Статті в журналах: "Coastal observations"

1

Muscarella, Philip, Kelsey Brunner, and David Walker. "Estimating Coastal Winds by Assimilating High-Frequency Radar Spectrum Data in SWAN." Sensors 21, no. 23 (November 24, 2021): 7811. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s21237811.

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Many activities require accurate wind and wave forecasts in the coastal ocean. The assimilation of fixed buoy observations into spectral wave models such as SWAN (Simulating Waves Nearshore) can provide improved estimates of wave forecasts fields. High-frequency (HF) radar observations provide a spatially expansive dataset in the coastal ocean for assimilation into wave models. A forward model for the HF Doppler spectrum based on first- and second-order Bragg scattering was developed to assimilate the HF radar wave observations into SWAN. This model uses the spatially varying wave spectra computed using the SWAN model, forecast currents from the Navy Coastal Ocean Model (NCOM), and system parameters from the HF radar sites to predict time-varying range-Doppler maps. Using an adjoint of the HF radar model, the error between these predictions and the corresponding HF Doppler spectrum observations can be translated into effective wave-spectrum errors for assimilation in the SWAN model for use in correcting the wind forcing in SWAN. The initial testing and validation of this system have been conducted using data from ten HF radar sites along the Southern California Bight during the CASPER-West experiment in October 2017. The improved winds compare positively to independent observation data, demonstrating that this algorithm can be utilized to fill an observational gap in the coastal ocean for winds and waves.

2

Moses, C. A. "Observations on coastal biokarst, Hells Gate, Lord Howe Island, Australia." Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie 47, no. 1 (March 19, 2003): 83–100. http://dx.doi.org/10.1127/zfg/47/2003/83.

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3

Heron, M. L., A. Prytz, S. F. Heron, T. Helzel, T. Schlick, D. J. M. Greenslade, E. Schulz, and W. J. Skirving. "Tsunami observations by coastal ocean radar." International Journal of Remote Sensing 29, no. 21 (October 23, 2008): 6347–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01431160802175371.

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4

Heiblum, R. H., I. Koren, and O. Altaratz. "Analyzing coastal precipitation using TRMM observations." Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 11, no. 24 (December 21, 2011): 13201–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-11-13201-2011.

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Abstract. The interaction between breezes and synoptic gradient winds, and surface friction increase in transition from sea to land can create persistent convergence zones nearby coastlines. The low level convergence of moist air promotes the dynamical and microphysical processes responsible for the formation of clouds and precipitation. Our work focuses on the winter seasons of 1998–2011 in the Eastern Mediterranean. During the winter the Mediterranean sea is usually warmer than the adjacent land, resulting in frequent occurrence of land breeze that opposes the common synoptic winds. Using rain-rate vertical profiles from the Tropical Rainfall Measurement Mission (TRMM) satellite, we examined the spatial and temporal distribution of average hydrometeor mass in clouds as a function of the distance from coastlines. Results show that coastlines in the Eastern Mediterranean are indeed favored areas for precipitation formation. The intra-seasonal and diurnal changes in the distribution of hydrometeor mass indicate that the land breeze may likely be the main responsible mechanism behind our results.

5

Gorshunov, M. B. "USING OF POWERED PARAGLIDER IN THE TAUISKAYA GUBA BAY, THE OKHOTSK SEA, FOR LOCAL AIREAL SURVEYS AND OBSERVATIONS ON EARLESS SEALS." Izvestiya TINRO 197 (July 5, 2019): 143–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.26428/1606-9919-2019-197-143-147.

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Powered paraglider using for local aerial surveys and observations on real seals is described in combination with routine watch from the coastal observation point and motor boat. The results of conventional and combined observations are compared.

6

Tomić, Matea, and Ole Baltazar Andersen. "ICESat-2 for Coastal MSS Determination—Evaluation in the Norwegian Coastal Zone." Remote Sensing 15, no. 16 (August 10, 2023): 3974. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs15163974.

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Radar satellite altimeters enable the determination of the mean sea surface to centimeter accuracy, which can be degraded in coastal areas because of the lack of valid altimetry observations due to land contamination and the altimeter footprint size. In 2018, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration launched ICESat-2, a laser altimetry mission equipped with the Advanced Topographic Laser Altimeter System, providing measurements every 0.7 m in the along-track direction. Taking into account the complexity of the Norwegian coastline, this study aims to evaluate coastal observations from ICESat-2 in order to use it to update the existing mean sea surface for Norway, NMBU18. We, therefore, determined the mean sea surface using only ICESat-2 observations and compared it with mean sea level observations from 23 permanent tide gauges along the entire coast and 21 temporary tide gauges in Norway’s largest and deepest fjord, Sognefjorden. We also included two global mean sea surface models and NMBU18 for comparison. The results have shown that ICESat-2 is indeed able to provide more valid observations in the coastal zone, which can be used to improve the mean sea surface model, especially along the coast.

7

Korotaev, G. K., V. L. Dorofeev, S. V. Motyzhev, V. N. Belokopytov, A. Palazov, V. Malciu, A. Zatsepin, et al. "Contribution of the Black Sea observing system to ECOOP." Ocean Science Discussions 8, no. 4 (July 11, 2011): 1695–722. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/osd-8-1695-2011.

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Abstract. Regular observations in the Black Sea basin started in the past century, and quite good multidisciplinary observing system operated in the 70–80ies based on the ship observations. Modern oceanographic observing system in the basin is built according to the GOOS principles. It includes space remote sensing observations, data of free floating buoys and costal observational network. Integration of the observing system and its real-time operation were started within the framework of the FP5 ARENA project and later were improved during the FP6 ASCABOS project. The coastal observing system which includes time series from the coastal platforms and multidisciplinary surveys of the coastal areas fulfilled by the research vessels was set up during the ECOOP. Paper describes all components of the Black Sea observing system operated during the ECOOP project and its applications in the framework of the project.

