Статті в журналах: "Colour evolution"

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Nevo, Omer, Kim Valenta, Diary Razafimandimby, Amanda D. Melin, Manfred Ayasse, and Colin A. Chapman. "Frugivores and the evolution of fruit colour." Biology Letters 14, no. 9 (September 2018): 20180377. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2018.0377.

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The ecological function of fruit colour has been the focus of many studies. The most commonly tested hypothesis is that fruit colour has evolved to facilitate detection by seed-dispersing animals. We tested whether distributions of fruit colours are consistent with the hypothesis that colour is an evolved signal to seed dispersers using a comparative community approach. We compared the contrast between ripe fruits and leaf backgrounds at two sites, one in Madagascar where seed dispersers are primarily night-active, red–green colour-blind lemurs, and the other in Uganda, where most vertebrate seed dispersers are day-active primates and birds with greater capacity for colour vision. We show that fruits in Uganda have higher contrast against leaf background in the red–green and luminance channels whereas fruits in Madagascar contrast more in the yellow–blue channel. These results indicate that fruit colour has evolved to contrast against background leaves in response to the visual capabilities of local seed disperser communities.

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Amdekar, Madhura S., and Maria Thaker. "Risk of social colours in an agamid lizard: implications for the evolution of dynamic signals." Biology Letters 15, no. 5 (May 15, 2019): 20190207. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2019.0207.

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The forces of sexual and natural selection are typically invoked to explain variation in colour patterns of animals. Although the benefits of conspicuous colours for social signalling are well documented, evidence for their ecological cost, especially for dynamic colours, remains limited. We examined the riskiness of colour patterns of Psammophilus dorsalis , a species in which males express distinct colour combinations during social interactions. We first measured the conspicuousness of these colour patterns on different substrates based on the visual systems of conspecifics and predators (bird, snake, canid) and then quantified actual predation risk on these patterns using wax/polymer lizard models in the wild. The black and red male state exhibited during courtship was the most conspicuous to all visual systems, while the yellow and orange male aggression state and the brown female colour were least conspicuous. Models bearing the courtship colour pattern experienced the highest predator attacks, irrespective of the substrate they were placed on. Thus, social colours of males are not only conspicuous but also risky. Using physiological colours to shift in and out of conspicuous states may be an effective evolutionary solution to balance social signalling benefits with predation costs.

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French, Connor M., Travis Ingram, and Daniel I. Bolnick. "Geographical variation in colour of female threespine stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus)." PeerJ 6 (May 16, 2018): e4807. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.4807.

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The ecological multifunctionality of colour often results in multiple selective pressures operating on a single trait. Most research on colour evolution focuses on males because they are the most conspicuous sex in most species. This bias can limit inferences about the ecological drivers of colour evolution. For example, little is known about population divergence in colour of female threespine stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus), which is among the most intensively-studied model vertebrates in evolution, ecology, and behaviour. In contrast, the evolution and ecology of colour in male stickleback has received considerable attention. One aspect of female colouration that is lacking previous research is non-ornamental body colour. Non-ornamental colour can play defensive and social roles, and indicate other aspects of female stickleback ecology. To remedy this knowledge gap, we measured the colour and brightness of one dorsal and one ventral lateral area on female stickleback from nine lake populations on Vancouver Island. We found that lake populations varied in overall colour brightness and dorso-ventral contrast. In addition, we found that female brightness increased with lake size, indicating potential ecological drivers of these colour differences. Our results demonstrate that there is substantial scope for future research on female colour diversification, which has been overlooked because past researchers focused on dramatic male nuptial colours.

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Bravo, Matías, Aaron S. G. Robotham, Claudia del P. Lagos, Luke J. M. Davies, Sabine Bellstedt, and Jessica E. Thorne. "Forensic reconstruction of galaxy colour evolution and population characterization." Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 511, no. 4 (February 4, 2022): 5405–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/mnras/stac321.

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ABSTRACT Mapping the evolution of galaxy colours, from blue star forming to red passive systems, is fundamental to understand the processes involved in galaxy evolution. To this end, we reconstruct the colour evolution of low-redshift galaxies, combining stellar templates with star formation and metallicity histories of galaxies from the Galaxy And Mass Assembly survey and shark semi-analytical model. We use these colour histories to robustly characterize the evolution of red and blue galaxy populations over cosmic time. Using a Gaussian Mixture Model to characterize the colour distribution at any given epoch and stellar mass, we find both observations and simulations strongly favour a model with only two populations (blue and red), with no evidence for a third ‘green’ population. We map the evolution of mean, weight, and scatter of the blue and red populations as a function of both stellar mass and lookback time. Using our simulated galaxy catalogue as a testbed, we find that we can accurately recover galaxies colour histories up to a lookback time of ∼6 Gyr. We find that both populations show little change in the mean colour for low-mass galaxies, while the colours at the massive end become significantly redder with time. The stellar mass above which the galaxy population is predominantly red decreases by 0.3 dex in the last 5 Gyrs. We find a good agreement between observations and simulations, with the largest tension being that massive galaxies from shark are too blue (a known issue with many galaxy evolution models).

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Jacobs, Gerald H., and Mickey P. Rowe. "Evolution of vertebrate colour vision." Clinical and Experimental Optometry 87, no. 4-5 (July 2004): 206–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1444-0938.2004.tb05050.x.

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Dyer, Adrian G., Skye Boyd-Gerny, Stephen McLoughlin, Marcello G. P. Rosa, Vera Simonov, and Bob B. M. Wong. "Parallel evolution of angiosperm colour signals: common evolutionary pressures linked to hymenopteran vision." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 279, no. 1742 (June 6, 2012): 3606–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2012.0827.

