly embraced by the rural communities. Although the programs promise much potential such as job creations, provide an alternative of income for the rural household while promoting culture preservation and environment protection, recent studies showed that there was an issue of lack of monitoring of performance and progress of the programs due to the absence of criteria and indicators. From this research point of view, the absence of monitoring tools such as indicators could create obstacles and challenges, especially for the government and other donor agencies, in assessing the return on their investment in the programs and other impacts on the communities involved. Through extensive review of literature, a sufficient number of a preliminary list of criteria and indicators were identified. Each criteria and indicators were assigned into different category of sustainable CBRT namely economic, socio-cultural, environment and institutional. 64 preliminary indicators covered by eight criteria were identified by brought forward for the next stage: formulation of survey questionnaire. The identification and selection of a set of indicators using questionnaire survey was carried out using a Delphi exercise with experts and survey of local stakeholders. For the Delphi exercise, 20 experts were identified (academics, government officials, NGOs and tourism consultants) and consulted during the Stage One of Delphi consultation (selection of importa!lt indicators). However, due to the unavoidable issue of experts' dropout, a smaller number of 11 experts were maintained for Stage Two (ranking of indicators). The surveys of local stakeholders were carried out during the Stage Two involving 85 respondents from three selected villages as case studies (Le. Kuala Medang, Teluk Ketapang and Seterpa) located in the East Coast Economic Region (BCER). As a result, out of 64 indicators initially listed in the survey questionnaire, 47 indicators were selected both by the experts and by local stakeholders and included in the final list of indicators. The fieldwork results indicate that both the experts and local stakeholders are interested to support the idea of indicators formulation for monitoring the CBRT progress. At the final stage of the research, the proposed list of 47 indicators was put to test to assess the applicability and measurability of indicators for monitoring CBRT performances in the three villages i.e. Kuala Medang, Teluk Ketapang and Seterpa where 50 respondents participated in the survey. The field test intended to measure the uptake of sustainable economic, socio-cultural, environment and institution practices of CBRT program in all three villages. The outcomes for the analysis on uptake of CBRT economic and institution practices has shown a moderate success level with both 54% and 76% of an overall achievement while the analysis on uptake of CBRT socio-cultural and environment practices has shown a high success level with both 72% and 52% of an overall achievement. The field test revealed that the proposed indicators have been shown to be useful for measuring CBRT performance in the three case study villages. Furthermore, the achievement of CBR T practices could be determined as either low, or moderate or highly sustainable using index score approach. The results from quantitative and qualitative data collection processes could provide vital information to researchers, local hosts and other stakeholders about the current performance in the CBR T program from all major categories of indicators: economic, social-cultural, and environment and institution. In conclusion, the results from field test of indicators could inform decision makers and the CBRT participants in general about "where they are", i.e. based on the current level of sustainability practices, and "where they want to go", i.e. the local hosts' go~l or target setting for development of CBRT program. More importantly, indicators could also reveal to local hosts and other stakeholders "how far they are from achieving their goal/target".

This essay has examined how the local community is involved with the tourism development on the San Blas islands and how it effects the destinations development. The method of choice has been a qualitative interview with an operator that offers trips to the destination. Also there has been made a literature study where previous research about the San Blas and the subjects of choice is being presented. During the writing process of this essay it has become obvious to us that the local community (Kuna Yala) is very much involved in everything that concerns the destination. We can thereby establish that the local community of San Blas can be placed on the top step of Arnsteins (1969) “Ladder of Participation”. This comprehensive involvement brings both positive and negative effects on the destinations development. On the negative side we can se that the service level sometimes is low due to lack of knowledge and communication amongst the Kunas. The positive effects however shows that the destination is perceived more unique when the visitors gets to experience the real Kuna lifestyle that also creates a sustainable social environment. Many Kunas make their living on the tourism industry, which secure that the visitors money stays at the destination. The destination itself has not followed any traditional curve regarding destination development, which makes San Blas problematic to apply in Butlers model about the destination lifecycle.
Denna uppsats har undersökt hur lokalsamhället på San Blasöarna involveras i turismnäringen och hur det påverkar destinationens turismutveckling. Valet av metod har varit en kvalitativ intervju med en aktör som erbjuder resor till destinationen. Vidare har också en litteraturstudie genomförts där tidigare forskning kring destinationen och ämnesområdet presenteras. Under arbetet med uppsatsen har det blivit tydligt att lokalbefolkningen (Kuna Yala) involveras i allra högsta grad i San Blas och påverkar alla beslut som har med destinationen att göra. Vi kan därför konstatera att San Blas lokalbefolkning kan placeras på de övre stegen i Arnsteins (1969) modell över medborgarnas deltagandegrad. Den stora involveringen för med sig både positiva och negativa konsekvenser för destinationsutvecklingen. Det negativa är att servicegraden ibland blir väldigt låg till följd av bristande kunskap och kommunikation bland lokalinvånarna. Bland de positiva effekterna nämns bl.a. att destinationen upp levs unik av besökarna som får komma nära Kuna Yala och uppleva deras levnadssätt vilket skapar ett hållbart socialt förhållande. Sysselsättningen blir även högre då många inom Kuna Yala livnär sig på turismnäringen och den höga deltagandegraden minskar läckaget vilket gör att mer pengar stannar kvar på destinationen. Destinationen i sig har inte följt någon traditionell kurva över turismutvecklingen vilket gör att San Blas blir problematisk att applicera i Butlers modell över destinationslivscykeln.