8

Nencioli, Francesco, and Graham D. Quartly. "Evaluation of Sentinel-3A Wave Height Observations Near the Coast of Southwest England." Remote Sensing 11, no. 24 (December 13, 2019): 2998. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs11242998.

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Due to the smaller ground footprint and higher spatial resolution of the Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) mode, altimeter observations from the Sentinel-3 satellites are expected to be overall more accurate in coastal areas than conventional nadir altimetry. The performance of Sentinel-3A in the coastal region of southwest England was assessed by comparing SAR mode observations of significant wave height against those of Pseudo Low Resolution Mode (PLRM). Sentinel-3A observations were evaluated against in-situ observations from a network of 17 coastal wave buoys, which provided continuous time-series of hourly values of significant wave height, period and direction. As the buoys are evenly distributed along the coast of southwest England, they are representative of a broad range of morphological configurations and swell conditions against which to assess Sentinel-3 SAR observations. The analysis indicates that SAR observations outperform PLRM within 15 km from the coast. Within that region, regression slopes between SAR and buoy observations are close to the 1:1 relation, and the average root mean square error between the two is 0.46 ± 0.14 m. On the other hand, regression slopes for PLRM observations rapidly deviate from the 1:1 relation, while the average root mean square error increases to 0.84 ± 0.45 m. The analysis did not identify any dependence of the bias between SAR and in-situ observation on the swell period or direction. The validation is based on a synergistic approach which combines satellite and in-situ observations with innovative use of numerical wave model output to help inform the choice of comparison regions. Such an approach could be successfully applied in future studies to assess the performance of SAR observations over other combinations of coastal regions and altimeters.

9

Vihma, Timo, Petteri Uotila, Stein Sandven, Dmitry Pozdnyakov, Alexander Makshtas, Alexander Pelyasov, Roberta Pirazzini, et al. "Towards an advanced observation system for the marine Arctic in the framework of the Pan-Eurasian Experiment (PEEX)." Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 19, no. 3 (February 13, 2019): 1941–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-19-1941-2019.

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Abstract. The Arctic marine climate system is changing rapidly, which is seen in the warming of the ocean and atmosphere, decline of sea ice cover, increase in river discharge, acidification of the ocean, and changes in marine ecosystems. Socio-economic activities in the coastal and marine Arctic are simultaneously changing. This calls for the establishment of a marine Arctic component of the Pan-Eurasian Experiment (MA-PEEX). There is a need for more in situ observations on the marine atmosphere, sea ice, and ocean, but increasing the amount of such observations is a pronounced technological and logistical challenge. The SMEAR (Station for Measuring Ecosystem–Atmosphere Relations) concept can be applied in coastal and archipelago stations, but in the Arctic Ocean it will probably be more cost-effective to further develop a strongly distributed marine observation network based on autonomous buoys, moorings, autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs), and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). These have to be supported by research vessel and aircraft campaigns, as well as various coastal observations, including community-based ones. Major manned drifting stations may occasionally be comparable to terrestrial SMEAR flagship stations. To best utilize the observations, atmosphere–ocean reanalyses need to be further developed. To well integrate MA-PEEX with the existing terrestrial–atmospheric PEEX, focus is needed on the river discharge and associated fluxes, coastal processes, and atmospheric transports in and out of the marine Arctic. More observations and research are also needed on the specific socio-economic challenges and opportunities in the marine and coastal Arctic, and on their interaction with changes in the climate and environmental system. MA-PEEX will promote international collaboration; sustainable marine meteorological, sea ice, and oceanographic observations; advanced data management; and multidisciplinary research on the marine Arctic and its interaction with the Eurasian continent.

10

Whitney, Michael M., and Richard W. Garvine. "Simulating the Delaware Bay Buoyant Outflow: Comparison with Observations." Journal of Physical Oceanography 36, no. 1 (January 1, 2006): 3–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/jpo2805.1.

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Abstract Coastal buoyant outflows from rivers and estuaries previously have been studied with field research, laboratory experiments, and numerical models. There is a dire need to evaluate model performance in light of coastal current observations. This research simulates the Delaware Bay outflow and compares results with observations of estuarine and shelf conditions. Observations include an estuarine salinity climatology, a record of freshwater delivery to the shelf, coastal current salinity mappings, and surface drifter data. Simulation efforts focus on spring 1993 and spring 1994, the primary field study period. The simulation is forced with river discharge, winds, and tides; only tidal-averaged results are discussed. Estuarine salinity results are consistent with the observed lateral salinity pattern, vertical structure, and response to river discharge. Salinities within the lower bay agree with observations, but the simulation overestimates the along-estuary salinity gradient. Observed and simulated freshwater delivery exhibit the same amplitude of response to river discharge and winds. The simulation produces a buoyant outflow that is generally consistent with the observed buoyancy signature, width, length, and vertical structure over a variety of river discharge and wind conditions. The simulated coastal current, however, tends to be somewhat shorter and fresher than observed. Simulated surface drifter paths exhibit the observed onshore advection during downwelling winds as well as offshore transport and current reversals during upwelling winds. A statistical evaluation based on shelf salinity mappings indicates that the model reproduces the observed variance and has only a small bias (less than 10% of plume buoyancy signature). The rms error of 1.2 psu is linked to the shorter and fresher nature of the simulated coastal current. Observational comparisons discussed in this paper indicate that the model can simulate many coastal current features and its response to river discharge and wind forcing.

11

Melet, A., P. Teatini, G. Le Cozannet, C. Jamet, A. Conversi, J. Benveniste, and R. Almar. "Earth Observations for Monitoring Marine Coastal Hazards and Their Drivers." Surveys in Geophysics 41, no. 6 (June 5, 2020): 1489–534. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10712-020-09594-5.