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Flowering plants in Australia have been geographically isolated for more than 34 million years. In the Northern Hemisphere, previous work has revealed a close fit between the optimal discrimination capabilities of hymenopteran pollinators and the flower colours that have most frequently evolved. We collected spectral data from 111 Australian native flowers and tested signal appearance considering the colour discrimination capabilities of potentially important pollinators. The highest frequency of flower reflectance curves is consistent with data reported for the Northern Hemisphere. The subsequent mapping of Australian flower reflectances into a bee colour space reveals a very similar distribution of flower colour evolution to the Northern Hemisphere. Thus, flowering plants in Australia are likely to have independently evolved spectral signals that maximize colour discrimination by hymenoptera. Moreover, we found that the degree of variability in flower coloration for particular angiosperm species matched the range of reflectance colours that can only be discriminated by bees that have experienced differential conditioning. This observation suggests a requirement for plasticity in the nervous systems of pollinators to allow generalization of flowers of the same species while overcoming the possible presence of non-rewarding flower mimics.

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Hodge, J. R., F. Santini, and P. C. Wainwright. "Colour dimorphism in labrid fishes as an adaptation to life on coral reefs." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 287, no. 1923 (March 18, 2020): 20200167. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2020.0167.

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Conspicuous coloration displayed by animals that express sexual colour dimorphism is generally explained as an adaptation to sexual selection, yet the interactions and relative effects of selective forces influencing colour dimorphism are largely unknown. Qualitatively, colour dimorphism appears more pronounced in marine fishes that live on coral reefs where traits associated with strong sexual selection are purportedly more common. Using phylogenetic comparative analysis, we show that wrasses and parrotfishes exclusive to coral reefs are the most colour dimorphic, but surprisingly, the effect of habitat is not influenced by traits associated with strong sexual selection. Rather, habitat-specific selective forces, including clear water and structural refuge, promote the evolution of pronounced colour dimorphism that manifests colours less likely to be displayed in other habitats. Our results demonstrate that environmental context ultimately determines the evolution of conspicuous coloration in colour-dimorphic labrid fishes, despite other influential selective forces.

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Jacobs, Gerald H. "Evolution of colour vision in mammals." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 364, no. 1531 (October 12, 2009): 2957–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2009.0039.

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Colour vision allows animals to reliably distinguish differences in the distributions of spectral energies reaching the eye. Although not universal, a capacity for colour vision is sufficiently widespread across the animal kingdom to provide prima facie evidence of its importance as a tool for analysing and interpreting the visual environment. The basic biological mechanisms on which vertebrate colour vision ultimately rests, the cone opsin genes and the photopigments they specify, are highly conserved. Within that constraint, however, the utilization of these basic elements varies in striking ways in that they appear, disappear and emerge in altered form during the course of evolution. These changes, along with other alterations in the visual system, have led to profound variations in the nature and salience of colour vision among the vertebrates. This article concerns the evolution of colour vision among the mammals, viewing that process in the context of relevant biological mechanisms, of variations in mammalian colour vision, and of the utility of colour vision.

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Clark, R. C., R. D. Santer, and J. S. Brebner. "A generalized equation for the calculation of receptor noise limited colour distances in n -chromatic visual systems." Royal Society Open Science 4, no. 9 (September 2017): 170712. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsos.170712.

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Researchers must assess similarities and differences in colour from an animal's eye view when investigating hypotheses in ecology, evolution and behaviour. Nervous systems generate colour perceptions by comparing the responses of different spectral classes of photoreceptor through colour opponent mechanisms, and the performance of these mechanisms is limited by photoreceptor noise. Accordingly, the receptor noise limited (RNL) colour distance model of Vorobyev and Osorio (Vorobyev & Osorio 1998 Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 265 , 351–358 ( doi:10.1098/rspb.1998.0302 )) generates predictions about the discriminability of colours that agree with behavioural data, and consequently it has found wide application in studies of animal colour vision. Vorobyev and Osorio (1998) provide equations to calculate RNL colour distances for animals with di-, tri- and tetrachromatic vision, which is adequate for many species. However, researchers may sometimes wish to compute RNL colour distances for potentially more complex colour visual systems. Thus, we derive a simple, single formula for the computation of RNL distance between two measurements of colour, equivalent to the published di-, tri- and tetrachromatic equations of Vorobyev and Osorio (1998), and valid for colour visual systems with any number of types of noisy photoreceptors. This formula will allow the easy application of this important colour visual model across the fields of ecology, evolution and behaviour.

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Justyn, Nicholas M., Asritha Nallapaneni, Andrew J. Parnell, Alamgir Karim, and Matthew D. Shawkey. "A synergistic combination of structural and pigmentary colour produces non-spectral colour in the purple-breasted cotinga, Cotinga cotinga (Passeriformes: Cotingidae)." Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 135, no. 1 (November 30, 2021): 62–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/biolinnean/blab144.

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Abstract Most studies of animal coloration focus on spectral colours, which are colours evoked by single peaks within the wavelengths of visible light. It is poorly understood how non-spectral colours (those produced by a combination of reflectance peaks) are produced, despite their potential significance to both animal communication and biomimicry. Moreover, although both pigmentary and structural colour production mechanisms have been well characterized in feathers independently, their interactions have received considerably less attention, despite their potential to broaden the available colour spectrum. Here, we investigate the colour production mechanisms of the purple feathers of the purple-breasted cotinga (Cotinga cotinga). The purple feather colour results from both the coherent scattering of light by a sphere-type nanomatrix of β-keratin and air (spongy layer) in the barbs, which produces a blue–green colour, and the selective absorption of light in the centre of the bird-visible spectrum by the methoxy-carotenoid, cotingin. This unusual combination of carotenoid and nanostructure with a central air vacuole, in the absence of melanin, is a blueprint of a synergistic way to produce a non-spectral colour that would be difficult to achieve with only a single colour production mechanism.

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11

D'Alba, Liliana, Bo Wang, Bram Vanthournout, and Matthew D. Shawkey. "The golden age of arthropods: ancient mechanisms of colour production in body scales." Journal of The Royal Society Interface 16, no. 159 (October 2, 2019): 20190366. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2019.0366.

