Статті в журналах з теми "Commodités agricoles"

Cet article examine l’impact économique du débat autour du changement climatique sur les marchés de produits agricoles. Il montre, en particulier, comment et quand l’attention du public au terme « climate change » (changement climatique) et « global warming » (réchauffement de la planète) influence les prix des futures sur le soja. En nous appuyant sur une analyse de la cohérence par ondelettes, nous identifions les périodes de haute cohérence et analysons la relation entre, d’une part, l’attention du public et, d’autre part, les événements climatiques extrêmes et les variations climatiques. En outre, nous examinons la relation entre l’attention du public et les variations inattendues du prix du soja et analysons l’effet de certains événements qui attirent l’attention. Nos résultats suggèrent que l’attention du public a un effet significatif et transversal sur les prix des futures sur le soja.

ABSTRACT Listeria monocytogenes may be present in produce-associated environments (e.g., fields, packing houses); thus, understanding its growth and survival on intact, whole produce is of critical importance. The goal of this study was to identify and characterize published data on the growth and/or survival of L. monocytogenes on intact fruit and vegetable surfaces. Relevant studies were identified by searching seven electronic databases: AGRICOLA, CAB Abstracts, Center for Produce Safety funded research project final reports, FST Abstracts, Google Scholar, PubMed, and Web of Science. Searches were conducted using the following terms: Listeria monocytogenes, produce, growth, and survival. Search terms were also modified and “exploded” to find all related subheadings. Included studies had to be prospective, describe methodology (e.g., inoculation method), outline experimental parameters, and provide quantitative growth and/or survival data. Studies were not included if methods were unclear or inappropriate, or if produce was cut, processed, or otherwise treated. Of 3,459 identified citations, 88 were reviewed in full and 29 studies met the inclusion criteria. Included studies represented 21 commodities, with the majority of studies focusing on melons, leafy greens, berries, or sprouts. Synthesis of the reviewed studies suggests L. monocytogenes growth and survival on intact produce surfaces differ substantially by commodity. Parameters such as temperature and produce surface characteristics had a considerable effect on L. monocytogenes growth and survival dynamics. This review provides an inventory of the current data on L. monocytogenes growth and/or survival on intact produce surfaces. Identification of which intact produce commodities support L. monocytogenes growth and/or survival at various conditions observed along the supply chain will assist the industry in managing L. monocytogenes contamination risk. HIGHLIGHTS

The new demand for rurality raises new issues: it is no longer a question of sustaining a traditional agricultural model based exclusively on productivity and profit maximisation, but rather agriculture strongly oriented towards the production of non-commodity outputs that very often have the characteristics of externalities or public goods. Based on these assumptions, the paper intends to frame the role of multifunctional agriculture for the development of peri-urban areas looking in particular to the agricultural parks phenomenon, in which innovative and multifunctional agriculture is practiced (with environmental, landscape, and social functions), to asses if they can represent a strategic resource for the tourist enhancement of territories on the edge of urban and rural areas. With this perspective, two Italian case studies, Parco agricolo di Ciaculli (Palermo and Parco agricolo Sud Milano (Milano), have been analyzed highlighting their main characteristics and under which conditions they can play the role of tourism development driver.

Most analysts were surprised by the sudden milk prices downturn which occurred at the same time as the removal of European milk quotas. In general, they considered it as an exceptional event, justifying ad hoc political interventions, but no revision of the liberal way of thinking. Yet, it is also possible to interpret it as a normal transitory phenomenon, likely to occur on any market when demand is rigid, and long run supply elastic. In such a situation, which is the case of agricultural commodities, the market equilibrium is unstable, in the mathematical meaning of the word. Then, the market dynamic results in a succession of peaks and slumps around the ''normal'' price, which never prevails. The cost of these variations might be greater than the benefit which can be expected from liberalisation. As a consequence, policies aiming at severing all links between agriculture and markets, as was the case of the CAP before1992, were perhaps less detrimental than commonly assessed.

Il sistema agro-alimentare italiano sta cercando percorsi innovativi, atti a garantire più equi assetti economici, una generale riappropriazione dei valori di cura e cultura del territorio, una maggiore attenzione alle tematiche sociali. Tale ampia e profonda innovazione di sistema, in contrasto con la cultura dei mercati alimentari delle commodity, risponde alla necessità di assumere consapevolmente le indicazioni di Agenda 2030. Con nuove politiche territoriali, sviluppate a scala locale, possono essere recuperati e rinforzati i legami esistenti fra gli ambiti della produzione agricola e quelli della ristorazione collettiva istituzionale. I nuovi sistemi agroalimentari locali e sostenibili possono essere studiati, sviluppati, gestiti all'interno di bioregioni, vale a dire aree individuate e analizzate utilizzando criteri ecosistemici, superando gli attuali più rigidi confini amministrativi.

After the sharp increase in agricultural commodity prices during 2007, agricultural markets seem to have entered in the era of structural instability. There are different reasons, like growth in food demand, markets structure and trade policies. The increase in price volatility has implications for all stakeholders in the food chain. Especially for farmers, who are affected by both market power problems and imperfect price transmission. This topic is now at the center of the European debate on the future of Common Agricultural Policy (cap). In particular, after the crisis in the dairy sector in 2009 has been started a comprehensive discussion in Europe, which led to the first legislative step aimed at strengthening the prerogatives of producers in the primary sector. The work aims to provide both an overview of these phenomena and the implications for European policy maker, now engaged in reforming the cap.