Tourism is an economic activity that is become an important vector of economic and social development worldwide. However, the growth of tourism, as well as other economic activities, requires planning and management to minimize negative impacts and, particularly, to maximize the positive. To counteract the negative impacts of tourism and enjoy the benefits of the activity, it is observed that in some localities from different countries through the mobilization and organization of civil society, several different initiatives based on local ways of life, emerged in that the dimensions of sustainability are prerequisites for structuring the supply of tourist activities. In this perspective, there are practices of community-based tourism. For this reason, and seeking to harness the potential of the Sierra de Itabaiana National Park, located in the state of Sergipe, this work studied the communities Serra, Bom Jardim and Rio das Pedras, located around the National Park Serra de Itabaiana in order to assess eligibility for Community Based Tourism tapping the potential of that park. To this end, this research is characterized as exploratory and descriptive, the interview sources, direct and participant observation were used. It was concluded that it is implementing a community-based tourism causes the enhancement of cultural identity of the people, generates employment and income, raising the level of economic and social communities, in addition to raising the environmental awareness of residents, considering that the community-based tourism has the main assumption environmental enhancement of the region.
O turismo é uma atividade econômica que está se consolidando como importante vetor de desenvolvimento econômico e social em todo o mundo. Entretanto, o crescimento da atividade turística, assim como de outras atividades econômicas, requer planejamento e ordenamento para minimizar os impactos negativos e, principalmente, potencializar os positivos. Para se contrapor aos impactos negativos do turismo e aproveitar os benefícios da atividade, observa-se que, em algumas localidades de diferentes países, por meio da mobilização e organização da sociedade civil, surgiram diversas iniciativas diferenciadas, baseadas nos modos de vida locais, em que as dimensões da sustentabilidade são pré-requisitos para a estruturação da oferta das atividades turísticas. Nesta perspectiva, surgem as práticas de turismo de base comunitária. Por este motivo, e buscando aproveitar as potencialidades do Parque Nacional da Serra de Itabaiana, localizada no estado de Sergipe, este trabalho buscou estudar as comunidades Serra, Bom Jardim e Rio das Pedras, localizadas no entorno do Parque Nacional Serra de Itabaiana, no sentido de avaliar a aptidão para o Turismo de Base Comunitária aproveitando o potencial do referido Parque. Para tanto, essa pesquisa é caracterizada como exploratória e descritiva, tendo sido utilizada as fontes entrevista, observação direta e participante. Concluiu-se que é a implantação de um o turismo de base comunitária provoca a valorização da identidade cultural das populações, gera emprego e renda, elevando o nível econômico e social das comunidades, além da elevação da consciência ambiental dos residentes, tendo em vista que o turismo de base comunitária tem como principal pressuposto a valorização ambiental da região.

O histórico de criação e gestão de áreas protegidas brasileiras configurou-se como experiências antidemocráticas, pouco estimuladoras da participação social. O desenvolvimento do turismo no Brasil possui um histórico, a princípio, guiado por modelos centralizadores e, posteriormente, orientado pelas idéias políticas neoliberais que privilegiaram setores privados em detrimento do desenvolvimento de comunidades locais. Seguindo esses modelos, a criação da Estação Ecológica Juréia-Itatins (EEJI), uma unidade de conservação de proteção integral, não permitia moradias e usos de populações, gerando alterações no modo de vida das populações tradicionais inseridas em seu interior. Com as lutas dos povos da região, o local transformou-se em um Mosaico de Unidades de Conservação, englobando áreas protegidas de uso sustentável, categorias mais flexíveis, cujas possibilidades de usos ainda estão sendo discutidas e negociadas pelos atores da região: moradores, ocupantes não tradicionais e a Fundação Florestal, o órgão gestor da área. O objetivo deste trabalho é avaliar as possibilidades de desenvolvimento do turismo de base comunitária na Vila de Barra do Una, localizada no município de Peruíbe, São Paulo, e também inserida na Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Barra do Una (RDSBU). Consideram-se os conflitos decorrentes da existência de áreas protegidas no local, bem como os impactos socioculturais ocasionados pelo turismo. A metodologia utilizada foi a etnografia, com foco na descrição densa de Clifford Geertz (2012), partindo da construção de uma narrativa de segunda mão, recurso importante para entendimento das mudanças ocorridas no local estudado e suas perspectivas futuras. Apresenta-se como resultados que a comunidade desenvolveu relativa experiência por meio de suas lutas políticas e vivência com a prática do turismo, onde é perceptível uma organização socioprodutiva da atividade. A comunidade estudada (incluindo todos os grupos sociais implicados na vila) possui alguns aspectos positivos para o desenvolvimento de um turismo de base comunitária: os moradores (tradicionais e ocupantes não tradicionais) possuem larga identificação e enraizamento territorial; apresentam uma organização social relevante; desenvolveram uma larga experiência tanto política e também com a atividade do turismo; e agregaram parceiros, ainda que em alguns momentos tenha havido conflitos com estes. Por outro lado, também possuem alguns desafios a serem transpostos: nas premissas de conservação da unidade de conservação, as instituições públicas como a Fundação Florestal precisam também incluir a sociodiversidade nos processos de tomada de decisões, levando em conta o direito indispensável da participação social; devem, além disso, pautar pela clareza e transparência na gestão da área protegida, para este fato recomenda-se os princípios estabelecidos por Graham, Amos, Plumptre (2003). Conclui-se que a comunidade necessita manter o esforço de buscar e ter consciência da importância da união coletiva, tencionando superar o subaproveitamento da atividade, retomar parcerias que já foram realizadas em outros tempos, para adiante trabalhar um turismo mais planejado.
The historical of establishment and management of protected Brazilian areas was configured as anti-democratic experiences that were marked by having lower stimulation of social participation. The development of tourism in Brazil has a history, at first, guided by centralizing models and subsequently guided by neoliberal political ideas which favored private sectors at the expense of the development of local communities. Following these models, the creation of Juréia-Itatins Ecological Station (EEJI), an integral protection conservation unit, did not allow housing and population uses, by the time generating changes in the lifestyle of the traditional populations, once inserted on their interiors. As a result of the struggles of the regional people, the local became in a Conservation Unit Mosaic, covering protected areas of sustainable use, flexible categories, whose uses possibilities are still being discussed and negotiated by the regional actors: residents, non-traditional occupants and the Forestry Foundation, the management body area. The objective of this study is to evaluate the potential development of community-based tourism in Barra do Una village, located in the municipality of Peruibe, state of Sao Paulo, which is also included in the Sustainable Development Reserve Una Bar (RDSBU). The conflicts are considered due the existence of protected areas in the local, such as social and cultural impacts related to tourism. The methodology used was ethnography, focusing on the \"thick description\" of Clifford Geertz (2012), based on the construction of a narrative of \"second boot\", an important resource for understanding the changes in the studied site and its future prospects. It is presented as results of that, community developed on experience through their political struggles and experience with practice of tourism whose the socio-productive organization is noticeable. The community studied (including all social groups involved in the village) has some positive aspects to the development of a tourism community-based: residents (traditional and non-traditional occupants) have wide identification and traditional roots; have a relevant social organization; developed a wide experience both politically and with the tourism activity; and added partners, although in some instances has been conflict with each other. On the other hand, they also have some challenges to be overcome: in protected premises of the protected unit, public institutions such as the Forestry Foundation also need to include social diversity in decision-making processes, taking into account the essential right of social participation; should also be guided by clarity and transparency in the protected area management, for this fact recommended to the principles set out by Graham, Amos, Plumptre (2003). We conclude that the community needs to maintain efforts to seek and be aware of the importance of collective union intends to overcome the under-utilization of the activity, take back partnerships that have already been carried out at other times, to work on a more planned tourism.