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Insect colour is extremely diverse and produced by a large number of pigmentary and nanostructural mechanisms. Considerable research has been dedicated to these optical mechanisms, with most of it focused on chromatic colours, such as blues and greens, and less on achromatic colours like white and gold. Moreover, studies on the evolution of these colours are less common and largely limited to inferences from extant organisms, in part because of the limited amount and types of available fossil material. Here, we directly compare nanostructure and colour of extant and amber-preserved (approx. 15 and 99 Myr old, respectively) gold-coloured representatives of micromoths (Lepidoptera: Micropterigidae) and springtails (Collembola: Tomoceridae). Using electron microscopy, microspectrophotometry and finite domain time difference optical modelling, we show that golden coloration in the extant micromoth is produced by nanometre-scale crossribs that function as zero-order diffraction gratings and in the springtail by a diffraction grating without crossribs. Surprisingly, nanostructure and thus predicted colour of the amber-preserved specimens were nearly identical to those of their extant counterparts. Removal of amber enabled direct colour measurement of the fossil micromoth and further revealed that its colour matched both that of the extant specimen and the predicted colour, providing further support for our optical models. Our data thus clearly show an early origin and striking conservation of scale nanostructures and golden coloration, suggesting strong selection pressure either on the colour itself or on the mechanisms that produce the colour. Furthermore, we show the thus-far untapped potential for the use of amber-preserved specimens in studies on the evolution of organismal coloration.

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Davidson, Gabrielle L., Alex Thornton, and Nicola S. Clayton. "Evolution of iris colour in relation to cavity nesting and parental care in passerine birds." Biology Letters 13, no. 1 (January 2017): 20160783. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2016.0783.

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Strong selection pressures are known to act on animal coloration. Although many animals vary in eye colour, virtually no research has investigated the functional significance of these colour traits. Passeriformes have a range of iris colours, making them an ideal system to investigate how and why iris colour has evolved. Using phylogenetic comparative methods, we tested the hypothesis that conspicuous iris colour in passerine birds evolved in response to (a) coordination of offspring care and (b) cavity nesting, two traits thought to be involved in intra-specific gaze sensitivity. We found that iris colour and cooperative offspring care by two or more individuals evolved independently, suggesting that bright eyes are not important for coordinating parental care through eye gaze. Furthermore, we found that evolution between iris colour and nesting behaviour did occur in a dependent manner, but contrary to predictions, transitions to coloured eyes were not more frequent in cavity nesters than non-cavity nesters. Instead, our results indicate that selection away from having bright eyes was much stronger in non-cavity nesters than cavity nesters, perhaps because conspicuous eye coloration in species not concealed within a cavity would be more visible to predators.

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13

Field, G. G. "The Evolution of Colour Scanner Technology." Journal of Photographic Science 34, no. 5-6 (September 1986): 33–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00223638.1986.11738422.

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Bowmaker, James K. "Evolution of colour vision in vertebrates." Eye 12, no. 3 (May 1998): 541–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/eye.1998.143.

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Thompson, Evan. "Colour vision, evolution, and perceptual content." Synthese 104, no. 1 (July 1995): 1–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf01063672.

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Guðmundsdóttir Beck, Þórhalla, and Matthew James Whelpton. "Samspil máls og merkingar. Um litaheiti í íslensku táknmáli." Orð og tunga 21 (August 15, 2019): 75–100. http://dx.doi.org/10.33112/ordogtunga.21.5.

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Brent Berlin and Paul Kay brought a sea change in semantic studies of colour terms when they published their book Basic Color Terms in 1969. Up to that point the dominant view was that each language represented a unique conceptual organisation of the world, a view supported by the fact that the colour spectrum is a continuum which provides not obvious breaks for the purposes of naming. Despite the many criticisms of their work which have followed, their methodology has proven extremely influential and been widely adopted. The project Evolution of Semantic Systems, 2011–2012, adopted their methodology for a study of colour terms in the Indo-European languages and the Colours in Context project applied the same methods to a study of Icelandic Sign Language. Signed languages diff er in many ways from spoken languages but the results of this study suggest the broad organisation of the colour space is the same in Icelandic Sign Language, Icelandic and British English. The colour space is organised by a few dominant terms, largely the same as Berlin and Kay ́s original basic colour terms. Yet within that broad pattern is considerable microvariation, especially in the spaces between the dominant terms. There the characteristic patt erns of word formation in the language have a clear influence in colour naming strategies.

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Badejo, Oluwatobi, Oksana Skaldina, Aleksei Gilev, and Jouni Sorvari. "Benefits of insect colours: a review from social insect studies." Oecologia 194, no. 1-2 (September 2, 2020): 27–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00442-020-04738-1.

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Abstract Insect colours assist in body protection, signalling, and physiological adaptations. Colours also convey multiple channels of information. These channels are valuable for species identification, distinguishing individual quality, and revealing ecological or evolutionary aspects of animals’ life. During recent years, the emerging interest in colour research has been raised in social hymenopterans such as ants, wasps, and bees. These insects provide important ecosystem services and many of those are model research organisms. Here we review benefits that various colour types give to social insects, summarize practical applications, and highlight further directions. Ants might use colours principally for camouflage, however the evolutionary function of colour in ants needs more attention; in case of melanin colouration there is evidence for its interrelation with thermoregulation and pathogen resistance. Colours in wasps and bees have confirmed linkages to thermoregulation, which is increasingly important in face of global climate change. Besides wasps use colours for various types of signalling. Colour variations of well chemically defended social insects are the mimetic model for unprotected organisms. Despite recent progress in molecular identification of species, colour variations are still widely in use for species identification. Therefore, further studies on variability is encouraged. Being closely interconnected with physiological and biochemical processes, insect colouration is a great source for finding new ecological indicators and biomarkers. Due to novel digital imaging techniques, software, and artificial intelligence there are emerging possibilities for new advances in this topic. Further colour research in social insects should consider specific features of sociality.

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Hernández, M. Carmen, Sandra González-Campos, and Isabel Barja. "Colour Preferences in Relation to Diet in Chimpanzees(Pan troglodytes), Gorillas (Gorilla gorilla) and Mandrills (Mandrillus sphinx)." Folia Primatologica 92, no. 5-6 (2021): 306–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000520487.