This research was aimed at investigating the recent climatic vagary on livestock production and household performance with the subsequent effect of COVID -19 pandemic in the South- Western Nigeria. Online survey was employed using a structured questionnaire as the test instrument. A total of 100 respondents was examined on how the recent climate change affect household performance, food consumption, farming (livestock production) with associated effects of COVID -19 pandemic. Data generated were subjected to descriptive statistics. Results depicted that 95.1% of respondents had tertiary education, 68.2% and 50.0% were male and self-employed, respectively. Majority (98.8%) of the respondents were aware of the recent effect of climate change on livestock and 77.9% had been victims of it. About 56.5% kept livestock under intensive system. It was observed that 90.7% confirmed severe effect of climate change on availability of feed and the price. About 43.5% and 32.1% indicated that recent climate change had severe effects on level of production and mortality respectively. Report on household performance showed that 61.6% engaged in farming, in which livestock was 33.3% and mixed farming was 38.6%. Severity of the effect of climate change was confirmed by 80% of the respondents with subsequent effect on price of food commodity (94%), with family level of production (78.8%) and cost of production (90.5%). Pandemic decreased effect on the purchasing power of respondents (54.7%) which equally affected the family food intake as confirmed by 73.6% and consequently affected the family protein consumption. It was observed that salary alone will not be enough to cope with future effect of pandemic but farming and side businesses are of vital values. These findings necessitate the adoption of agricultural production in every household to limit the effect of climatic change and financial crises posed by the pandemic. Conclusively, to curb the negative effect of climate change cum COVID-19 pandemic, agricultural practices should be encouraged among the youths and females to abate the impending food insecurity. Also, the rural agriculture should be encouraged through various agricultural aids to spur farmers' interest and boost their production potentials. Cette recherche visait à enquêter sur les récents aléas climatiques sur la production animale et les performances des ménages avec l'effet consécutif de la pandémie COVID -19 dans le sud-ouest du Nigéria. L'enquête en ligne a été utilisée en utilisant un questionnaire structuré comme instrument de test. Un total de 100 répondants a été examiné sur la façon dont le récent changement climatique affecte les performances des ménages, la consommation alimentaire, l'agriculture (production animale) avec les effets associés de la pandémie COVID -19. Les données générées ont été soumises à des statistiques descriptives. Les Climate vagary and COVID-19 Pandemic: Influence on livestock production résultats ont montré que 95.1% des personnes interrogées avaient fait des études supérieures, 68.2% et 50.0% étaient des hommes et des travailleurs indépendants, respectivement. La majorité (98.8%) des répondants étaient au courant de l'effet récent du changement climatique sur le bétail et 77.9% en avaient été victimes. Environ 56.5% ont gardé le bétail dans un système intensif. Il a été observé que 90,7% confirmaient un effet grave du changement climatique sur la disponibilité des aliments pour animaux et le prix. Environ 43.5% et 32.1% ont indiqué que les changements climatiques récents ont eu des effets graves sur le niveau de production et la mortalité respectivement. Le rapport sur la performance des ménages a montré que 61.6% étaient engagés dans l'agriculture, dans laquelle le bétail était de 33.3% et l'agriculture mixte était de 38.6%. La gravité de l'effet du changement climatique a été confirmée par 80% des répondants avec un effet ultérieur sur le prix des denrées alimentaires (94%), avec le niveau de production familial (78.8%) et le coût de production (90.5%). La pandémie a diminué l'effet sur le pouvoir d'achat des répondants (54.7%), ce qui a également affecté l'apport alimentaire de la famille comme le confirme 73.6% et a par conséquent affecté la consommation de protéines de la famille. Il a été observé que le salaire à lui seul ne suffira pas pour faire face aux effets futurs de la pandémie, mais l'agriculture et les activités annexes sont des valeurs vitales. Ces constats nécessitent l'adoption de la production agricole dans chaque ménage pour limiter les effets du changement climatique et des crises financières posés par la pandémie. En conclusion, pour freiner l'effet négatif du changement climatique et de la pandémie de COVID-19, les pratiques agricoles devraient être encouragées chez les jeunes et les femmes afin de réduire l'insécurité alimentaire imminente. En outre, l'agriculture rurale devrait être encouragée par diverses aides agricoles pour stimuler l'intérêt des agriculteurs et accroître leur potentiel de production.