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Abstract Coastal zones have large social, economic and environmental values. They are more densely populated than the hinterland and concentrate large economic assets, critical infrastructures and human activities such as tourism, fisheries, navigation. Furthermore, coastal oceans are home to a wealth of living marine resources and very productive ecosystems. Yet, coastal zones are exposed to various natural and anthropogenic hazards. To reduce the risks associated with marine hazards, sustained coastal zone monitoring programs, forecasting and early warning systems are increasingly needed. Earth observations (EO), and in particular satellite remote sensing, provide invaluable information: satellite-borne sensors allow an effective monitoring of the quasi-global ocean, with synoptic views of large areas, good spatial and temporal resolution, and sustained time-series covering several years to decades. However, satellite observations do not always meet the precision required by users, in particular in dynamic coastal zones, characterized by shorter-scale variability. A variety of sensors are used to directly monitor the coastal zone and their observations can also be integrated into numerical models to provide a full 4D monitoring of the ocean and forecasts. Here, we review how EO, and more particularly satellite observations, can monitor coastal hazards and their drivers. These include coastal flooding, shoreline changes, maritime security, marine pollution, water quality, and marine ecology shifts on the one hand, and several physical characteristics (bathymetry, topography, vertical land motion) of coastal zones, meteorological and oceanic (metocean) variables that can act as forcing factors for coastal hazards on the other hand.

12

Ohlmann, J. C., L. Romero, E. Pallàs‐Sanz, and P. Perez‐Brunius. "Anisotropy in Coastal Ocean Relative Dispersion Observations." Geophysical Research Letters 46, no. 2 (January 28, 2019): 879–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2018gl081186.

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13

Schultz, Colin. "Coastal radar observations reveal complex surface circulations." Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union 94, no. 48 (November 26, 2013): 468. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/2013eo480011.

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14

Batubara, M., J. Risandi, A. Sufyan, A. Pamungkas, K. S. Wardhani, W. Hendriyono, S. Husrin, et al. "The application of a low-cost microcomputer logger with pressure-temperature based sensor for coastal observations: A preliminary study." IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1350, no. 1 (June 1, 2024): 012034. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1350/1/012034.

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Abstract Nearshore hydrodynamics, such as water level fluctuations, field observations play a crucial role in understanding and monitoring the dynamics of the coastal region. The observed parameters provide insight into oceanographic processes, climate change impacts, and the behavior of marine ecosystems that could be valuable for coastal management and infrastructure development planning. Most of the available hydrodynamic loggers are provided by companies with relatively high prices. Due to limited budgets, many areas including Indonesia waters, have limited hydrodynamic observation data. In this paper, we presented a prototype of a simple (DIY-Do It Yourself) and low-cost water level logger with a microcomputer that could be applied in coastal regions. The system consists of a pressure-based sensor to detect water level fluctuations, a temperature sensor, a single-board microcomputer and data logger, and a power supply with different sampling frequencies for various coastal applications. The result showed the ability of the microcomputer system to measure high-resolution water levels and temperatures applicable for non-directional waves, tides and non-tides observations, and ecological monitoring. The microcomputer’s low power consumption makes it suitable for long-term coastal observations, even in remote or battery-powered applications. The body of the logger is designed from PVC-nylon with sensors made from waterproof and corrosion-free materials to ensure its applicability for coastal monitoring. Moreover, the flexibility of the microcomputer system allows for customization and adaptation to specific research requirements at relatively affordable prices.

15

Hareesh Kumar, P. V., and P. Anand. "Coastal upwelling off the southwest coast of India: observations and simulations." International Journal of Digital Earth 9, no. 12 (August 19, 2016): 1256–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17538947.2016.1216614.

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16

Postacchini, Matteo, Lorenzo Melito, and Giovanni Ludeno. "Nearshore Observations and Modeling: Synergy for Coastal Flooding Prediction." Journal of Marine Science and Engineering 11, no. 8 (July 28, 2023): 1504. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jmse11081504.

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Coastal inundation has recently started to require significant attention worldwide. The increasing frequency and intensity of extreme events (sea storms, tsunami waves) are highly stressing coastal environments by endangering a large number of residential areas, ecosystems, and tourist facilities, and also leading to potential environmental risks. Predicting such events and the generated coastal flooding is thus of paramount importance and can be accomplished by exploiting the potential of different tools. An example is the combination of remote sensors, like marine radars, with numerical models. Specifically, while instruments like X-band radars are able to precisely reconstruct both wave field and bathymetry up to some kilometers off the coast, wave-resolving Boussinesq-type models can reproduce the wave propagation in the nearshore area and the consequent coastal flooding. Hence, starting from baseline simulations of wave propagation and the conversion of water elevation results into radar images, the present work illustrates the reconstruction of coastal data (wave field and seabed depth) using a specifically suited data processing method, named the “Local Method”, and the use of such coastal data to run numerical simulations of coastal inundation in different scenarios. Such scenarios were built using two different European beaches, i.e., Senigallia (Italy) and Oostende (Belgium), and three different directional spreading values to evaluate the performances in cases of either long- or short-crested waves. Both baseline and inundation simulations were run using the FUNWAVE-TVD solver. The overall validation of the methodology, in terms of maximum inundation, shows its good performance, especially in cases of short-crested wind waves. Furthermore, the application on Oostende Beach demonstrates that the present methodology might work using only open-access tools, providing an easy investigation of coastal inundation and potential low-cost integration into early warning systems.

17

Alvarez-Cuesta, M., A. Toimil, and I. J. Losada. "Which data assimilation method to use and when: unlocking the potential of observations in shoreline modelling." Environmental Research Letters 19, no. 4 (March 15, 2024): 044023. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ad3143.