Smallholder coffee farmers in Tanzania today are facing a deep financial crises. This is the result of several different reasons but one important factor is the political and economic reforms Tanzania has experienced from being one of the strongest socialist states in Africa to one of the most liberalized. For smallholder coffee farmers this has meant dealing with difficult challenges such as big fluctuations in the coffee bean price but it has also meant opportunities. The purpose for this study is to see if, and to what extent coffee tourism can help in community development and be a leverage to the living standard for people who are dealing with this business. In order to do this the authors have conducted a minor field study in the northern part of Tanzania. We argue that coffee tourism can increase and help stabilize income for smallholder coffee farmers through diversification, contribute to community development and work as a counter-force to the structural changes and the crisis that rural areas in Tanzania are dealing with today.

This study incorporated a community based assessment with a focus on community based tourism in Kalache and Hulgol, India. Kalache and Hulgol are two agrarian based communities located in the environmentally significant region of the Western Ghats. Each of these communities has considered community based tourism as a means to reduce urban youth outmigration, to diversify economic resources, and to encourage the empowerment of women. The primary goals of this study were to understand the community issues and objectives, to determine the level of support for tourism development, to determine participant attitudes toward tourism, and to determine the obstacles to tourism development. The findings of this project address the complexity of operating in the tourism industry, the impacts of tourism, and the use of community based tourism models in support of sustainable tourism.

Tourism, Barbados’s primary industry, declined substantially from the outset of the 2008 global recession, triggering an economic slump in the local economy. The purpose of this exploratory study was to explore the views of 20 Barbadian tourism executives regarding the ability of community-based tourism (CBT) to resuscitate Barbados’s tourism industry. The participants included 10 from the government and 10 from the business sector; all possessed knowledge of CBT and worked with tourism for at least 10 years. Arnstein’s ladder of citizen participation constituted the conceptual framework of this study. Participants were recruited by snowball and purposive sampling. Data were collected using an interview guide with semistructured interview questions, an audio recorder, and interview notes. The collected data were coded and analyzed using thematic analysis, which involved collating the most cited codes into potential themes and developing thematic maps. The major themes that emerged from the data analysis of the private sector included the use of CBT as a means to solidify social relationships among locals and tourists and its ability to encourage repeat vacations. The major themes that materialized from interviewing the government workers included the need for the education of residents regarding the importance of their roles as stakeholder participants and the obligation by the relevant officials to stem any potential for criminal activity that could occur through CBT implementation. Repeated vacations through CBT could give rise to positive social change in the island by generating increased foreign currency injections and improving the social well-being of Barbadians and the Barbados economy.

The purpose of this research is to present a methodology for Social Innovation to communities in conflict (characterized by poverty, but with great natural and cultural wealth); for which it is proposed to Rural Community Tourism (TRC) as a driver of construction processes for peace and whose ultimate goal is Sustainable Human Development of the territories; in that sense, tourism is a means and not the end. Four experiences were reviewed in Colombia TRC, each with their own conflicts and special conditions, in which the lessons were determined. Finally, it is used as a community study to Montes de Maria, known in the late 90s by the armed conflict in Colombia territory to study their tourism potential and propose the methodology analyzed here, as it has been tested the hypothesis that all territories may become tourist destinations.
Esta investigación tiene como propósito presentar una propuesta metodológica de Innovación Social para comunidades en conflicto (caracterizados por la pobreza, pero con gran riqueza natural y cultural), para lo cual se propone al Turismo Rural Comunitario (TRC) como impulsor de procesos de construcción para la paz y cuyo objetivo último es el Desarrollo Humano Sostenible de los territorios; en ese sentido el turismo es un medio y no el fin. Para ello se revisaron cuatro experiencias en Colombia de TRC, cada una con sus propios conflictos y condiciones especiales, en los que se determinaron las lecciones. Por último, se utiliza como comunidad de estudio a los Montes de María, territorio conocido a finales de los 90s por el conflicto armado en Colombia, para estudiar su potencial turístico y proponerle la metodología aquí analizada, pues se ha comprobado la hipótesis de que todos los territorios se pueden convertir en destinos turísticos.