ResumoConsiderada pelo governo militar como um vazio demográfico que deveria ser ocupado, a região Centro-Oeste brasileira vivenciou, durante os anos 70 e 80 do século 20, um processo de modernização das atividades agrícolas e de consumo de produtos industriais. Uma integração que atendeu aos interesses do capital, que associado ao Estado brasileiro conduziu o Centro-Oeste à especialização na produção de commodities. Entre as estratégias utilizadas pelo governo, destacamos a criação da Superintendência de Desenvolvimento do Centro-Oeste (SUDECO), em 1967, que teve a tarefa de conduzir o Centro-Oeste a uma integração com as demais regiões do Brasil. Com o objetivo de analisar o papel da Primeira Sudeco (1967 a 1990) como órgão de planejamento e desenvolvimento do Centro-Oeste, esse trabalho foi conduzido por meio do levantamento da literatura regional que discute o papel da Superintendência no processo de desenvolvimento da região Centro-Oeste brasileira, de dados e indicadores estatísticos e dos documentos da própria Superintendência. A ação estatal na região foi fundamental para consolidar os interesses do capital agroindustrial com a integração da região Centro-Oeste à economia nacional.Palavras-chave: Estado, planejamento, integração, commodities. AbstractConsidered by the military government as a demographic vacuum which should be occupied, the Brazilian mid-west region went through a process of modernization in its agricultural activities and demand for manufactured goods through the 70s and 80s of the 20th century. There was integration that fulfilled the interests of capital, and associated with the Brazilian Government, it led the Mid-West to specialize in the production of commodities. Among the strategies used by the government, we point out the creation of Superintendência de Desenvolvimento do Centro-Oeste (SUDECO), in 1967, which aimed to lead the Mid-West to integrate into the other regions in Brazil. With the objective of analyzing the role of the first Sudeco (from 1967 to 1990) as a planning and development institution in the Mid-West, this work was carried out through analyzing regional literature that discuss the role of the Institution in the development process of the Brazilian mid-west region, and also the Institution’s data, statistical indicators and documents. The governmental action in the region was essential to consolidate the interests of agricultural and industrial investments with the integration of the Mid-West region into the national economy.Keywords: State, planning, integration, commodities. RésuméConsiderée, à l’époque du régime militaire, comme un vide démographique destiné à être peuplé, la région du centre-ouest brésilien a connu, durant les années 1970 et 1980, un processus de mordernisation de ses activités agricoles et de consommation de produits industriels. Lié aux intérêts du capital, cet effort d’intégration, en association avec l’État brésilien, a conduit la région du Centre-Ouest vers l’expertise dans la production de commodities. Parmi les stratégies mises en place par le gouvernement se situe, en particulier, la création de la Surintendance de Développement du Centre-Ouest (Sudeco) en 1967, dont le but était de promouvoir une intégration avec les autres régions du Brésil. Ayant pour but d’analyser le rôle de la première Sudeco (1967-1990) en tant qu’organe de plannification et de développement du Centre-Ouest, cette recherche s’est basée sur la révision de la littérature régionale disponible, notamment le rôle de la Surintendance dans le processus de développement de la région Centre-Ouest brésilienne. Sont également présentés des données, des indicateurs statistiques et des documents élaborés par la Surintendance. L’action de l’état dans la région a joué un rôle fondamental dans la consolidation des intérêts du capital agro-industriel, à la suite de l’intégration de la région dans l’économie nationale.Mots-clés: État, plannification, intégration, commodities.

Este artículo explora cómo es que los proyectos actuales enfocados en promover la modernización de la finca talamanqueña mediante la producción de cacao sostenible están fundamentados en formaciones discursivas históricas que presumen la relación entre los indígenas y la naturaleza como irracional y problemática, dada su baja productividad. Se explicará cómo, desde inicios del siglo XX, el Estado, en conjunto con centros de investigación y empresas privadas, ha demandado la optimización de los usos agrícolas del suelo en territorios indígenas, prefigurando la producción de commodities para la exportación como la única solución a estos problemas percibidos. Estas formaciones discursivas —incluyendo las construcciones raciales de los indígenas— siguen siendo indispensables para comprender las lógicas de intervención del cacao hoy. Este caso demuestra cómo es que el desarrollo imprime valores monoculturales y cómo es que estas ideas son implementadas y resistidas.Abstract: This article explores how current projects focused on promoting modernization of farms in Talamanca through the production of sustainable cocoa are in fact based on historical discursive formations presuming that the relationship between indigenous people and nature is irrational and problematic due to its low productivity. It will be explained how, since the beginning of the 20th century, the State, along with research centers and private companies, have demanded the optimization of agricultural land uses in indigenous territories, foreshadowing the production of commodities for export, as the only solution to these perceived problems. These discursive formations —including the racial constructions of the indigenous people— are still essential to understand the logic of intervention of cocoa today. This case demonstrates how development imposes monocultural values and how these ideas are implemented and resisted.Keywords: cocoa; Costa Rica; intervention; monoculture; sustainable.Résumé : Cet article analyse comment les projets actuels, qui se centrent sur la modernisation des plantations de Talamanca à travers la production de cacao durable, sont basés sur des formations discursives historiques qui considèrent que la relation entre indigènes et la nature est irrationnelle et problématique compte tenu de sa faible productivité. En effet, depuis le début du xxème siècle, l’Etat, accompagné par des centres de recherches et des entreprises privées, demandent l’optimisation des usages agricoles du sol dans les territoires indigènes, préfigurant la production de «commodities» pour l’exportation comme étant l’unique solution aux problèmes perçus. Ces formations discursives — en comptant les constructions raciales autour des indigènes — continuent à être indispensables pour comprendre les logiques d’intervention actuelles sur le secteur cacao. Ce cas d’étude démontre comment le développement impose des valeurs mono-culturelles et comment ces idées sont mises en place ainsi que la résistance qu’elles engendrent.Mot-clés: cacao ; Costa Rica ; interventions ; monoculture ; durable.