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Abstract Shoreline predictions are essential for coastal management. In this era of increasing amounts of data from different sources, it is imperative to use observations to ensure the reliability of shoreline forecasts. Data assimilation has emerged as a powerful tool to bridge the gap between episodic and imprecise spatiotemporal observations and the incomplete mathematical equations describing the physics of coastal dynamics. This research seeks to maximize this potential by assessing the effectiveness of different data assimilation algorithms considering different observational data characteristics and initial system knowledge to guide shoreline models towards delivering results as close as possible to the real world. Two statistical algorithms (stochastic ensemble and extended Kalman filters) and one variational algorithm (4D-Var) are incorporated into an equilibrium cross-shore model and a one-line longshore model. A twin experimental procedure is conducted to determine the observation requirements for these assimilation algorithms in terms of accuracy, length of the data collection campaign and sampling frequency. Similarly, the initial system knowledge needed and the ability of the assimilation methods to track the system nonstationarity are evaluated under synthetic scenarios. The results indicate that with noisy observations, the Kalman filter variants outperform 4D-Var. However, 4D-Var is less restrictive in terms of initial system knowledge and tracks nonstationary parametrizations more accurately for cross-shore processes. The findings are demonstrated at two real beaches governed by different processes with different data sources used for calibration. In this contribution, the coastal processes assimilated thus far in shoreline modelling are extended, the 4D-Var algorithm is applied for the first time in the field of shoreline modelling, and guidelines on which assimilation method can be most beneficial in terms of the available observational data and system knowledge are provided.

18

Flagg, David D., James D. Doyle, Teddy R. Holt, Daniel P. Tyndall, Clark M. Amerault, Daniel Geiszler, Tracy Haack, Jonathan R. Moskaitis, Jason Nachamkin, and Daniel P. Eleuterio. "On the Impact of Unmanned Aerial System Observations on Numerical Weather Prediction in the Coastal Zone." Monthly Weather Review 146, no. 2 (February 1, 2018): 599–622. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/mwr-d-17-0028.1.

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Abstract The Trident Warrior observational field campaign conducted off the U.S. mid-Atlantic coast in July 2013 included the deployment of an unmanned aerial system (UAS) with several payloads on board for atmospheric and oceanic observation. These UAS observations, spanning seven flights over 5 days in the lowest 1550 m above mean sea level, were assimilated into a three-dimensional variational data assimilation (DA) system [the Naval Research Laboratory Atmospheric Variational Data Assimilation System (NAVDAS)] used to generate analyses for a numerical weather prediction model [the Coupled Ocean–Atmosphere Mesoscale Prediction System (COAMPS)] with a coupled ocean model [the Naval Research Laboratory Navy Coastal Ocean Model (NCOM)]. The impact of the assimilated UAS observations on short-term atmospheric prediction performance is evaluated and quantified. Observations collected from 50 radiosonde launches during the campaign adjacent to the UAS flight paths serve as model forecast verification. Experiments reveal a substantial reduction of model bias in forecast temperature and moisture profiles consistently throughout the campaign period due to the assimilation of UAS observations. The model error reduction is most substantial in the vicinity of the inversion at the top of the model-estimated boundary layer. Investigations reveal a consistent improvement to prediction of the vertical position, strength, and depth of the boundary layer inversion. The relative impact of UAS observations is explored further with experiments of systematic denial of data streams from the NAVDAS DA system and removal of individual measurement sources on the UAS platform.

19

Birkemeier, William, Linda Lillycrop, Robert Jensen, and Charley Chesnutt. "The Importance of Coastal Observations to Activities of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers." Marine Technology Society Journal 44, no. 6 (November 1, 2010): 42–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.4031/mtsj.44.6.11.

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AbstractThe U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Corps) is a project-oriented agency with multiple national missions under its Civil Works program including navigation, hydropower, flood risk management, ecosystem restoration, water supply, regulatory authority for wetlands and U.S. waters, recreation, and disaster preparedness and response. The Corps ocean and coastal activities revolve around the design, construction, and maintenance of specific projects such as channel dredging, coastal protection, beach nourishment, and harbor construction, all requiring research, modeling, and observations. Several Corps activities contribute ocean observations to the Integrated Ocean Observing System (IOOS®) and have requirements for existing or planned IOOS observations. Collected observations include long-term coastal wave climate, water levels, and coastal mapping data information. These provide project-specific and regional data that are used to develop and verify numerical models which are extensively used in project design and to evaluate project costs, benefits, and associated risk. An overview of the Corps coastal activities, data collection, and modeling programs is provided along with information regarding how IOOS coastal and ocean data are being used by the Corps.

20

Li, Xichen, Jiang Zhu, Yiguo Xiao, and Ruiwen Wang. "A Model-Based Observation-Thinning Scheme for the Assimilation of High-Resolution SST in the Shelf and Coastal Seas around China." Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 27, no. 6 (June 1, 2010): 1044–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/2010jtecho709.1.

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Abstract The use of high-density remote sensing buoys and ship-based observations play an increasingly crucial role in the operational assimilation and forecast of oceans. With the recent release of several high-resolution observation datasets, such as the Global Ocean Data Assimilation Experiment (GODAE) high-resolution SST (GHRSST) datasets, the development of observation-thinning schemes becomes important in the process of data assimilation because the huge quantity and dense spatial–temporal distributions of these datasets might make it expensive to assimilate the full dataset into ocean models or even decay the assimilation result. In this paper, an objective model simulation ensemble-based observation-thinning scheme is proposed and applied to a Chinese shelf–coastal seas eddy-resolving model. A successful thinning scheme should select a subset of observations yielding a small analysis error variance (AEV) while keeping the number of observations to as few as possible. In this study, the background error covariance (BEC) is estimated using the historical ensemble and then the subset of observations to minimize the AEV is selected, which is estimated from the Kalman theory. The authors used this method in the GHRSST product to cover the shelf and coastal seas around China and then verified the result with an estimation function and assimilation–forecast systems.

21

Rutllant, J. A., R. C. Muñoz, and R. D. Garreaud. "Meteorological observations on the northern Chilean coast during VOCALS-REx." Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 13, no. 6 (March 25, 2013): 3409–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-13-3409-2013.