The term 'empowerment' is used with greater frequency in tourism for development, particularly in the context of community-based tourism (CBT), which is often referred to as a tool to 'empower' communities in the initiation, implementation and management of tourism. Still, critical and empirically grounded research on empowerment remains limited, particularly as emerging from social relationships in CBT. These are in many cases regarded as disempowering for community members, such as the tourism encounter and community relationships in cases where they lead to conflicts and jealousy, rather than collaboration. This research analyses these social relationships prevalent in CBT to take them as a potential starting point for social empowerment. Its aim is to locate social spaces of empowerment in CBT by unravelling power relations between the actors involved at local level. In these social spaces of empowerment, the basis of empowerment is generative power, defined as collective power with and power within, based on self-respect, to achieve power to generate positive change and to overcome power over (i.e. dominating power). The fieldwork was conducted in three rural villages in Bali, which engage in CBT and are supported by a local NGO that aims at empowering communities. The methodology draws upon ethnographic traditions alongside semi-structured interviews and participant observations. Symbolic interactionism provides the methodological position, regarding meaning as constructed through interaction. A reflexive chapter discusses the intersubjectivities between the researcher and participants and links the methodology with the intellectual argument and the findings of the study. Empirical evidence reveals that empowerment opportunities are unequal in the studied villages, with obstacles such as language, a lack in skills and caste hindering villagers' empowerment. The village tourism committees (VTCs), a local and trained elite, take control over the space of CBT and the tourism encounter, by employing notions of 'authenticity' to sell the CBT product. Although CBT creates hope for change and empowerment for community members, it currently remains empowering for a few, while others generally experience tokenistic pseudo-participation and a silent involvement. At the same time, this study reveals first signs of empowerment based on power with and power within, generated in the tourism encounter and through villagers' social ties, which are visualised in a 'CBT power diagram'.

In recent decades tourism development has expanded on most Mediterranean islands. Focusing on the island of Crete, this study recognises tourism as a highly visible and controversial component of change. The existence of the necessary infrastructure, the natural beauty, the climate, the culture and the history have contributed to tourism expansion, with Crete now attracting approximately 25 percent of foreign tourist arrivals and 55 percent of the total foreign exchange earnings of Greece. The perceptions of the local community in tourism were studied using personal interviews with three community groups: local authority officials, residents and tourism business owners and managers. The aim was to examine their views on tourism development, in an attempt to establish overall desired directions for tourism development and to suggest effective tourism strategies and policies to reinforce positive outcomes and alleviate problems resulting from previous unplanned tourism development. The research findings identify much agreement among the three community groups suggesting that it is feasible to further develop tourism with the support of the community. Although the areas used in the sample were in the maturity stage of Butler's (1980) life cycle model and therefore it might be expected that the community would be at the antagonism stage of Doxey's (1975) model, this was not suggested by the findings. Tourism is viewed positively as a development option, and further tourism development, with conditions attached, is supported. The expansion of tourism has brought economic gains, employment creation, increased population, enhanced community infrastructure and cultural and environmental preservation. However, there is limited co-ordination of tourism activities and insufficient collaboration between the public and private sector. In addition, the island is dependent on foreign tour operators, and the tourism industry is uneven geographically and seasonally. Tourism has modified traditions and has affected the environment and society. Since community perceptions match reality (what is on the ground from development), problems are real and it is necessary to find solutions for their amelioration. As a result, policy implications emerging from the results presented in this thesis are discussed and future strategies are suggested.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--Texas A&M University, 2003.
Title from screen (viewed on July 23, 2009). Includes vita. Department of Recreation and Tourism Sciences, Texas A&M University. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 182-214).

This study compares tour operators and development organisations, by analysing their role in three differently funded and operated tourism projects in Ecuador. Additionally, the study identifies links between micro level livelihood outputs of the projects, the meso level operational contexts, and macro level influences. The study reviews general assumptions that the tourism private sector is not as capable of contributing to poverty reduction to the same extent that the development sector is. Guided by a political economy approach, whilst also considering Giddens' concept of structuration theory, the study examines whether traditional structuralist views of tourism development in less economically developed countries (LEDCs) are applicable within the context of three externally-led tourism projects. Elements of critical ethnography and livelihoods analysis were employed to gather primarily qualitative data, which was obtained by interviewing, observing, carrying out ranking exercises, and analysing documents. Results of the study revealed that the tour operator project was considerably more successful in contributing to the livelihoods of residents surrounding the project. The tour operator was well equipped to respond to operational challenges of the project, and well networked with a range of organisations which provided technical expertise, and small grants. The projects supported by development organisations had notable positive outputs, but failed to create adequate networks with the private sector to sell the projects, and hence were suffering from over-supply and lack of demand. The study showed that development organisations were more confined to operating within bureaucratic processes of head offices than tour operators, which also had detrimental effects on project outputs. Development organisation projects suffer from a lack of tourism expertise, and must adhere to strict regulations regarding project design and operations, echoing the power of institutional structures over agency. Although tour operators must comply with service and product standards to satisfy their international buyers, they appear to be more influential in altering traditional structures, such as networking between the private and development sectors, thus demonstrating the potential power of agency. The evidence concluded that tour operators are better equipped to fund and operate sustainable tourism projects which contribute to community development, and that development organisations would significantly benefit from enlisting the assistance of tour operators in project design, operations, and sales outlets.

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Arts in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Course-work Degree of Masters of Recreation and Tourism in the Department for Recreation and Tourism at the University of Zululand, South Africa, 2014.
The study was based on community based tourism and was conducted to find out whether the local residents are involved and participate in community based tourism within the study area of uMhlathuze Municipality. Community based tourism provides job opportunities to those who participate and should, ideally, involve every resident of the study area. Men and women are to be given the equal participation opportunities. The study had the following specific objectives: (a) To establish the extent to which the local community understands the importance of tourism in the study area. (b) To find out the level of participation and involvement of the local community in community based tourism (c) To identify the types of community tourism facilities available in the study area. (d) To establish the strategies that can be used to promote involvement and participation in community based tourism within the study area. The findings of the study revealed that some community members do not even know the local tourism authorities who should be promoting community based tourism within the study area. Misconceptions about tourism became evident as some respondents viewed tourism as an activity for the rich and for the white people. The study is concluded by recommending the promotion of community based tourism within the study area applying the managerial strategies to promote participation and involvement by local communities.