O município de Porto Velho, localizado ao norte do estado de Rondônia, situado na Amazônia meridional, apresenta modificações espaciais que nos permitem compreender a dinâmica do espaço agrário rondoniense por meio da expansão da fronteira agrícola que avança em busca de novas áreas para a ampliação da atividade da pecuária e, posteriormente, da monocultura da soja e demais grãos que fazem parte das commodities comercializadas pelo estado. Entre os anos de 1999 e 2018, União Bandeirantes e Rio Pardo expressam formas de ocupação, impactos ambientais, territoriais e sociais similares que fazem parte do processo de expansão da fronteira agrícola. Os reflexos desses impactos estão no aumento do desmatamento e da degradação ambiental que propiciou/propicia pressões, tensionamentos e conflitos nas Áreas Protegidas: Terra Indígena Karipuna, Resex Jacy-Paraná e Floresta Nacional do Bom Futuro. No recorte temporal mencionado (1999-2018), buscamos compreender a materialidade histórica que resultou no avanço do capital agropecuário em áreas de florestas ligadas ao processo de incorporação de terras em larga escala. Essas terras agricultáveis colocam o Brasil na contradição de expansão da agricultura e negligênciamento do Zoneamento Socioeconômico e Ecológico (ZSEE), com reflexos nocivos aos povos indígenas e comunidades tradicionais que são invisibilizados, além das expulsões serem minimizadas, naturalizadas como meras consequências do “desenvolvimento econômico” do país. Ancorados no método dialético e metodologia quali-quantitativa, analisamos os dados de produção agropecuária, desmatamento e extração mineral, como reflexo da negação ao ZSEE em União Bandeirantes e Rio Pardo. Palavras-chave: Fronteira; Pecuária; Campesinato; Desmatamento; Áreas Protegidas. The geography of borders in the municipality of Porto Velho: União Bandeirantes and Rio Pardo and the reflexes of the negligence of the territorial management of the state in Rondônia Abstract Porto Velho is located in the southern Amazon and shows spatial changes that allow us to understand the dynamics of the rural areas in Rondônia state, through the expansion of the agricultural frontier in search of new areas for livestock activity and, later, monoculture of soybeans and other grains that are part of the commodities traded by the state. Between 1999 and 2018, União Bandeirantes and Rio Pardo expressed similar forms of occupation, environmental, territorial and social impacts that are part of the agricultural frontier expansion process. Among impacts are an increase in deforestation and environmental degradation that led/provide pressures, tensions and conflicts in the Protected Areas: Karipuna Indigenous Land, Jacy-Paraná Resex and Bom Futuro National Forest. In this time frame, we aim to understand the historical materiality that resulted from the advance of agricultural capital in forest areas, linked to the process of large-scale land incorporation. These arable lands place Brazil in the contradiction of expanding agriculture and neglecting the Socioeconomic and Ecological Zoning (ZSEE), harmfully affecting indigenous peoples and traditional communities that are made invisible, in addition to their expulsions being minimized, naturalized as consequences of the “economic development” of the country. Anchored in the dialectical method and qualitative-quantitative methodology, we analyzed data on agricultural production, deforestation and mineral extraction, as a reflection of the denial of the ZSEE in União Bandeirantes and Rio Pardo. Keywords: Border; Livestock; Peasantry; Logging; Protected Areas. La géographie des frontières dans la municipalité de Porto Velho: União Bandeirantes et Rio Pardo et les réflexes de la négligence de la gestion territoriale de l'État à Rondônia Resumé La municipalité de Porto Velho, localisée au nord de l'état de Rondônia, située dans le sud de l'Amazonie, présente des changements spatiaux qui nous permettent de comprendre la dynamique de l'espace agraire de Rondônia à travers l'expansion de la frontière agricole qui avance dans la recherche de nouvelles zones pour l'expansion de l'activité d'élevage et, plus tard, la monoculture de soja et d'autres céréales qui font partie des produits de base commercialisés par l'état. Entre les années 1999 et 2018, União Bandeirantes et Rio Pardo montrent des formes similaires d'occupation, d'impacts environnementaux, territoriaux et sociaux qui font partie du processus d'élargissement de la frontière agricole. Les reflets de ces impacts se trouvent dans l'augmentation de la déforestation et de la dégradation de l'environnement qui ont entraîné/provoqué des pressions, des tensions et des conflits dans les Aires Protégées: Terres Indigènes de Karipuna, Resex Jacy-Paraná et Forêt Nationale de Bom Futuro. Dans cette temporalité, nous cherchons à comprendre la matérialité historique qui s'est traduite par l'avancée du capital agricole dans les espaces forestiers liés au processus d'incorporation de terres à grande échelle. Ces terres arables placent le Brésil dans la contradiction de l'expansion de l'agriculture et de la négligence du Zonage Socio-économique et Écologique (ZSEE), se répercutant de manière néfaste sur les peuples autochtones et les communautés traditionnelles qui sont rendus invisibles, en plus des expulsions minimisées, naturalisées comme conséquences du “développement économique” du pays. Ancrés dans la méthode dialectique et la méthodologie qualitative-quantitative, nous avons analysé les données sur la production agricole, la déforestation et l'extraction minière, comme reflet du déni de la ZSEE à União Bandeirantes et Rio Pardo. Mots-clés: Frontière; Bétail; Paysannerie/Paysan; Déboisement; Zones Protégées.

This article provides a comprehensive and chronological account of the technological advancements in alluvial gold mining. Gold has been a highly prized commodity throughout history and has played a significant role in humanity’s economic and cultural progress. The primitive methods of extracting gold from riverbeds were carried out in Ancient Anatolia and Ancient Greece. The earliest references to the extraction of gold from riverbeds can be traced back to the Argonautic expedition and the myth of the “Golden Fleece”. In this myth, fine gold particles were believed to be trapped within the skin of the fleece, thus alluding to the early practices of gold recovery from rivers. Since then, gold extraction and processing technologies have evolved. During the Roman Empire period, Emperor Augustus made significant advancements in hydraulic gold mining. He developed the “ground sluicing” method, which used water to wash away the overlying soil and expose the bedrock where gold deposits were located. Subsequently, the revolutionary pumps described by Georgius Bauer (Agricola) gained significant popularity during the Renaissance. Additionally, Spanish colonialists in America enhanced their techniques by observing the efficient methods employed by the indigenous populations. Finally, the “gold rush” era was perhaps the most crucial period in alluvial gold mining and took place in the rivers of America during the 19th–20th centuries. Today, technologies have evolved significantly, and exploring the evolution of primitive methods to the present is considered essential.