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Abstract. Surface coastal observations from two automatic weather stations at Paposo (~25° S) and radiosonde observations at Paposo and Iquique (~20° S) were carried out during VOCALS-REx (VAMOS Ocean-Cloud-Atmosphere-Land Study Regional Experiment). Within the coastal marine boundary layer (MBL), sea–land breezes are superimposed on the prevailing southerlies, resulting in light northeasterly winds from midnight to early morning and strong southwesterlies in the afternoon. The prevailing northerlies above the MBL and below the top of the Andes are modulated by the onshore-offshore (zonal) flow forced by the diurnal cycle of surface heating/cooling along the western slope of the Andes. The daytime phase of this diurnal cycle is consistent with an enhanced afternoon coastal subsidence manifested in afternoon warming near the top of the subsidence inversion (~1.8 K at 800 hPa), lowering (~130 m) of its base (top of the MBL), and clearing of coastal Sc (stratocumulus) clouds. Results from a numerical simulation of the atmospheric circulation in a mean zonal cross section over the study area capture the afternoon zonal wind divergence and resulting subsidence of about 2 cm s−1 along a narrow (~10 km) coastal strip maximizing at around 800 hPa. Day-to-day variability in the MBL depth during VOCALS-REx shows sub-synoptic oscillations, aside from two major disruptions in connection with a deep trough and a cutoff low, as described elsewhere. These oscillations are phase-locked to those in sea-level pressure and afternoon alongshore southerlies, as found in connection with coastal lows farther south. From 24-h forward trajectories issued from significant points at the coast and inland at the extremes of the diurnal cycle, it can be concluded that the strong mean daytime Andean pumping prevents any possibility of continental sulfur sources from reaching the free troposphere above the Sc cloud deck in at least a one-day timescale, under mean conditions. Conversely, coastal sources could contribute with sulfur aerosols preferentially in the morning, provided that the weak daytime inland flow becomes partially blocked by the coastal terrain.

22

Spence, Lundie, Blake A. Schaeffer, Carrie Thomas, Terri Kirby Hathaway, and Margaret Olsen. "Coastal Ocean Observing Technology Transfer to Educators." Marine Technology Society Journal 39, no. 4 (December 1, 2005): 78–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.4031/002533205787465931.

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Coastal ocean observing systems provide an opportunity to connect scientific concepts, technology and careers to education. These systems also provide outreach opportunities for researchers to connect beyond their peers to the public. Use of real/near real-time coastal ocean observational data has local relevance and can generate excitement for teachers and students about the changes and patterns in the ocean environment. New collaborations, strategies and models must be forged between scientists and educators to meet challenges and provide benefits. Challenges include the identification of connections between coastal ocean observing science and precollege science standards and curricula, the design of effective professional development workshops to transfer technology to teachers, the development of Web-based observation data that is accessible to teachers and their students, and the construction and testing of model inquiry lessons, which include use of real/near real-time observations data and GIS maps. Benefits include outreach opportunities for researchers, inquiry-driven applications for precollege students and the introduction of coastal ocean observing to students with the outcome of a highly trained and diverse work force in ocean sciences for the future. Effective strategies for transfer require new opportunities for engagement between scientists and educators, sharing of credit, evaluations, and solid technical reviews of all products to ensure scientific and educational accuracy.

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Rutllant, J. A., R. C. Muñoz, and R. D. Garreaud. "Meteorological observations in the Northern Chilean coast during VOCALS-REx." Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Discussions 12, no. 9 (September 3, 2012): 22783–811. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acpd-12-22783-2012.

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Abstract. Surface coastal observations from two automatic weather stations at Paposo (~25° S) and radiosonde observations at Paposo and Iquique (~20° S), were carried out during VOCALS-REx. Within the coastal marine boundary layer (MBL), characteristic sea-land breezes are superimposed on the prevailing southerlies, resulting in light northeasterly winds from mid-night to early morning and strong near-surface southwesterlies in the afternoon. The prevailing northerly wind above the MBL and below the Andes top is modulated by the onshore–offshore (zonal) flow components induced by the diurnal cycle of net radiation along the western slope of the Andes. This diurnal cycle of the zonal regional circulation is consistent with an enhanced afternoon coastal subsidence manifested in a lower inversion base and a slight warming at its top. A numerical simulation of this zonal atmospheric circulation in a regional domain captures the afternoon zonal wind divergence and resulting subsidence along a narrow (~10 km) coastal strip. Day-to-day variability during VOCALS-REx shows subsynoptic oscillations in the MBL depth, aside from two major disruptions in connection with a deep trough and a cutoff low, as described elsewhere. These oscillations are phase-locked to those in sea-level pressure and afternoon alongshore southerlies, as found in connection with coastal lows farther south. From a simple scale analysis, one can tentatively conclude that the mean offshore transport of sulfur dioxide from inner, elevated sources could be associated with the afternoon seaward flow with a delay of the order of at least one-day. Within the MBL, biogenic dimethylsulfide (DMS) could be more easily degassed in the afternoon due to the strengthening of the SW winds, while other coastal sources could contribute preferentially at dawn, coinciding with the maximum coastal low-cloud cover.

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Christian, Robert R., and Stefano Mazzilli. "Defining the coast and sentinel ecosystems for coastal observations of global change." Hydrobiologia 577, no. 1 (February 2007): 55–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10750-006-0417-4.

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25

Mazzilli, Stefano, and Robert R. Christian. "Defining the coast and sentinel ecosystems for coastal observations of global change." Hydrobiologia 583, no. 1 (March 20, 2007): 385. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10750-007-0704-8.

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26

Hamdi, Rafiq, Hiroyuki Kusaka, Quang-Van Doan, Peng Cai, Huili He, Geping Luo, Wenhui Kuang, et al. "The State-of-the-Art of Urban Climate Change Modeling and Observations." Earth Systems and Environment 4, no. 4 (November 29, 2020): 631–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s41748-020-00193-3.