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Although trichromatic colour vision has been extensively studied as it grants significant advantages for Old World primates, it is unknown which selective pressures were behind the trait’s evolution. The leading hypothesis would be that colour vision arose as a foraging adaptation because it allowed individuals to spot food more efficiently. To test this, we exposed 3 chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), 5 gorillas (Gorilla gorilla) and 3 mandrills (Mandrillus sphinx) to colour cardboard plates to assess whether colours related to diet were the most preferred. The experimental setting was divided into two phases. During the first, animals were provided with colour cardboard plates of only 1 colour per data collection session. The order of colour presentation was randomly determined: white, black, yellow, green and red. In phase 2, primates were simultaneously provided with cardboard plates of all colours. Behavioural interactions with plates were measured using a one-zero group focal sampling (10-s sampling intervals and 20-min observation periods). Results showed that when animals were exposed to only 1 colour at a time, they exhibited different colour preferences depending on the species considered. Chimpanzees preferred red and yellow, the colours linked to fruits, while gorillas selected red and white. Mandrills exhibited fewer differences between colour preferences, with red being the most selected. Furthermore, when all colours were simultaneously provided, individuals chose colours related to diet over black and white. Although there were clear individual differences, our results support that trichromatic colour vision is an advantage in detecting and selecting red items. In the wild, it could be important in the detection of reddish fruits and leaves.

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Yumnam, Tarunkishwor, Birupaksha Banerjee, and Ullasa Kodandaramaiah. "Pupal colour plasticity in the butterfly Catopsilia pomona (Lepidoptera: Pieridae)." Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 134, no. 2 (July 3, 2021): 331–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/biolinnean/blab087.

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Abstract Pupal colour plasticity (PCP) in many lepidopterans can be adaptive by helping pupae match their background colours. Studies on PCP, most of which have been laboratory-based, have largely used human assessment of colour to categorize pupae as green or brown. This binary categorization limits the understanding of finer pupal colour variations and their function. We conducted a study of PCP in the butterfly Catopsilia pomona by comparing laboratory-reared and wild populations. Considering pupal colour as a continuous variable, we showed that a large proportion of the pupae matched the colours of their substrates, with leaf-borne pupae tending to be greener and off-leaf pupae browner. Pupal colour also responded to the leaf substrate’s finer colour variations, highlighting the importance of treating pupal colour as a continuous variable. Compared to the wild population, the laboratory population had more green pupae on off-leaf substrates. Our study thus illustrates that caution should be used when extrapolating the results from laboratory-based studies to the natural world. In leaf-borne wild pupae, pupation position on the leaf, the thickness of the midrib where pupation occurred and the leaf’s length influenced the pupal colour. Our study underscores the need for further research on PCP as a background-matching strategy in light of predation.

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Chen, Xuefei, and Zhanwen Han. "Primordial binary evolution and blue stragglers." Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union 5, S266 (August 2009): 333–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1743921309991220.

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AbstractBlue stragglers have been found in all populations. They are important in both stellar evolution and stellar population synthesis. Much evidence shows that blue stragglers are relevant to primordial binaries. Here, we summarize the links between binary evolution and blue stragglers, describe the characteristics of blue stragglers originating from different binary evolutionary channels and show their consequences for binary population synthesis, such as for the integrated spectral-energy distribution, the colour–magnitude diagram, their specific frequency, and their influence on colours, etc.

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Paz, I., A. Fernández, A. Matías, and G. Pinto. "Effect of temperature on the evolution of colour during the maceration of fruits in liquor." Czech Journal of Food Sciences 32, No. 1 (February 18, 2014): 90–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.17221/207/2013-cjfs.

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The effect of temperature on the kinetics of pigment extraction during the maceration of different fruits (raspberry, blackberry, and cranberry) into a commercially available hard spirit (orujo, with 42% v/v ethanol) was evaluated. The analytical method used was UV-Vis spectrophotometry. The initial extraction rate showed an Arrhenius-type dependence with apparent energy activation of 28.8, 69.8, and 55.6 kJ/mol, respectively. Furthermore, a study about the evolution of the colour (from colourless to reddish colour appearance) during the soaking process was done by calculating the CIE tristimulus values (X, Y, Z) for illuminant C, until reaching the apparent stabilisation of colour, which occurs after about two to four weeks for the studied temperatures (5, 23, and 40°C). Studies about the evolution of colour in the soaking process of this kind of fruit liquors can lead to a better understanding of this process, and thus to a better control over the mechanisms underlying it.  

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Rakos, K., J. Schombert, T. Maindl, N. Unger, and P. Obitsch. "The Evolution of Galaxies in the Last 10 GYR." Symposium - International Astronomical Union 161 (1994): 649–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0074180900048282.

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Rest-frame Strömgren colours are presented for a large number of galaxies in rich clusters between z = 0 and z = 1. Our observations confirm a strong, rest-frame, Butcher-Oemler effect where the fraction of blue galaxies increases from 20% at z < 0.4 to 80% at z = 0.9. After isolating the red objects in each cluster we have compared the mean colour of these old, non-star forming objects with SED models from the literature as a test for passive galaxy evolution in ellipticals. We find good agreement with single burst models which predict an epoch of galaxy formation from z = 2 to 5 (Rakos et al. 1988, 1991; Rakos & Schombert 1993). Although the results demonstrate a great deal of hope for modelling the fine details of colour evolution when our samples are extended into the near- and far-IR, there are reasons to believe that galaxies become, observationally, much more complicated beyond redshifts of 1. The rate of blue colour evolution between 0.6 and 0.9 suggests that by a redshift of 1.5 it will be impossible to tell the difference between galaxies which have completed a single burst at a formation redshift of 2 or ones which are undergoing constant star formation.

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Foley, Saoirse, Vinodkumar Saranathan, and William H. Piel. "The evolution of coloration and opsins in tarantulas." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 287, no. 1935 (September 23, 2020): 20201688. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2020.1688.