No Brasil, a expansão arrasadora do agronegócio globalizado sobre novas áreas do Cerrado produz regiões funcionais especializadas na produção de commodities agrícolas, a exemplo do Oeste da Bahia. Se por um lado, esta moderna agricultura alcança altos volumes de produção com o aumento dos índices de produtividade, do outro, reproduz pobreza e desigualdade social/territorial nas cidades e no campo devido à destruição da natureza, à exploração do trabalho e a abusiva concentração de riqueza e renda. Por isso, o objetivo desse trabalho é analisar o desequilíbrio entre o crescimento econômico e o desenvolvimento social dos três principais municípios desta região: Barreiras, Luís Eduardo Magalhães e São Desidério. A extrema desigualdade social divide economicamente o espaço regional em duas faces distintas: o território dos ricos e o território dos pobres, o “território do progresso” das extensas fazendas modernas do agronegócio e dos condomínios fechados e o “território precário” das inúmeras e crescentes periferias das cidades. Para transformar essa realidade da abusiva concentração de riqueza e renda, é necessário combater o discurso e a prática hegemônica da reprodução em escala macro do capital da moderna agricultura, para universalizar o acesso a bens e a serviços coletivos e tornar as condições dignas de vida e de trabalho. Palavras-chave: território precário, crescimento econômico, desigualdade social, Oeste da Bahia. ABSTRACT In Brazil, the overwhelming expansion of the global agribusiness on new areas of the Cerrado, creates functional regions specialized in the production of agricultural commodities, such as the West of Bahia. With accelerated growth of crops like soybeans, corn and cotton in addition to livestock, on the one hand, reach high volumes of production and increase productivity levels, on the other, reproduce social inequality and poverty/land in cities and rural areas due to the destruction of nature, labor exploitation and abuse of wealth and income concentration. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to analyze the imbalance between economic growth and social development of the three main cities of this region: Barreiras, Luís Eduardo Magalhães and São Desidério. The extreme social inequality divides the economy of the regional space into two distinct sides: the territory of the territory of the rich and poor, the “territory of the progress” of modern large agribusiness farms and gated communities and “precarious territory” of the numerous and growing suburbs of cities. To change this reality of the abusive concentration of wealth and income, it is necessary to combat the ideological discourse and practice of macro-scale reproduction of the capital of modern agriculture, to provide universal access to collective goods and services and make decent living and working. Keywords: territory precarious, economic growth, social inequality, West of Bahia. RÉSUMÉ Au Brésil, l'expansion écrasante de l'agro-alimentaire mondiale sur les nouveaux domaines du Cerrado, crée des régions fonctionnelles spécialisées dans la production de produits agricoles, tels que l'ouest de Bahia. D'une part, atteindre des volumes élevés de production et d'augmenter les niveaux de productivité, d'autre part, de reproduire les inégalités sociales et la pauvreté/la terre dans les villes et les zones rurales en raison de la destruction de l'exploitation du travail la nature, et les abus de la richesse et la concentration des revenus. Par conséquent, l'objectif de cet article est d'analyser le déséquilibre entre la croissance économique et le développement social des trois principales villes de cette région: Barreiras, Luís Eduardo Magalhaes et de São Desidério. L'extrême inégalité sociale divise l'économie de l'espace régional en deux parties distinctes: le territoire du territoire de l'riches et les pauvres, le «territoire de l'état d'avancement" de modernes fermes agro-industrie et les gated communities et «territoire précaire» des banlieues de nombreuses et en croissance de villes. Pour changer cette réalité de la concentration abusive des richesses et des revenus, il est nécessaire de lutter contre le discours idéologique et la pratique de la macro-échelle de reproduction du capital de l'agriculture moderne, de fournir un accès universel aux biens et services collectifs et rendre la vie et de travail décentes. Mots-clés: territoire précaires, la croissance économique, l'inégalité sociale, Ouest de Bahia. DOI: 10.5654/actageo2013.0715.0006

L’agricoltura costituisce da sempre una grande minaccia per gli ecosistemi naturali del nostro pianeta,e non solo in quanto attività umana essenziale per la produzione di cibo. Attualmente, in particolarenella regione tropicale e sub-tropicale, le attività agricole sono fattori di pressione cruciali per il mantenimentodei cicli di vita di ecosistemi essenziali per la biosfera, complessi e resilienti, come le foreste. Lesocietà contemporanee, essenzialmente urbane e sempre più disconnesse dai processi naturali ed ecologici,tendono a dimenticare, o semplicemente non considerare, le responsabilità di queste pressioni insostenibili.Tra le maggiori cause di deforestazione, quattro commodities rivestono un ruolo centrale:allevamento di bovini da carne, coltivazione della soia, produzione di olio di palma ed estrazione dilegname. I processi di produzione, trasformazione, trasporto e consumo di questi prodotti sono causa didegrado forestale e deforestazione come conseguenza diretta dell’espansione della frontiera agricola. Laletteratura scientifica recente dà sempre maggiore importanza al ruolo della deforestazione come unodei principali drivers del superamento dei planetary boundaries e alle connessioni economico-commercialie geo-ecologiche esistenti tra luoghi distanti del pianeta rispetto alla produzione, al consumoalimentare e al loro impatto ambientale e sociale. Il presente lavoro, basato su una ricerca bibliograficacondotta attraverso parole chiave inerenti i lavori scientifici sviluppati sull’argomento nell’ultimo ventennio,vuole contribuire all’approfondimento di tali connessioni e delle loro conseguenze, per far crescere laconsapevolezza dei cittadini e della stessa comunità scientifica. La revisione sistematica della letteraturarealizzata contribuisce a inquadrare le responsabilità “nascoste” nel consumo di molti prodotti alimentariche sono causa di scomparsa o degrado di ecosistemi naturali importantissimi per il pianeta, rafforzandola necessità di un cambiamento di paradigma per interrompere il circolo vizioso delle dinamicheurbano-rurale e nord-sud, ormai consolidate a livello globale.