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AbstractAs an effect of climate change, cities need detailed information on urban climates at decision scale that cannot be easily delivered using current observation networks, nor global and even regional climate models. A review is presented of the recent literature and recommendations are formulated for future work. In most cities, historical observational records are too short, discontinuous, or of too poor quality to support trend analysis and climate change attribution. For climate modeling, on the other hand, specific dynamical and thermal parameterization dedicated to the exchange of water and energy between the atmosphere and the urban surfaces have to be implemented. Therefore, to fully understand how cities are impacted by climate change, it is important to have (1) simulations of the urban climate at fine spatial scales (including coastal hazards for coastal cities) integrating global climate scenarios with urban expansion and population growth scenarios and their associated uncertainty estimates, (2) urban climate observations, especially in Global South cities, and (3) spatial data of high resolution on urban structure and form, human behavior, and energy consumption.

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Andanje, Samuel, Bernard Risky Agwanda, Grace W. Ngaruiya, Rajan Amin, and Galen B. Rathbun. "Sengi (Elephant-Shrew) Observations from Northern Coastal Kenya." Journal of East African Natural History 99, no. 1 (June 2010): 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.2982/028.099.0101.

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28

Physick, W., P. Mountford, and K. Rayner. "Boundary-layer observations in the Pilbara coastal region." Australian Meteorological and Oceanographic Journal 63, no. 3 (September 2013): 413–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.22499/2.6303.006.

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29

Bringhurst, R. S. "OBSERVATIONS ON PACIFIC COASTAL RUBUS AND RIBES GERMPLASM." Acta Horticulturae, no. 183 (April 1986): 23–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.17660/actahortic.1986.183.2.

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30

Overland, James E., and Nicholas A. Bond. "Observations and Scale Analysis of Coastal Wind Jets." Monthly Weather Review 123, no. 10 (October 1995): 2934–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1995)123<2934:oasaoc>2.0.co;2.

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31

Haynes, R., and E. D. Barton. "Lagrangian observations in the Iberian coastal transition zone." Journal of Geophysical Research 96, no. C8 (1991): 14731. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/91jc00907.

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32

Borzelli, G., G. Manzella, S. Marullo, and R. Santoleri. "Observations of coastal filaments in the Adriatic Sea." Journal of Marine Systems 20, no. 1-4 (April 1999): 187–203. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0924-7963(98)00082-7.

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33

Sandidge, Juanita C., and Ronald J. Holyer. "Coastal Bathymetry from Hyperspectral Observations of Water Radiance." Remote Sensing of Environment 65, no. 3 (September 1998): 341–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0034-4257(98)00043-1.

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34

Noronha, Ligia. "Coastal management policy: observations from an Indian case." Ocean & Coastal Management 47, no. 1-2 (January 2004): 63–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2004.03.004.

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Lass, H. U., and L. Talpsepp. "Observations of coastal jets in the Southern Baltic." Continental Shelf Research 13, no. 2-3 (February 1993): 189–203. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0278-4343(93)90105-7.

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36

McManus, Margaret A., Jeff C. Sevadjian, Kelly J. Benoit-Bird, Olivia M. Cheriton, Amanda H. V. Timmerman, and Chad M. Waluk. "Observations of Thin Layers in Coastal Hawaiian Waters." Estuaries and Coasts 35, no. 4 (April 13, 2012): 1119–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12237-012-9497-8.

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37

Banno, Masayuki, Satoshi Nakamura, Taichi Kosako, Yasuyuki Nakagawa, Shin-ichi Yanagishima, and Yoshiaki Kuriyama. "Long-Term Observations of Beach Variability at Hasaki, Japan." Journal of Marine Science and Engineering 8, no. 11 (November 2, 2020): 871. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jmse8110871.

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Long-term beach observation data for several decades are essential to validate beach morphodynamic models that are used to predict coastal responses to sea-level rise and wave climate changes. At the Hasaki coast, Japan, the beach profile has been measured for 34 years at a daily to weekly time interval. This beach morphological dataset is one of the longest and most high-frequency measurements of the beach morphological change worldwide. The profile data, with more than 6800 records, reflect short- to long-term beach morphological change, showing coastal dune development, foreshore morphological change and longshore bar movement. We investigated the temporal beach variability from the decadal and monthly variations in elevation. Extremely high waves and tidal anomalies from an extratropical cyclone caused a significant change in the long-term bar behavior and foreshore slope. The berm and bar variability were also affected by seasonal wave and water level variations. The variabilities identified here from the long-term observations contribute to our understanding of various coastal phenomena.

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Hernandez-Lasheras, Jaime, Baptiste Mourre, Alejandro Orfila, Alex Santana, Emma Reyes, and Joaquín Tintoré. "Evaluating high-frequency radar data assimilation impact in coastal ocean operational modelling." Ocean Science 17, no. 4 (August 27, 2021): 1157–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/os-17-1157-2021.

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Abstract. The impact of the assimilation of HFR (high-frequency radar) observations in a high-resolution regional model is evaluated, focusing on the improvement of the mesoscale dynamics. The study area is the Ibiza Channel, located in the western Mediterranean Sea. The resulting fields are tested against trajectories from 13 drifters. Six different assimilation experiments are compared to a control run (no assimilation). The experiments consist of assimilating (i) sea surface temperature, sea level anomaly, and Argo profiles (generic observation dataset); the generic observation dataset plus (ii) HFR total velocities and (iii) HFR radial velocities. Moreover, for each dataset, two different initialization methods are assessed: (a) restarting directly from the analysis after the assimilation or (b) using an intermediate initialization step applying a strong nudging towards the analysis fields. The experiments assimilating generic observations plus HFR total velocities with the direct restart provide the best results, reducing by 53 % the average separation distance between drifters and virtual particles after the first 48 h of simulation in comparison to the control run. When using the nudging initialization step, the best results are found when assimilating HFR radial velocities with a reduction of the mean separation distance by around 48 %. Results show that the integration of HFR observations in the data assimilation system enhances the prediction of surface currents inside the area covered by both antennas, while not degrading the correction achieved thanks to the assimilation of generic data sources beyond it. The assimilation of radial observations benefits from the smoothing effect associated with the application of the intermediate nudging step.