Rising poverty rates, increases in joblessness, and the depletion of traditional means of livelihood (such as agriculture and large industry), are all forces working to diminish the ability for the rural Appalachian to make a living (Appalachian Regional Commission, 1993). Many rural development professionals interested in cultivating new options are including the concept of the cooperative as a tool for economic development. However, there is some controversy over whether the cooperative form of organization is an optimal method of economic development for rural America. The same had been said about tourism as a contributor to economic development. This thesis uses case study analysis to examine three current cooperatives and their contributions to the community, using a Weberian lens of formal versus substantive rationality. Results indicated a tentative relationship between amount and type of contributions of the tourism-related cooperative organization and type of rationality for its existence.
Master of Science

This study focuses on the Creole village of Chamarel in the south of Mauritius. It examines trends in Mauritian tourism and how this has changed to include ecologically sensitive areas. It will discuss the historical context of Mauritius and the relevance of a plural society to tourism, with a particular focus on the representation of Mauritian culture, the Creole identity and the relevance of this to community development. The research explores community tourism in Chamarel, utilising a multifaceted qualitative approach involving an ethnographic investigation intertwined with data from other techniques. Data was collected from semi-structured interviews, participant observation, casual conversations, narratives, social events and netnographic sources. The data was expanded over a ten year period to identify patterns and themes in community tourism during 2004 to 2014. This multifaceted approach represents a new methodology for the study of Mauritian tourism. There has been a significant change in Chamarel to cater for ecotourism and community tourism. The findings shed light on community participation. This is achieved through the analysis of Government reports and development plans. The range of sources used enables a very rich, multi-perspectival account of community tourism through ‘native eyes.’ The research suggests that interpretations of being Mauritian take on new meanings through the development of community tourism and reveals that ethnicity amongst other factors influenced the success of development in Chamarel.

Different types of governance structures exist and operate in tourism, with these approaches always changing as they develop into more suitable or effective forms by adjusting to specific contexts and situations. Consequently, collaboration and partnerships have become a key element of destination management, with an increased recognition of the range of stakeholders who have an interest in tourism planning and development. Ideally, these partnership arrangements would ensure relevant stakeholders from government, business and voluntary sectors are engaged in decision making. However, difficulty in accommodating a wide variety of interests within collaborative governance structures is apparent, often culminating in conflict and power imbalances between stakeholder groups. The structures and representation mechanisms in place appear to be crucial in enabling a balanced perspective and effective representation of the destination community. Therefore, collaborative approaches need to be examined within broader notions of governance, with an examination of the appropriate role of government and the changing relationships and expectations between government and communities. The purpose of this study was to analyse and interpret governance approaches in tourism from an international perspective, addressing the need to understand the relevant structures, processes and the implications for stakeholder representation in the different approaches of governance. This study employed a qualitative comparative case study methodology, with case studies explored from York (United Kingdom) and Seville (Spain), involving a total of 42 interviews with key informants. Two approaches to tourism governance were examined and were found to differ in their representation and participation of stakeholders. The research identified a framework for stakeholder collaboration centred on the engagement of networks and associations within a destination governance approach. Finally, and as a consequence of the analysis, a framework for evaluating tourism governance structures is outlined and contributes both a method and a perspective that is available to evaluate governance arrangements in other tourist destinations.

A Work Project, presented as part of the requirements for the Award of a Masters Degree in Management from the NOVA – School of Business and Economics
This work intends to understand to what extend is tourism in Atauro pro poor and what measures can be applied for it to generate higher benefits to local communities. On TVC analysis it is found that tourism on already works in a community-integrated manner and delivers positive impacts, the focus will be on how to enhance tourism. Two focal questions direct this research: How to increase the size and performance of the tourism sector; How to increase the proportion of tourism spending reaching the poor. They are used as support for formulating practical suggestions for tourism enhancement and benefits generation.