Endophytic nitrogen-fixing (diazotrophic) bacteria are essential members of the microbiome of switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), considered to be an important commodity crop in bioenergy production. While endophytic diazotrophs are known to provide fixed atmospheric nitrogen to their host plant, there are many other plant growth-promoting (PGP) capabilities of these organisms to be demonstrated. The diversity of PGP traits across different taxa of switchgrass-colonizing endophytes is understudied, yet critical for understanding endophytic function and improving cultivation methods of important commodity crops. Here, we present the isolation and characterization of three diazotrophic endophytes: Azospirillum agricola R1C, Klebsiella variicola F10Cl, and Raoultella terrigena R1Gly. Strains R1C and F10Cl were isolated from switchgrass and strain R1Gly, while isolated from tobacco, is demonstrated herein to colonize switchgrass. Each strain exhibited highly diverse genomic and phenotypic PGP capabilities. Strain F10Cl and R1Gly demonstrated the highest functional similarity, suggesting that, while endophyte community structure may vary widely based on host species, differences in functional diversity are not a clearly delineated. The results of this study advance our understanding of diazotrophic endophyte diversity, which will allow us to design robust strategies to improve cultivation methods of many economically important commodity crops.

Background: Cowpea plays a critical role in the lives of millions of people in Africa and other parts of the developing world, where it is a major source of dietary protein that nutritionally complements staple low-protein cereal and tuber crops. It is a valuable and dependable commodity that produces income for farmers and traders. Objective: To review related research work on the genetic variability for time to flowering, maturity and drought tolerance in cowpea. Data Source: Searches were made from the following databases and archives; International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), The Essential Electronic Agricultural Library (TEAL), Access to Global Online Research in Agriculture (AGORA) (FAO), AGRICOLA (National Agricultural Library), AGRIS - Agricultural Sciences and Technology (FAO), CAS - Chemical Abstracts (ACS), DOAJ - Directory of Open Access Journals, CABI, Euphytica, Elsevier, Research Alert, Scopus and CGIAR, Plant Genetics and Breeding Database, Crop Science Database, Plant Genetics and Breeding Database, data base repositories, using the terms “genetic variability”, “drought”, “tolerance”, “ time to flowering and maturity”, and “cowpea” individually or in combination to identify literature published in English language between January 1990 to January 2018. Methods: The review was carried out using the above search terms. Research papers were critically reviewed, relevant data extracted, and a narrative synthesis was conducted to determine the relevant papers. Results: In all 150 papers met the inclusion criteria. Collections were from varied background; Sub-Saharan Africa, Asia, Europe, and Latin Americas. Conclusion: Despite research studies on cowpea and drought, there appears to be limited such research findings on the time to flowering, and maturity in relations to drought tolerance in cowpea in Ghana, suggesting more research in this part of the world.