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Hague, Ben S., Bradley F. Murphy, David A. Jones, and Andy J. Taylor. "Developing impact-based thresholds for coastal inundation from tide gauge observations." Journal of Southern Hemisphere Earth Systems Science 69, no. 1 (2019): 252. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/es19024.

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This study presents the first assessment of the observed frequency of the impacts of high sea levels at locations along Australia’s northern coastline. We used a new methodology to systematically define impact-based thresholds for coastal tide gauges, utilising reports of coastal inundation from diverse sources. This method permitted a holistic consideration of impact-producing relative sea-level extremes without attributing physical causes. Impact-based thresholds may also provide a basis for the development of meaningful coastal flood warnings, forecasts and monitoring in the future. These services will become increasingly important as sea-level rise continues.The frequency of high sea-level events leading to coastal flooding increased at all 21 locations where impact-based thresholds were defined. Although we did not undertake a formal attribution, this increase was consistent with the well-documented rise in global sea levels. Notably, tide gauges from the south coast of Queensland showed that frequent coastal inundation was already occurring. At Brisbane and the Sunshine Coast, impact-based thresholds were being exceeded on average 21.6 and 24.3 h per year respectively. In the case of Brisbane, the number of hours of inundation annually has increased fourfold since 1977.

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Haus, Brian K., David G. Ortiz-Suslow, James D. Doyle, David D. Flagg, Hans C. Graber, Jamie MacMahan, Lian Shen, Qing Wang, Neil J. Willams, and Caglar Yardim. "CLASI: Coordinating Innovative Observations and Modeling to Improve Coastal Environmental Prediction Systems." Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 103, no. 3 (March 2022): E889—E898. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/bams-d-20-0304.1.

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Abstract The Coastal Land–Air–Sea Interaction (CLASI) project aims to develop new “coast-aware” atmospheric boundary and surface layer parameterizations that represent the complex land–sea transition region through innovative observational and numerical modeling studies. The CLASI field effort involves an extensive array of more than 40 land- and ocean-based moorings and towers deployed within varying coastal domains, including sandy, rocky, urban, and mountainous shorelines. Eight Air–Sea Interaction Spar (ASIS) buoys are positioned within the coastal and nearshore zone, the largest and most concentrated deployment of this unique, established measurement platform. Additionally, an array of novel nearshore buoys and a network of land-based surface flux towers are complemented by spatial sampling from aircraft, shore-based radars, drones, and satellites. CLASI also incorporates unique electromagnetic wave (EM) propagation measurements using a coherent array, drone receiver, and a marine radar to understand evaporation duct variability in the coastal zone. The goal of CLASI is to provide a rich dataset for validation of coupled, data assimilating large-eddy simulations (LES) and the Navy’s Coupled Ocean/Atmosphere Mesoscale Prediction System (COAMPS). CLASI observes four distinct coastal regimes within Monterey Bay, California (MB). By coordinating observations with COAMPS and LES simulations, the CLASI efforts will result in enhanced understanding of coastal physical processes and their representation in numerical weather prediction (NWP) models tailored to the coastal transition region. CLASI will also render a rich dataset for model evaluation and testing in support of future improvements to operational forecast models.

41

Breitbach, Gisbert, Hajo Krasemann, Daniel Behr, Steffen Beringer, Uwe Lange, Nhan Vo, and Friedhelm Schroeder. "Accessing diverse data comprehensively – CODM, the COSYNA data portal." Ocean Science 12, no. 4 (July 26, 2016): 909–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/os-12-909-2016.

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Abstract. The coastal observation system COSYNA aims to describe the physical and biogeochemical state of a regional coastal system. The COSYNA data management is the link between observations, model results and data usage. The challenge for the COSYNA data management CODM is the integration of diverse data sources in terms of parameters, dimensionality and observation methods to gain a comprehensive view of the observations. This is achieved by describing the data using metadata in a generic way and by making all gathered data available for different analyses and visualisations in an interrelated way, independent of data dimensionality. Different parameter names for the same observed property are mapped to the corresponding CF standard name Eaton et al. (2010) leading to standardised and comparable metadata. These metadata together with standardised web services are the base for the data portal. The URLs of these web services are also stored within the metadata as direct data access URLs, e.g. a map such as a GetMap request.

42

Furevik, Birgitte Rugaard, Hálfdán Ágústsson, Anette Lauen Borg, Zakari Midjiyawa, Finn Nyhammer, and Magne Gausen. "Meteorological observations in tall masts for the mapping of atmospheric flow in Norwegian fjords." Earth System Science Data 12, no. 4 (December 23, 2020): 3621–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/essd-12-3621-2020.

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Abstract. Since 2014, 11 tall meteorological masts have been erected in coastal areas of mid-Norway in order to provide observational data for a detailed description of the wind conditions at several potential fjord crossing sites. The planned fjord crossings are part of the Norwegian Public Roads Administration (NPRA) Coastal Highway E39 project. The meteorological masts are 50–100 m high and located in complex terrain near the shoreline in Halsafjorden, Julsundet and Storfjorden in the Møre og Romsdal county of Norway. Observations of the three-dimensional wind vector are made at 2–4 levels of each mast with a temporal frequency of 10 Hz. The dataset is corroborated with observed profiles of temperature at two masts, as well as observations of precipitation, atmospheric pressure, relative humidity and dew point at one site. The first masts were erected in 2014, and the measurement campaign will continue until at least 2024. The current paper describes the observational setup, and observations of key atmospheric parameters are presented and put in context with observations and climatological data from a nearby reference weather station. The 10 min and 10 Hz wind data, as well as other meteorological parameters, are publicly available through the Arctic Data Centre (https://doi.org/10.21343/z9n1-qw63; Furevik et al., 2019).