Thesis (MA (Geography and Environmental Studies))--University of Stellenbosch, 2009.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Tourism development is a complex process which many researchers have attempted to understand from various social science perspectives. This study adopts a geography approach to analyse tourism development in the Inhambane Coastal Zone (ICZ) by using the Miossec (1976) and the Butler (1980) models as basic frameworks for analyses. Although both models were found to be useful, they require more accurate data than what was generally available for the ICZ. Before the country’s independence in 1975, Mozambique was considered one of many premier tourism destinations in Southern Africa and the tourism sector had played an important role in the economy of the country. The 16 years period of internal conflict (1976- 1992) resulted in a rapid decline in the performance of the sector. Since the end of the armed conflict in 1992 and the democratic transition, a slow recovery of the tourism sector in Mozambique has set in. Tourism facilities for accommodation and leisure activities have increased considerably over the last ten years, despite the absence of any integrated tourism planning. In this study questionnaire surveys of tourist establishment representatives and local residents as well as focus group discussions and interviews were conducted to acquire primary data to analyse the evolution of the ICZ as a tourist destination during the period 1992 to 2008. In addition, secondary sources such as reports, tourism plans, tourism statistics and maps of the study area were used. It was found that tourism is developing slowly in the ICZ and the opening up (or rediscovering) of the zone as a destination remains limited due to the slow development of infrastructure in general. The tourism nodes are in different stages of their destination life cycle and the local residents living in the seven communities react differently toward tourism development. The ICZ has not progressed further than phase two in Miossec’s model. The Miossec model was found a suitable tool for analysing tourism development in the ICZ but it remains a challenge to identify both the evolutionary stage of the ICZ as a destination and the stage of each tourism node. The study also found that local residents in the ICZ expressed positive views about tourism development but they are still not satisfied with the current benefits they acquire from the current development status of tourism in the zone.
AFRIKAANS SUMMARY: Baie navorsers het reeds gepoog om die komplekse proses van toerisme-ontwikkeling vanuit verskeie sosiaal-wetenskaplike benaderings te verstaan. Hierdie studie volg ʼn geografiese benadering ten einde toerisme-ontwikkeling in die Inhambane Kussone (ICZ) met behulp van die Miossec (1976) en Butler (1980) modelle as basiese raamwerke te analiseer. Alhoewel beide modelle as bruikbaar bevind is, benodig hierdie modelle meer akkurate data as wat algemeen vir die ICZ beskikbaar is. Voor die land se onafhanklikheid in 1975, was Mosambiek gereken as een van vele vername toerisme bestemmings in Suidelike Afrika en die toerisme sektor het ʼn belangrike rol in die ekonomie van die land gespeel. Die 16 jare lange interne konflik (1976-1992) het tot ʼn snelle agteruitgang van die sektor se prestasie gelei. Sedert die einde van die gewapende konflik in 1992 en die oorgang na ʼn demokrasie, het die toerisme sektor in Mosambiek ʼn stadige herstel beleef. Toerisme fasiliteite vir akkommodasie en ontspanningsaktiwiteite het, ten spyte van die afwesigheid van geïntegreerde toerisme beplanning, aansienlik toegeneem. In hierdie studie is daar deur middel van ‘n vraelysopname aan verteenwoordigers van toerisme verwante besighede en plaaslike inwoners, asook fokus-groep besprekings primêre data in gesamel ten einde die evolusie van die ICZ as toeriste bestemming gedurende die tydperk vanaf 1992 tot 2008 te analiseer. Daarbenewens is sekondêre bronne soos verslae, toerisme planne, toerisme statistieke en kaarte van die studiegebied gebruik Daar is bevind dat toerisme in die ICZ stadig ontwikel en dat die herontdekking van die sone as bestemming beperk bly as gevolg van die stadige ontwikkeling van die infrastruktuur in die algemeen. Die toerisme nodusse is in verskillende stadia van hulle individuele bestemmingsiklusse, en die plaaslike inwoners in die sewe gemeenskappe reageer verskillend teenoor toerisme ontwikkeling. Die ICZ het nie verder as fase twee van die Miossec model gevorder het nie. Daar is ook vasgestel dat die Miosec model ʼn gepaste instrument is vir die analise van toerisme ontwikkeling in die ICZ, maar dit bly ʼn uitdaging om die evolusionêre stadium van die ICZ as ‘n bestemming in geheel asook die stadium van elke toerisme-nodus te kan identifiseer. Die studie het ook bevind dat plaaslike inwoners van die ICZ positiewe menings oor toerisme ontwikkeling het, maar nog steeds nie tevrede is met die huidige voordele wat hulle uit die huidige ontwikkelingstatus van toerisme in die sone ontvang nie.

This research is situated within the Brecon Beacons National Park (BBNP), it explores the role of community driven initiatives in encouraging sustainable rural communities, whilst assessing the relevance of tourism to such schemes. The National Park (NP) provide funding for community led sustainability programmes, known as the Sustainable Development Fund, the examination of this funding led to findings which challenge the common assumption that funding for community led schemes will be of net benefit at the local level. Through the use of a survey, focus groups and interviews it was observed that certain components reflected in most rural development programmes such as the integration of tourism, participation and the development of social capital are still barriers to rural development and continue to hamper the effectiveness of not only the Sustainable Development Funding (SDF) schemes, but the communities striving for sustainability. There is evidence to suggest that community development with a significant emphasis on tourism may be an important element in the survival and revival of the economy of the BBNP as traditional agriculture continues to decline. Tourism, in policy terms, is perceived as a suitable form of economic development for rural areas within the NP. However, as communities turn to tourism as a means to raising income and employment, a lack of understanding of tourism and its impacts has been identified as a barrier to a holistic and cohesive development strategy for communities. Consequently, the use of publicly funded schemes that strive towards community development have failed to embrace the opportunities that tourism offers. Overall, this thesis concludes that, whilst funding via the SDF scheme was facilitating one-off individual community projects, the wider geographic community was not being enhanced or made more sustainable or developed either as a policy output or an output of the SDF projects. The knowledge and skills necessary to acquire funding enabled expert communities to participate and develop isolated pockets of social capital. However, this was at the exclusion of the wider geographic community, who were not as practised at such techniques and processes, consequently, denying them of such opportunities for development. As such, it questions whether current mechanisms of funding for isolated, community driven sustainability initiatives coupled with a lack of integration within the existing tourism structures and policies are assisting sustainable community development within the NP. The research concludes with a model which seeks to identify the key elements that may help develop sustainable communities within the NP and the relationship between these elements. The model could be tested, in future research, and other national parks in the UK that implement the SDF scheme to assess its wider applicability.