Introduction Eating is one of the most quintessential activities of human life. Because of this primacy, eating is, as food anthropologist Sidney Mintz has observed, “not merely a biological activity, but a vibrantly cultural activity as well” (48). This article posits that the current awareness of climate change in the Western world is animating such cultural activity as the Slow Food movement and is, as a result, stimulating what could be seen as an evolutionary change in popular foodways. Moreover, this paper suggests that, in line with modelling provided by the Slow Food example, an increased awareness of the connections of climate change to the social injustices of food production might better drive social change in such areas. This discussion begins by proposing that contemporary foodways—defined as “not only what is eaten by a particular group of people but also the variety of customs, beliefs and practices surrounding the production, preparation and presentation of food” (Davey 182)—are changing in the West in relation to current concerns about climate change. Such modification has a long history. Since long before the inception of modern Homo sapiens, natural climate change has been a crucial element driving hominidae evolution, both biologically and culturally in terms of social organisation and behaviours. Macroevolutionary theory suggests evolution can dramatically accelerate in response to rapid shifts in an organism’s environment, followed by slow to long periods of stasis once a new level of sustainability has been achieved (Gould and Eldredge). There is evidence that ancient climate change has also dramatically affected the rate and course of cultural evolution. Recent work suggests that the end of the last ice age drove the cultural innovation of animal and plant domestication in the Middle East (Zeder), not only due to warmer temperatures and increased rainfall, but also to a higher level of atmospheric carbon dioxide which made agriculture increasingly viable (McCorriston and Hole, cited in Zeder). Megadroughts during the Paleolithic might well have been stimulating factors behind the migration of hominid populations out of Africa and across Asia (Scholz et al). Thus, it is hardly surprising that modern anthropogenically induced global warming—in all its’ climate altering manifestations—may be driving a new wave of cultural change and even evolution in the West as we seek a sustainable homeostatic equilibrium with the environment of the future. In 1962, Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring exposed some of the threats that modern industrial agriculture poses to environmental sustainability. This prompted a public debate from which the modern environmental movement arose and, with it, an expanding awareness and attendant anxiety about the safety and nutritional quality of contemporary foods, especially those that are grown with chemical pesticides and fertilizers and/or are highly processed. This environmental consciousness led to some modification in eating habits, manifest by some embracing wholefood and vegetarian dietary regimes (or elements of them). Most recently, a widespread awareness of climate change has forced rapid change in contemporary Western foodways, while in other climate related areas of socio-political and economic significance such as energy production and usage, there is little evidence of real acceleration of change. Ongoing research into the effects of this expanding environmental consciousness continues in various disciplinary contexts such as geography (Eshel and Martin) and health (McMichael et al). In food studies, Vileisis has proposed that the 1970s environmental movement’s challenge to the polluting practices of industrial agri-food production, concurrent with the women’s movement (asserting women’s right to know about everything, including food production), has led to both cooks and eaters becoming increasingly knowledgeable about the links between agricultural production and consumer and environmental health, as well as the various social justice issues involved. As a direct result of such awareness, alternatives to the industrialised, global food system are now emerging (Kloppenberg et al.). The Slow Food (R)evolution The tenets of the Slow Food movement, now some two decades old, are today synergetic with the growing consternation about climate change. In 1983, Carlo Petrini formed the Italian non-profit food and wine association Arcigola and, in 1986, founded Slow Food as a response to the opening of a McDonalds in Rome. From these humble beginnings, which were then unashamedly positing a return to the food systems of the past, Slow Food has grown into a global organisation that has much more future focused objectives animating its challenges to the socio-cultural and environmental costs of industrial food. Slow Food does have some elements that could be classed as reactionary and, therefore, the opposite of evolutionary. In response to the increasing homogenisation of culinary habits around the world, for instance, Slow Food’s Foundation for Biodiversity has established the Ark of Taste, which expands upon the idea of a seed bank to preserve not only varieties of food but also local and artisanal culinary traditions. In this, the Ark aims to save foods and food products “threatened by industrial standardization, hygiene laws, the regulations of large-scale distribution and environmental damage” (SFFB). Slow Food International’s overarching goals and activities, however, extend far beyond the preservation of past foodways, extending to the sponsoring of events and activities that are attempting to create new cuisine narratives for contemporary consumers who have an appetite for such innovation. Such events as the Salone del Gusto (Salon of Taste) and Terra Madre (Mother Earth) held in Turin every two years, for example, while celebrating culinary traditions, also focus on contemporary artisanal foods and sustainable food production processes that incorporate the most current of agricultural knowledge and new technologies into this production. Attendees at these events are also driven by both an interest in tradition, and their own very current concerns with health, personal satisfaction and environmental sustainability, to change their consumer behavior through an expanded self-awareness of the consequences of their individual lifestyle choices. Such events have, in turn, inspired such events in other locations, moving Slow Food from local to global relevance, and affecting the intellectual evolution of foodway cultures far beyond its headquarters in Bra in Northern Italy. This includes in the developing world, where millions of farmers continue to follow many traditional agricultural practices by necessity. Slow Food Movement’s forward-looking values are codified in the International Commission on the Future of Food and Agriculture 2006 publication, Manifesto on the Future of Food. This calls for changes to the World Trade Organisation’s rules that promote the globalisation of agri-food production as a direct response to the “climate change [which] threatens to undermine the entire natural basis of ecologically benign agriculture and food preparation, bringing the likelihood of catastrophic outcomes in the near future” (ICFFA 8). It does not call, however, for a complete return to past methods. To further such foodway awareness and evolution, Petrini founded the University of Gastronomic Sciences at Slow Food’s headquarters in 2004. The university offers programs that are analogous with the Slow Food’s overall aim of forging sustainable partnerships between the best of old and new practice: to, in the organisation’s own words, “maintain an organic relationship between gastronomy and agricultural science” (UNISG). In 2004, Slow Food had over sixty thousand members in forty-five countries (Paxson 15), with major events now held each year in many of these countries and membership continuing to grow apace. One of the frequently cited successes of the Slow Food movement is in relation to the tomato. Until recently, supermarkets stocked only a few mass-produced hybrids. These cultivars were bred for their disease resistance, ease of handling, tolerance to artificial ripening techniques, and display consistency, rather than any culinary values such as taste, aroma, texture or variety. In contrast, the vine ripened, ‘farmer’s market’ tomato has become the symbol of an “eco-gastronomically” sustainable, local and humanistic system of food production (Jordan) which melds the best of the past practice with the most up-to-date knowledge regarding such farming matters as water conservation. Although the term ‘heirloom’ is widely used in relation to these tomatoes, there is a distinctively contemporary edge to the way they are produced and consumed (Jordan), and they are, along with other organic and local produce, increasingly available in even the largest supermarket chains. Instead of a wholesale embrace of the past, it is the connection to, and the maintenance of that connection with, the processes of production and, hence, to the environment as a whole, which is the animating premise of the Slow Food movement. ‘Slow’ thus creates a gestalt in which individuals integrate their lifestyles with all levels of the food production cycle and, hence to the environment and, importantly, the inherently related social justice issues. ‘Slow’ approaches emphasise how the accelerated pace of contemporary life has weakened these connections, while offering a path to the restoration of a sense of connectivity to the full cycle of life and its relation to place, nature and climate. In this, the