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Tarantulas paradoxically exhibit a diverse palette of vivid coloration despite their crepuscular to nocturnal habits. The evolutionary origin and maintenance of these colours remains mysterious. In this study, we reconstructed the ancestral states of both blue and green coloration in tarantula setae, and tested how these colours correlate with presence of stridulation, urtication and arboreality. Green coloration has probably evolved at least eight times, and blue coloration is probably an ancestral condition that appears to be lost more frequently than gained. While our results indicate that neither colour correlates with the presence of stridulation or urtication, the evolution of green coloration appears to depend upon the presence of arboreality, suggesting that it ptobably originated for and functions in crypsis through substrate matching among leaves. We also constructed a network of opsin homologues across tarantula transcriptomes. Despite their crepuscular tendencies, tarantulas express a considerable diversity of opsin genes—a finding that contradicts current consensus that tarantulas have poor colour vision on the basis of low opsin diversity. Overall, our findings raise the possibility that blue coloration could have ultimately evolved via sexual selection and perhaps proximately be used in mate choice or predation avoidance due to possible sex differences in mate-searching.

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Marquina, P., M. E. Venturini, R. Oria, and A. I. Negueruela. "Monitoring Colour Evolution During Maturity in Fuji Apples." Food Science and Technology International 10, no. 5 (October 2004): 315–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1082013204047903.

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Colour changes in Fuji apples were monitored several days after full blooming (DAFB). Fruits were harvested at this commercial maturity (139 DAFB), 132, 146 and 153 DAFB. A new method was developed to determine the average colour of the apples by measuring the reflection spectra around the fruit to obtain a spectra weighted by the red and green areas. According to the evolution of the reflectance spectra during maturity, the proportion of chlorophyll decreased with regard to other pigments but it did not disappear. The colour obtained of those average spectra allowed a good classification of the apples according to ripeness. Values of the a* colour coordinate were well correlated to the visual evaluation of the colour assessed by a sensory trained panel, which could be used as a maturation index to optimize the marketing.

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Fan, Marie, Liliana D’alba, Matthew D. Shawkey, Anne Peters, and Kaspar Delhey. "Multiple components of feather microstructure contribute to structural plumage colour diversity in fairy-wrens." Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 128, no. 3 (September 4, 2019): 550–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/biolinnean/blz114.

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AbstractClosely related species often differ in coloration. Understanding the mechanistic bases of such differences can reveal whether evolutionary changes in colour are driven by single key mechanisms or changes in multiple pathways. Non-iridescent structural plumage colours in birds are a good model in which to test these questions. These colours result from light absorption by pigments, light scattering by the medullary spongy layer (a nanostructure found within barbs) and contributions from other structural elements. Fairy-wrens (Malurus spp.) are a small clade of closely related birds that display a large diversity of ornamental structural colours. Using spectrometry, electron microscopy and Fourier analysis, we show that 30 structural colours, varying from ultraviolet to blue and purple, share a similar barb morphology. Despite this similarity, we find that at the microscopic scale, variation across multiple structural elements, including the size and density of the keratin cortex, spongy layer and melanin, explains colour diversity. These independent axes of morphological variation together account for sizeable amounts of structural colour variability (R2 = 0.21–0.65). The coexistence of many independent, evolutionarily labile mechanisms that generate colour variation suggests that the diversity of structural colours in this clade could be mediated by many independent genetic and environmental factors.

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Wiebe, K. L., and G. R. Bortolotti. "Variation in colour within a population of northern flickers: a new perspective on an old hybrid zone." Canadian Journal of Zoology 79, no. 6 (June 1, 2001): 1046–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/z01-065.

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We used a digital camera to quantify the colour of the tail feathers of 245 northern flickers (Colaptes auratus) in central British Columbia and investigate the frequency of colour morphs in the population of hybrids. The colour values generated by the camera corresponded well to the conventional method of ranking colours by eye, but was advantageous because it provided finer discrimination and a continuous colour variable. Rectrix colour varied in a continuum from the yellow of C. a. auratus to the red of C. a. cafer. By experimentally exposing red and yellow feathers to sunlight we showed that the intermediate orange colours were not a result of secondary fading of the carotenoid pigments. The distribution of colours in the population was bimodal. A paucity of intermediate phenotypes (orange birds) could not be explained by their mortality because return rates of birds to our study area was not associated with colour. New immigrants into the population tended to resemble parental types more often than hybrids. Assortative mating by colour in this population may tend to keep the subspecies separate, contrary to the situation in more southerly areas of the hybrid zone.

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Gadotti, Dimitri A., and Ronaldo E. de Souza. "On the Lengths, Colours and Ages of Bars." Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union 2, S235 (August 2006): 98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1743921306005333.

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AbstractIn an effort to obtain further observational evidences for secular evolution processes in galaxies, as well as observational constraints to current theoretical models of secular evolution, we have used BVRI and Ks images of a sample of 18 barred galaxies to measure the lengths and colours of bars, create colour maps and estimate global colour gradients. In addition, applying a method we developed in a previous article, we could distinguish for 7 galaxies in our sample those whose bars have been recently formed from the ones with already evolved bars. We estimated an average difference in the optical colours between young and evolved bars that may be translated to an age difference of the order of 10 Gyr, meaning that bars may be long standing structures. Moreover, our results show that, on average, evolved bars are longer than young bars. This seems to indicate that, during its evolution, a bar grows longer by capturing stars from the disk, in agreement with recent numerical and analytical results.

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Lloyd, Victoria J., and Nicola J. Nadeau. "The evolution of structural colour in butterflies." Current Opinion in Genetics & Development 69 (August 2021): 28–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gde.2021.01.004.

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Platonova, Marina, and Larisa Iljinska. "BEYOND COLOUR: THE EVOLUTION OF MEANING REPRESENTATION." Vertimo studijos 9, no. 9 (March 15, 2017): 107. http://dx.doi.org/10.15388/vertstud.2016.9.10436.