Today, the number of software projects having large number of developers distributed all over the world is increasing rapidly. This rapid growth in distributed software development, increases the need for new tools and environments to facilitate the developers’ communication, collaboration and cooperation. Distributed revision control systems, such as Git or Bazaar, are examples oftools that have evolved to improve the quality of development in such projects. In addition, building and testing large scale cross platform software is especially hard for individual developers in an open source development community, dueto their lack of powerful and diverse computing resources.Computational grids are networks of computing resources that are geographically distributed and can be used to run complex tasks very efficiently by exploiting parallelism. However these systems are often configured for cloud computing and use a centralized structure which reduces their scalability and fault tolerance. Pure peer-to-peer (P2P) systems, on the other hand are networks without a central structure. P2P systems are highly scalable, flexible, dynamically adaptable and fault tolerant. Introducing P2P and grid computing together tothe software development process can significantly increase the access to more computing resource by individual developers distributed all over the world. In this master thesis we evaluated the possibilities of integrating these technologies with software development and the associated test cycle in order to achieve better software quality in community driven software development. The main focus of this project was on the mechanisms of data transfer, management, and dependency among peers as well as investigating the performance/overhead ratio of these technologies. For our evaluation we used the MoSync Software Development Kit (SDK), a cross platform mobile software solution, as a case study and developed and evaluated a prototype for the distributed development of this system. Our measurements show that using our prototype the time required for building MoSync SDK’s is approximately six times shorter than using a single process. We have also proposed a method for near optimum task distribution over peer to peer grids that are used for build and test.
Idag är antalet programvaruprojekt med stort antal utvecklare distribueras överh ela världen ökar snabbt. Denna snabba tillväxt i distribuerad mjukvaruutveckling, ökar behovet av nya verktyg och miljöer för att underlätta utvecklarnas kommunikation, samarbete och samarbete. Distribuerat versionshanteringssystem,såsom Git och Bazaar, är exempel påverktyg som har utvecklats för att för bättra kvaliteten påutvecklingen i sådana projekt. Dessutom, bygga ochtesta storskalig programvara plattformsoberoende är särskilt svrt för enskilda utvecklare i en öppen källkod utvecklingsgemenskap, pågrund av deras brist påkraftfulla och mångsidiga datorresurser. Datorgridd är nätverk av IT-resurser som är geografiskt f¨ordelade och kan användas för att köra komplexa uppgifter mycket effektivt genom att utnyttja parallellitet. Men dessa system är ofta konfigurerade för molndator och användaen centraliserad struktur vilket minskar deras skalbarhet och feltolerans. En ren icke-hierarkiskt (P2P-n¨atverk) system, åandra sidan är nätverk utan en central struktur. P2P-systemen är skalbara, flexibla, dynamiskt anpassningsbar och feltolerant. Introduktion P2P och datorgridd tillsammans med mjukvaruutveckling processen kan avsevärt öka tillgången till merdatorkraft resurs genom enskilda utvecklare distribueras över hela världen. I detta examensarbete har vi utvärderat möjligheterna att integrera dessa tekniker med utveckling av programvara och tillhörande testcykel för att uppnåbättre programvara kvalitet i samhället drivs mjukvaruutveckling. Tyngdpunkten i detta projekt var på mekanismerna för överföring av data, hantering,och beroendet bland kamrater samt undersöka prestanda / overhead förhllandet mellan dessa tekniker. För vr utvärdering använde vi MoSync SoftwareDevelopment Kit (SDK), en plattformsoberoende mobil programvara lösning,som en fallstudie och utvecklat och utvärderat en prototyp f¨or distribueradutveckling av detta system. Våra mätningar visar att med hjälp av vår prototypden tid som krävs f¨or att bygga MoSync SDK är cirka sex gånger kortare änmed en enda process. Vi har också föreslagit en metod för nära optimal uppgiftf¨ordelning ¨over peer to peer nät som används f¨or att bygga och testa.

Tourism and its spin-offs have been acknowledged as possible means for development. When the main target of this development is the local community, solutions such as community based tourism projects have been implemented. This is the case analysed in this study, The Mehloding Community Tourism, a community based tourism project that is being developed in the Alfred Nzo district of the Eastern Cape province in the Republic of South Africa. Through the study of the existing literature, to establish a solid framework, and a deep analysis of the project; using the project documentation, interviews with key informants, and other information obtained in the field visits; it has been tried to reach a better understanding of the scope of the main social and economic impacts of the project, using as benchmark the original goals stated in the project documents. The results show a well initiated project with some weaknesses in the area of planning process, which are trying to be corrected at the moment. In the area of the project operations the management seems to be quite positive but there are problems in the participation and capacity of the trustees as well as a shortage of tourist. The core section of the analysis, i.e., the social and economic impacts is on the whole positive, with the social impacts appearing to be achieved in a higher degree than the economic ones. Although considering the small scale of the project and the relatively early stage of it, and despite of the general optimism of its members, the economic sustainability of the project is still uncertain. The study, with it scope and limitations, concludes that community based tourism projects, if well planned and developed, could have positive impacts over the local communities, in particular over those members directly involved, such is the case of the Mehloding Community Tourism. However it has raised some questions about the suitability of the initiative to achieve poverty alleviation in the area. It is suggested that, other than solving the major problems of economic sustainability and Trust capacity, the platform created at a human and institutional levels should be used for further developmental initiatives of the area.
Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, 2005.

The thesis focused on acquiring a sufficient level of understanding of how and to what extent tourism is implemented in livelihoods of the indigenous people (Maya and Garifuna) of Belize and if it truly benefits their lives. The research provided an assessment of actual and perceived economic, social and other effects of tourism on the livelihood of two communities in southern Belize - the inland community of Laguna and the coastal community of Hopkins Village. The study was approached from the pragmatic perspective and included the multiple case study framework, literature review, semi-structured interviews and observations. The research was conducted from January to February 2015. The results of the study demonstrated that the communities of Laguna and Hopkins are at different stages of integration into the tourism industry. The research revealed that the economic, social and cultural effects of tourism and its importance for local livelihoods varied between both villages and was dependant on a number of factors – geographical, cultural, social etc. The issues of preserving cultural heritage, problems of marginalization, lack of skills, exclusion and other were all identified as significant factors. A number of recommendations were made based on the results of the study.
May 2016

Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements of Master’s Degree in Technology: Tourism and Hospitality, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa, 2016.
The primary aim of the study is to evaluate the community-based tourism model adopted by the Zulu-Mpophomeni Tourism Experience (ZMTE). ZMTE is a community-based tourism initiative that aims to provide visitors with a combined experience encompassing the elements of culture, history and nature. It is fully owned and managed by the Mpophomeni local residents. ZMTE is made up of different service providers including cultural and township tours, accommodation, restaurants as well as arts and crafts, which are all locally owned and managed. The inception of ZMTE was influenced by the growth in demand for authentic cultural and township experience by international markets as well as the immediate need to improve the livelihood of the local community. However, increased tourism activity results in a number of positive and negative implications to the area of Mpophomeni and its residents, primarily because the local community forms part of the tourism product. ZMTE is selected as a significant area of study due to its great potential for growth and has generated increased interest from different stakeholders within the tourism industry as well as the Mpophomeni local community. Its inception has largely improved tourism in the area of Mpophomeni and the province of KwaZulu-Natal in particular (KwaZulu-Natal Tourism Authority: 2012). The study findings are based on a sample of 280 Mpophomeni local community members, one managing director of the ZMTE and six establishments that are service providers of the ZMTE. The study adopted both quantitative and qualitative methods for data collection. Semi-structured questionnaires were used to obtain data from the Mpophomeni local community. Face- to-face interviews were conducted to obtain data from ZMTE service providers and one managing director of this project. The results suggest the ZMTE is not beneficial to the majority of the local people and a lot still needs to be done in order to improve its viability. The major factor contributing to the lack of positive contribution of the ZMTE to the local community is due to the lack of knowledge about approaches that the local people can adopt in order to be part of the ZMTE and benefit from it. Findings derived from this study will unveil the CBT model adopted by the ZMTE. This will enable to revelation of areas that require improvement within the ZMTE so that benefits and opportunities are exploited.
M