Slow path demands that every consumer takes responsibility for all components of his/her existence—a responsibility that includes becoming cognisant of the full story behind each of the products that are consumed in that life. The Slow movement is not, however, a regime of abstention or self-denial. Instead, the changes in lifestyle necessary to support responsible sustainability, and the sensual and aesthetic pleasure inherent in such a lifestyle, exist in a mutually reinforcing relationship (Pietrykowski 2004). This positive feedback loop enhances the potential for promoting real and long-term evolution in social and cultural behaviour. Indeed, the Slow zeitgeist now informs many areas of contemporary culture, with Slow Travel, Homes, Design, Management, Leadership and Education, and even Slow Email, Exercise, Shopping and Sex attracting adherents. Mainstreaming Concern with Ethical Food Production The role of the media in “forming our consciousness—what we think, how we think, and what we think about” (Cunningham and Turner 12)—is self-evident. It is, therefore, revealing in relation to the above outlined changes that even the most functional cookbooks and cookery magazines (those dedicated to practical information such as recipes and instructional technique) in Western countries such as the USA, UK and Australian are increasingly reflecting and promoting an awareness of ethical food production as part of this cultural change in food habits. While such texts have largely been considered as useful but socio-politically relatively banal publications, they are beginning to be recognised as a valid source of historical and cultural information (Nussel). Cookbooks and cookery magazines commonly include discussion of a surprising range of issues around food production and consumption including sustainable and ethical agricultural methods, biodiversity, genetic modification and food miles. In this context, they indicate how rapidly the recent evolution of foodways has been absorbed into mainstream practice. Much of such food related media content is, at the same time, closely identified with celebrity mass marketing and embodied in the television chef with his or her range of branded products including their syndicated articles and cookbooks. This commercial symbiosis makes each such cuisine-related article in a food or women’s magazine or cookbook, in essence, an advertorial for a celebrity chef and their named products. Yet, at the same time, a number of these mass media food celebrities are raising public discussion that is leading to consequent action around important issues linked to climate change, social justice and the environment. An example is Jamie Oliver’s efforts to influence public behaviour and government policy, a number of which have gained considerable traction. Oliver’s 2004 exposure of the poor quality of school lunches in Britain (see Jamie’s School Dinners), for instance, caused public outrage and pressured the British government to commit considerable extra funding to these programs. A recent study by Essex University has, moreover, found that the academic performance of 11-year-old pupils eating Oliver’s meals improved, while absenteeism fell by 15 per cent (Khan). Oliver’s exposé of the conditions of battery raised hens in 2007 and 2008 (see Fowl Dinners) resulted in increased sales of free-range poultry, decreased sales of factory-farmed chickens across the UK, and complaints that free-range chicken sales were limited by supply. Oliver encouraged viewers to lobby their local councils, and as a result, a number banned battery hen eggs from schools, care homes, town halls and workplace cafeterias (see, for example, LDP). The popular penetration of these ideas needs to be understood in a historical context where industrialised poultry farming has been an issue in Britain since at least 1848 when it was one of the contributing factors to the establishment of the RSPCA (Freeman). A century after Upton Sinclair’s The Jungle (published in 1906) exposed the realities of the slaughterhouse, and several decades since Peter Singer’s landmark Animal Liberation (1975) and Tom Regan’s The Case for Animal Rights (1983) posited the immorality of the mistreatment of animals in food production, it could be suggested that Al Gore’s film An Inconvenient Truth (released in 2006) added considerably to the recent concern regarding the ethics of industrial agriculture. Consciousness-raising bestselling books such as Jim Mason and Peter Singer’s The Ethics of What We Eat and Michael Pollan’s The Omnivore’s Dilemma (both published in 2006), do indeed ‘close the loop’ in this way in their discussions, by concluding that intensive food production methods used since the 1950s are not only inhumane and damage public health, but are also damaging an environment under pressure from climate change. In comparison, the use of forced labour and human trafficking in food production has attracted far less mainstream media, celebrity or public attention. It could be posited that this is, in part, because no direct relationship to the environment and climate change and, therefore, direct link to our own existence in the West, has been popularised. Kevin Bales, who has been described as a modern abolitionist, estimates that there are currently more than 27 million people living in conditions of slavery and exploitation against their wills—twice as many as during the 350-year long trans-Atlantic slave trade. Bales also chillingly reveals that, worldwide, the number of slaves is increasing, with contemporary individuals so inexpensive to purchase in relation to the value of their production that they are disposable once the slaveholder has used them. Alongside sex slavery, many other prevalent examples of contemporary slavery are concerned with food production (Weissbrodt et al; Miers). Bales and Soodalter, for example, describe how across Asia and Africa, adults and children are enslaved to catch and process fish and shellfish for both human consumption and cat food. Other campaigners have similarly exposed how the cocoa in chocolate is largely produced by child slave labour on the Ivory Coast (Chalke; Off), and how considerable amounts of exported sugar, cereals and other crops are slave-produced in certain countries. In 2003, some 32 per cent of US shoppers identified themselves as LOHAS “lifestyles of health and sustainability” consumers, who were, they said, willing to spend more for products that reflected not only ecological, but also social justice responsibility (McLaughlin). Research also confirms that “the pursuit of social objectives … can in fact furnish an organization with the competitive resources to develop effective marketing strategies”, with Doherty and Meehan showing how “social and ethical credibility” are now viable bases of differentiation and competitive positioning in mainstream consumer markets (311, 303). In line with this recognition, Fair Trade Certified goods are now available in British, European, US and, to a lesser extent, Australian supermarkets, and a number of global chains including Dunkin’ Donuts, McDonalds, Starbucks and Virgin airlines utilise Fair Trade coffee and teas in all, or parts of, their operations. Fair Trade Certification indicates that farmers receive a higher than commodity price for their products, workers have the right to organise, men and women receive equal wages, and no child labour is utilised in the production process (McLaughlin). Yet, despite some Western consumers reporting such issues having an impact upon their purchasing decisions, social justice has not become a significant issue of concern for most. The popular cookery publications discussed above devote little space to Fair Trade product marketing, much of which is confined to supermarket-produced adverzines promoting the Fair Trade products they stock, and international celebrity chefs have yet to focus attention on this issue. In Australia, discussion of contemporary slavery in the press is sparse, having surfaced in 2000-2001, prompted by UNICEF campaigns against child labour, and in 2007 and 2008 with the visit of a series of high profile anti-slavery campaigners (including Bales) to the region. The public awareness of food produced by forced labour and the troubling issue of human enslavement in general is still far below the level that climate change and ecological issues have achieved thus far in driving foodway evolution. This may change, however, if a ‘Slow’-inflected connection can be made between Western lifestyles and the plight of peoples hidden from our daily existence, but contributing daily to them. Concluding Remarks At this time of accelerating techno-cultural evolution, due in part to the pressures of climate change, it is the creative potential that human conscious awareness brings to bear on these challenges that is most valuable. Today, as in the caves at Lascaux, humanity is evolving new images and narratives to provide rational solutions to emergent challenges. As an example of this, new foodways and ways of thinking about them are beginning to evolve in response to the perceived problems of climate change. The current conscious transformation of food habits by some in the West might be, therefore, in James Lovelock’s terms, a moment of “revolutionary punctuation” (178), whereby rapid cultural adaption is being induced by the growing public awareness of impending crisis. It remains to be seen whether other urgent human problems can be similarly and creatively embraced, and whether this trend can spread to offer global solutions to them. References An Inconvenient Truth. 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