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Vorobyev, Misha. "Ecology and evolution of primate colour vision." Clinical and Experimental Optometry 87, no. 4-5 (July 2004): 230–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1444-0938.2004.tb05053.x.

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Hunt, D. M. "Molecular evolution of colour vision in primates." Journal of Vision 6, no. 13 (March 28, 2010): 34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1167/6.13.34.

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Kyrieleis, A., and M. H. Seymour. "The colour evolution of the processqq→qqg." Journal of High Energy Physics 2006, no. 01 (January 17, 2006): 085. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1126-6708/2006/01/085.

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Schaefer, Gerald, and Lars Nolle. "Optimal image colour extraction by differential evolution." International Journal of Bio-Inspired Computation 2, no. 3/4 (2010): 251. http://dx.doi.org/10.1504/ijbic.2010.033093.

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Olsson, Peter, Robin D. Johnsson, James J. Foster, John D. Kirwan, Olle Lind, and Almut Kelber. "Chicken colour discrimination depends on background colour." Journal of Experimental Biology 223, no. 24 (October 23, 2020): jeb209429. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.209429.

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ABSTRACTHow well can a bird discriminate between two red berries on a green background? The absolute threshold of colour discrimination is set by photoreceptor noise, but animals do not perform at this threshold; their performance can depend on additional factors. In humans and zebra finches, discrimination thresholds for colour stimuli depend on background colour, and thus the adaptive state of the visual system. We have tested how well chickens can discriminate shades of orange or green presented on orange or green backgrounds. Chickens discriminated slightly smaller colour differences between two stimuli presented on a similarly coloured background, compared with a background of very different colour. The slope of the psychometric function was steeper when stimulus and background colours were similar but shallower when they differed markedly, indicating that background colour affects the certainty with which the animals discriminate the colours. The effect we find for chickens is smaller than that shown for zebra finches. We modelled the response to stimuli using Bayesian and maximum likelihood estimation and implemented the psychometric function to estimate the effect size. We found that the result is independent of the psychophysical method used to evaluate the effect of experimental conditions on choice performance.

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Montagne, David, Isabelle Cousin, Lydie Le Forestier, Joël Daroussi, and Sophie Cornu. "Quantification of soil volumes in the Eg & Bt-horizon of an Albeluvisol using image analysis." Canadian Journal of Soil Science 87, no. 1 (January 1, 2007): 51–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.4141/s05-029.

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In this study, we provide a strategy to quantify the effects on soil evolution of driving forces such as human activities or global change. This strategy was developed for situations in which soil evolution resulted in the formation of a complex juxtaposition of soil volumes with distinct properties including soil colours. It is based on image analysis. Our approach proceeds in two steps: (1) to find the minimum sample size over which the soil anisotropy can be neglected and (2) to define a Representative Elementary Volume (REV) of that sample. This approach was developed on the Eg & Bt horizon of a drained Albeluvisol in which three decimetric soil monoliths were sampled at 60, 110 and 210 cm from a drain. The monoliths were sliced into 1.5-cm horizontal layers. Each slice was photographed and studied by image analysis. At the monolith scale, there was neither lateral nor vertical anisotropy. The sampled monoliths were larger than the REV allowing quantification of the different soil volumes constituting this particular horizon. We quantified significant evolutions of the abundance of the different soil volumes characterized by their colour as a function of the distance to the drain. Such a quantification of the effects on soil evolution of human activities or global change equally applies for Podzols, Calcisols or Gleysols for which pedogenesis also resulted in contrasted soil colour evolutions. Key words: Soil change, pedogenesis quantification, artificial drainage, image analysis, Albeluvisol, representative elementary volume

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36

Archetti, Marco. "Colour preference as evidence for the theories on the evolution of autumn colours." Journal of Theoretical Biology 245, no. 3 (April 2007): 595–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jtbi.2006.11.003.

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Gonzali, Silvia, and Pierdomenico Perata. "Fruit Colour and Novel Mechanisms of Genetic Regulation of Pigment Production in Tomato Fruits." Horticulturae 7, no. 8 (August 21, 2021): 259. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae7080259.

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Fruit colour represents a genetic trait with ecological and nutritional value. Plants mainly use colour to attract animals and favour seed dispersion. Thus, in many species, fruit colour coevolved with frugivories and their preferences. Environmental factors, however, represented other adaptive forces and further diversification was driven by domestication. All these factors cooperated in the evolution of tomato fruit, one of the most important in human nutrition. Tomato phylogenetic history showed two main steps in colour evolution: the change from green-chlorophyll to red-carotenoid pericarp, and the loss of the anthocyanic pigmentation. These events likely occurred with the onset of domestication. Then spontaneous mutations repeatedly occurred in carotenoid and phenylpropanoid pathways, leading to colour variants which often were propagated. Introgression breeding further enriched the panel of pigmentation patterns. In recent decades, the genetic determinants underneath tomato colours were identified. Novel evidence indicates that key regulatory and biosynthetic genes undergo mechanisms of gene expression regulation that are much more complex than what was imagined before: post-transcriptional mechanisms, with RNA splicing among the most common, indeed play crucial roles to fine-tune the expression of this trait in fruits and offer new substrate for the rise of genetic variables, thus providing further evolutionary flexibility to the character.

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Cai, Chenyang, Erik Tihelka, Yanhong Pan, Ziwei Yin, Rixin Jiang, Fangyuan Xia, and Diying Huang. "Structural colours in diverse Mesozoic insects." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 287, no. 1930 (July 2020): 20200301. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2020.0301.