碩士
國立勤益科技大學
企業管理系
107
Community-Based Tourism (CBT) has been presented as an alternative to sustain tourism development in developing countries. This kind of tourism model offers local residents an opportunity to manage natural and cultural resources in order to promote local economy and generate greater benefits for the local community. The objective of the study is to investigate the benefits, challenges of CBT and solution to address the identified shortcomings by studying Muen Ngoen Kong community in Chiang Mai, Thailand. In order to achieve these objectives qualitative methods including field observation and interview were employed and qualitative data were analyzed by using thematic analysis. In this study, the results of field observation and interview data from the local residents were reported, analyzed, and discussed. To practice CBT, the findings indicated that several challenges; conflict over resource ownership and benefit leaking, financial issues, and problems of community participation had been experienced in implementation of CBT. However, abundance of tourism resources and security related concerns were identified as benefits of CBT of the study area. In close collaboration with government agency, product development was recommended to create a unique condition for CBT and address shortcoming. It is crucial to involve local residents, empower the local community, conserve and cultivate cultural resources, and finally, maintain the sustainability of overall tourism resources. Keywords: Community-Based Tourism, Benefits and Challenges, Community Development, Chiang Mai, Thematic Analysis, Case Study

碩士
嶺東科技大學
觀光與休閒管理系碩士班
107
ABSTRACT According to the statistics of the Ministry of Health and Welfare in 2017, the total amount of community development associations approved by the competent authorities was 6,839. Due to a variety types of community types, there are metropolitan communities, urban-rural communities, coastal-type communities, mountain-type communities, rural-type communities, tribal communities, etc., due to the diversity of community type, community resource patterns are also different. The key to the success of community tourism development is related to the resources for community tourism development. Therefore, the importance of exploring community tourism resources is the key. By surveying community resource, such as culture, history, people, monuments, sites, nature, ecology, attractions, rivers, terrain, landforms, specialties, snacks, ethnic groups, religion, performances, festivals, experience, study, life, sports, spirituality, film, etc, we can collect the advantages of community to develop local tourism. In this study, we selected six communities and scholars who have successfully developed community tourism, and relevant government agencies to find out the key success factors for community tourism development. By thoroughly empirical scientific analysis, we hope to find out the important indicators of community tourism development, and to provide government to guide community for developing, and even to provide a model or a strategy for developed community or developing community. This study aims to construct an attribute assessment of key success factors for community tourism development, and the study is conducted in three phases. The first phase is based on the literature to conduct content analysis method - from six community tourism development success cases and refer to the past literature, preliminary drafting of four major factors, which are "Environmental Resources", "Human History", “People Cooperation” and “Tourism Investment” for interview. In the second stage, we will find five enthusiastic participating communities, and the current community cadres and lieutenants to conduct in-depth interviews getting the key factors for the success of the four major factors,"Environmental Resources", "Human History", "Popular Cooperation", and "Tourism Investment", and eight indicators and 21 third-level measured indicators. Besides, adding the third-level target “Seasonal Landscape” in the second-level “Natural Landscape” of “Environmental Resources”. In the third stage, 16 experts, officials, academics, and practitioners were invited to fill out the questionnaires, and the questionnaire analysis will be conducted by the hierarchical program analysis method. The results of the study found that on the four major factors, the "B-Human History" accounts for the highest ranking weight value of 0.380, followed by the "A-Environmental Resources" with weight value of 0.317. The weight of the "C-People's Cooperation" is ranked third in the 0.198, and the weight of the "D-Tourism Investment" is the fourth rank with value of 0.105. For the second-level overall evaluation criteria is divided into 8 categories. The highest rating of weight value is “B2 Historic Building” 0.196, and followed by the “B1 Historical Background” weighting value of 0.184. The third one is "A1 Natural Landscape" with the weight value of 0.159, followed by the "A2 Community Features" weight is 0.158, followed by the "C1 Resident Cooperation" weight is 0.105, followed by "C2 Local Guide" with the weight of the list is 0.093, followed by the “D1 Government Cooperation” with a weight of 0.062. The lease value is “D2 Leisure Recreation Investment” with a weight of 0.043 and has the rank eighth. The third-level overall evaluation criteria is divided into 21 categories. After the serial weight calculation of the main standard, scholars believe that “B2I in situ Monument Construction” is the most important of all evaluation indicators, with overall weight is 0.1257. Secondly, the overall weight of the evaluation index of "B1I History related of Ancients of Local Community" is ranked second in 0.0936, the overall weight of the "B1II Community Local History and Culture" evaluated edge is 0.0903, and the evaluation criteria of "A2I Featured Attractions Excavation" of weight value is 0.0745, ranking fourth, and the overall evaluation weight of the “B2II Local Temple Building” evaluation criterion is 0.0704. The last three factors are "D2II Public Leisure Facilities" ranked 19th with the weight value of 0.016, followed by the "D1III Experts and Scholars Asistance " weighting value of 0.0124 ranked 20th, and "D2I Adding Visitors’ Community Travel Tool" has a weight value of 0.0098. It is hoped that the research results will provide a way for the community and government to provide subsidies to the community and as a discussion for academic research on related topics.