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Structural colours, nature's most pure and intense colours, originate when light is scattered via nanoscale modulations of the refractive index. Original colours in fossils illuminate the ecological interactions among extinct organisms and functional evolution of colours. Here, we report multiple examples of vivid metallic colours in diverse insects from mid-Cretaceous amber. Scanning and transmission electron microscopy revealed a smooth outer surface and five alternating electron-dense and electron-lucent layers in the epicuticle of a fossil wasp, suggesting that multilayer reflectors, the most common biophotonic nanostructure in animals and even plants, are responsible for the exceptional preservation of colour in amber fossils. Based on theoretical modelling of the reflectance spectra, a reflective peak of wavelength of 514 nm was calculated, corresponding to the bluish-green colour observed under white light. The green to blue structural colours in fossil wasps, beetles and a fly most likely functioned as camouflage, although other functions such as thermoregulation cannot be ruled out. This discovery not only provides critical evidence of evolution of structural colours in arthropods, but also sheds light on the preservation potential of nanostructures of ancient animals through geological time.

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Koncsek, Arnold, Zsuzsanna H. Horváth, Antal Véha, Hussein G. Daood, and Lajos Helyes. "Colour evolution of conventionally and organically cultivated Hungarian red spice paprika varieties." Analecta Technica Szegedinensia 10, no. 1 (January 15, 2016): 6–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.14232/analecta.2016.1.6-15.

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Colour evolution of conventionally and organically cultivated Szegedi-20, Meteorit, Mihálytelki and Kármin spice paprika varieties was studied in green, break, pale red, deep red and over-ripened maturity stages. As the ripening stages forwarded the organic samples gradually lost their initial extractable colour (ASTA value) gain toward their conventional counterparts. The over-ripened colour levels were satisfactorily high in the conventional (169.9-264.8 ASTA) and in the organic (160.8-210.5 ASTA) paprika varieties as well, although the colour accumulation was 9.0-62.8 ASTA lower in the organic samples. Significant and perceptible visual colour differences (ΔE*ab) were found between the organic and conventional crops. The lightness difference (ΔL*) indicated that the organic paprika generally were lighter than the conventional ones. The positive hue difference (ΔH*ab) showed that the colour of deep red and over-ripened organic Szegedi-20, Mihálytelki and Kármin paprika crops were more yellow compared with the conventional group. The lightness (L*) and hue angle (h°ab) were found the most suitable instrumental colour parameters to distinguish the ripening stages and the colour characteristics of the samples. The better colour evolution of conventional crops was attributed to the soil characteristics, nutrient supply and chemical plant protection that were specifically designed for the needs of paprika in the conventional farming.

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40

Talas, Laszlo, Roland J. Baddeley, and Innes C. Cuthill. "Cultural evolution of military camouflage." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 372, no. 1724 (May 22, 2017): 20160351. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2016.0351.

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While one has evolved and the other been consciously created, animal and military camouflage are expected to show many similar design principles. Using a unique database of calibrated photographs of camouflage uniform patterns, processed using texture and colour analysis methods from computer vision, we show that the parallels with biology are deeper than design for effective concealment. Using two case studies we show that, like many animal colour patterns, military camouflage can serve multiple functions. Following the dissolution of the Warsaw Pact, countries that became more Western-facing in political terms converged on NATO patterns in camouflage texture and colour. Following the break-up of the former Yugoslavia, the resulting states diverged in design, becoming more similar to neighbouring countries than the ancestral design. None of these insights would have been obtained using extant military approaches to camouflage design, which focus solely on concealment. Moreover, our computational techniques for quantifying pattern offer new tools for comparative biologists studying animal coloration. This article is part of the themed issue ‘Animal coloration: production, perception, function and application'.

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Gegear, Robert J., and Terence M. Laverty. "Effect of a colour dimorphism on the flower constancy of honey bees and bumble bees." Canadian Journal of Zoology 82, no. 4 (April 1, 2004): 587–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/z04-029.

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We assessed the flower constancy of Italian honey bees (Apis mellifera ligustica Spinelli, 1808) and bumble bees (Bombus impatiens Cresson, 1863) by presenting individual foragers with a mixed array of equally rewarding yellow and blue flowers after they were trained to visit each colour in succession. All honey bees showed a high degree of flower constancy to one colour and rarely visited the alternate colour, whereas most bumble bees indiscriminately visited both colours. Foraging rates (flowers visited per minute) and flower handling times did not differ between honey bee and bumble bee foragers; however, bumble bees tended to fly farther between consecutive flower visits and make fewer moves to nearest neighbouring flowers than honey bees. When bees were forced to specialize on one of two previously rewarding flower colours by depleting one colour of reward, honey bees required almost twice as many flower visits to specialize on the rewarding flower colour as bumble bees. Together, these results suggest that the relationship between individual flower constancy and colour differences is not a general behavioural phenomenon in honey and bumble bees, perhaps because of differences in the ability of each group to effectively manage multiple colours at the same time and location.

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Henze, Miriam J., Olle Lind, Bodo D. Wilts, and Almut Kelber. "Pterin-pigmented nanospheres create the colours of the polymorphic damselfly Ischnura elegans." Journal of The Royal Society Interface 16, no. 153 (April 17, 2019): 20180785. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2018.0785.

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Animal colours commonly act as signals for mates or predators. In many damselfly species, both sexes go through a developmental colour change as adults, and females often show colour polymorphism, which may have a function in mate choice, avoidance of mating harassment and camouflage. In the blue-tailed damselfly, Ischnura elegans , young males are bright green and turn blue as they reach maturity. Females are red ( rufescens ) or violet ( violacea ) as immatures and, when mature, either mimic the blue colour of the males ( androchrome ), or acquire an inconspicuous olive-green ( infuscans ) or olive-brown ( obsoleta ). The genetic basis of these differences is still unknown. Here, we quantify the colour development of all morphs of I. elegans and investigate colour formation by combining anatomical data and reflectance spectra with optical finite-difference time-domain simulations. While the coloration primarily arises from a disordered assembly of nanospheres in the epidermis, morph-dependent changes result from adjustments in the composition of pterin pigments within the nanospheres, and from associated shifts in optical density. Other pigments fine-tune hue and brilliance by absorbing stray light. These mechanisms produce an impressive palette of colours and offer guidance for genetic studies on the evolution of colour polymorphism and visual communication.

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Doshi, Siddhali. "The influence of culture, evolving symbolisms and globalization on defining colour forecasting in India." Fashion, Style & Popular Culture 9, no. 1 (March 1, 2022): 9–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1386/fspc_00107_1.

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Colours and cultures have the spirit of time. Yet, with shifts in societies, the meaning of colour has evolved. Our colour experiences today are widely dominated by technology and digital means. What once symbolized Shringar rasa, our agrarian heritage and depicted royalty, today, has tremendous renewed meanings from sustainability, vegetarianism, to being the colour of WhatsApp and Spotify, while also signifying trending global idioms like ‘don’t be green with envy’. With the fast-paced globalization influencing us, we are led towards adopting western symbolisms. Then there are some symbolisms that have simply evolved with time as superstition fades and new beliefs emerge. This article dives into the nine rasas and traces the evolution of colour symbolism through our scriptures, arts and the cultural practices to understand the deeper roots of colour symbolisms and their associations in our cultures, beliefs and traditions. The article will then explore the perceptions of colour in modern culture and trace its roots from our history, technological developments and present perspectives. This collection of data will help to understand the psychological and behaviour factors that contribute to the acceptance and association of colour today, opening a window to project new colour directions for the future.

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Blackwell, Robert E., Richard Harvey, Bastien Y. Queste, and Sophie Fielding. "Colour maps for fisheries acoustic echograms." ICES Journal of Marine Science 77, no. 2 (December 22, 2019): 826–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/icesjms/fsz242.

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Abstract Echograms are used to visualize fisheries acoustic data, but choice of colour map has a significant effect on appearance. Quantitative echograms should use colour maps, which are colourful (have a perceived variety and intensity of colours), sequential (have monotonic lightness), and perceptually uniform (have consistency of perceived colour contrast over their range). We measure whether colour maps are colourful (M^(3)>0), sequential (rs=±1), and perceptually uniform (ρ = 1) using an approximately perceptually uniform colour space (CIELAB). Whilst all the fisheries acoustic colour maps tested are colourful, none is sequential or perceptually uniform. The widely used EK500 colour map is extremely colourful (M^(3)=186), not sequential (rs=0.06), and has highly uneven perceptual contrast over its range (ρ=0.26). Of the fisheries acoustic colour maps tested, the Large Scale Survey System default colour map is least colourful (M^(3)=79), but comes closest to being sequential (rs=−0.94), and perceptually uniform (ρ=0.95). Modern colour maps have been specifically designed for colour contrast consistency, accessibility for viewers with red-green colour-blindness, and legibility when printed in monochrome, and may be better suited to the presentation and interpretation of quantitative fisheries acoustic echograms.

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Regan, B. C., C. Julliot, B. Simmen, F. Viénot, P. Charles–Dominique, and J. D. Mollon. "Fruits, foliage and the evolution of primate colour vision." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences 356, no. 1407 (March 29, 2001): 229–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2000.0773.

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Primates are apparently unique amongst the mammals in possessing trichromatic colour vision. However, not all primates are trichromatic. Amongst the haplorhine (higher) primates, the catarrhines possess uniformly trichromatic colour vision, whereas most of the platyrrhine species exhibit polymorphic colour vision, with a variety of dichromatic and trichromatic phenotypes within the population. It has been suggested that trichromacy in primates and the reflectance functions of certain tropical fruits are aspects of a coevolved seed–dispersal system: primate colour vision has been shaped by the need to find coloured fruits amongst foliage, and the fruits themselves have evolved to be salient to primates and so secure dissemination of their seeds. We review the evidence for and against this hypothesis and we report an empirical test: we show that the spectral positioning of the cone pigments found in trichromatic South American primates is well matched to the task of detecting fruits against a background of leaves. We further report that particular trichromatic platyrrhine phenotypes may be better suited than others to foraging for particular fruits under particular conditions of illumination; and we discuss possible explanations for the maintenance of polymorphic colour vision amongst the platyrrhines.

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Burd, Martin. "Butterfly wing colour patterns and flying heights in the seasonally wet forest of Barro Colorado Island, Panama." Journal of Tropical Ecology 10, no. 4 (November 1994): 601–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0266467400008270.

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ABSTRACTI investigated the extent to which adult butterflies with different wing colours display preferences for flying heights within a lowland tropical forest. Observations on eight colour groups, some of which comprised putative aposematic models and mimics while others contained nonaposematic species, were made from the forest floor and from a scaffold tower that reached above the canopy. Two groups (yellow pierids and papilionids and orange heliconiines) were most frequently observed in or above the canopy, and other groups were most frequently observed in or below the canopy. The evidence suggests that significant differences exist between some groups, but stratification does not occur among all colour groups. In particular, flight distributions of some mimicry rings overlap considerably. The light environments of different forest layers are variable, and the role that butterfly wing colours play in signalling or avoiding prcdation is little understood. However, the general lack of fine stratification of colour groups suggests that flight preferences do not occur because wing colours and patterns are especially cryptic against the background of particular forest layers.

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WOLLENBERG, K. C., and G. JOHN MEASEY. "Why colour in subterranean vertebrates? Exploring the evolution of colour patterns in caecilian amphibians." Journal of Evolutionary Biology 22, no. 5 (May 2009): 1046–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1420-9101.2009.01717.x.

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Martínez, J. J., P. Legua, P. Melgarejo-Sánchez, R. Martínez, F. Hernández, P. Melgarejo, and F. J. Manera. "FRUIT COLOUR EVOLUTION OF THREE SPANISH POMEGRANATE CLONES." Acta Horticulturae, no. 1089 (July 2015): 311–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.17660/actahortic.2015.1089.41.

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Dunlop, J. S., B. Guiderdoni, B. Rocca-Volmerange, J. A. Peacock, and M. S. Longair. "The colour evolution of high-redshift radio galaxies." Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 240, no. 2 (September 1989): 257–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/mnras/240.2.257.

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50

Friaca, A. C. S., and R. J. Terlevich. "The cosmological evolution of colour gradients in spheroids." Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 325, no. 1 (July 11, 2001): 335–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-8711.2001.04435.x.

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