43

Stanev, Emil V., Johannes Schulz-Stellenfleth, Joanna Staneva, Sebastian Grayek, Sebastian Grashorn, Arno Behrens, Wolfgang Koch, and Johannes Pein. "Ocean forecasting for the German Bight: from regional to coastal scales." Ocean Science 12, no. 5 (October 7, 2016): 1105–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/os-12-1105-2016.

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Abstract. This paper describes recent developments based on advances in coastal ocean forecasting in the fields of numerical modeling, data assimilation, and observational array design, exemplified by the Coastal Observing System for the North and Arctic Seas (COSYNA). The region of interest is the North and Baltic seas, and most of the coastal examples are for the German Bight. Several pre-operational applications are presented to demonstrate the outcome of using the best available science in coastal ocean predictions. The applications address the nonlinear behavior of the coastal ocean, which for the studied region is manifested by the tidal distortion and generation of shallow-water tides. Led by the motivation to maximize the benefits of the observations, this study focuses on the integration of observations and modeling using advanced statistical methods. Coastal and regional ocean forecasting systems do not operate in isolation but are linked, either weakly by using forcing data or interactively using two-way nesting or unstructured-grid models. Therefore, the problems of downscaling and upscaling are addressed, along with a discussion of the potential influence of the information from coastal observatories or coastal forecasting systems on the regional models. One example of coupling coarse-resolution regional models with a fine-resolution model interface in the area of straits connecting the North and Baltic seas using a two-way nesting method is presented. Illustrations from the assimilation of remote sensing, in situ and high-frequency (HF) radar data, the prediction of wind waves and storm surges, and possible applications to search and rescue operations are also presented. Concepts for seamless approaches to link coastal and regional forecasting systems are exemplified by the application of an unstructured-grid model for the Ems Estuary.

44

Soeriaatmadja, Raden E. "THE COASTAL CURRENT SOUTH OF JAVA." Marine Research in Indonesia 3 (May 10, 2018): 41–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.14203/mri.v3i0.329.

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This paper concerns investigations of the hydrography of the waters south of Java, especially of the Java Coastal Current, which have been carried out by the Institute of Marine Research at Djakarta. It is based on (1) oceanographic observations made by the research vessel "SAMUDERA" in February 1957, (2) the surface salinity data of the years 1949—1955, consisting of about 700 observations which were collected by the Institute of Marine Research at Djakarta, and (3) the surface current data obtained from the Atlas of Oceanographic and Meteorological data of the Koninklijk Nederlands Meteorologisch Instituut.

45

SU, Xingyue. "A dataset of soil monitoring of the Liaohe Estuary Wetland during 2016–2021." China Scientific Data 9, no. 1 (March 31, 2024): 1–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.11922/11-6035.csd.2023.0084.zh.

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The Liaohe Estuary wetland falls into category of northern coastal estuary wetlands. Dominated by species such as Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex and Steud Suaeda salsa (L.) Pall., the primary soil type in this wetland is coastal salt marsh soil. This dataset includes the long-term positioning observations from Liaoning Panjin Wetland Ecosystem National Field Scientific Observation and Research Station during 2016—2021. The primary data observation indicators include soil bulk density, saturated water conductivity, soil water content, pH, REDOX potential, calcium ions, potassium ions, magnesium ions, sodium ions, carbonate ions, bicarbonate ions, chloride ions, sulfate ions, total nitrogen, nitrite nitrogen, total phosphorus, available phosphorus, total potassium, organic matter, organic carbon, heavy metal ions, and other physical and chemical properties. In the observation data, apart from the oxidation-reduction potential observed in situ at the observation sites using a portable instrument, all other indicators are collected as soil samples at fixed observations sites. The samples are then taken back to the laboratory and analyzed using standardized instruments to determine various indicators. The establishment of observation datasets furnishes basic data for enhancing the regional wetland soil environmental quality monitoring system and establishing the soil quality environmental monitoring network. It is expected to contribute to exploring the patterns of change, ecological process, evolution trend, and driving mechanism of regional wetland soil ecosystems. Moreover, it can provide long-term data support for solving basic and key problems in the research of northern coastal wetlands as well as regional environment and social public services.

46

Baba, Mohamed Wassim, Gregoire Thoumyre, Erwin W. J. Bergsma, Christopher J. Daly, and Rafael Almar. "Deriving Large-Scale Coastal Bathymetry from Sentinel-2 Images Using an HIGH-Performance Cluster: A Case Study Covering North Africa’s Coastal Zone." Sensors 21, no. 21 (October 22, 2021): 7006. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s21217006.

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Coasts are areas of vitality because they host numerous activities worldwide. Despite their major importance, the knowledge of the main characteristics of the majority of coastal areas (e.g., coastal bathymetry) is still very limited. This is mainly due to the scarcity and lack of accurate measurements or observations, and the sparsity of coastal waters. Moreover, the high cost of performing observations with conventional methods does not allow expansion of the monitoring chain in different coastal areas. In this study, we suggest that the advent of remote sensing data (e.g., Sentinel 2A/B) and high performance computing could open a new perspective to overcome the lack of coastal observations. Indeed, previous research has shown that it is possible to derive large-scale coastal bathymetry from S-2 images. The large S-2 coverage, however, leads to a high computational cost when post-processing the images. Thus, we develop a methodology implemented on a High-Performance cluster (HPC) to derive the bathymetry from S-2 over the globe. In this paper, we describe the conceptualization and implementation of this methodology. Moreover, we will give a general overview of the generated bathymetry map for NA compared with the reference GEBCO global bathymetric product. Finally, we will highlight some hotspots by looking closely to their outputs.

47

Li, Gang, Yijun He, Guoqiang Liu, Yingjun Zhang, Chuanmin Hu, and William Perrie. "Multi-Sensor Observations of Submesoscale Eddies in Coastal Regions." Remote Sensing 12, no. 4 (February 21, 2020): 711. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs12040711.

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The temporal and spatial variation in submesoscale eddies in the coastal region of Lianyungang (China) is studied over a period of nearly two years with high-resolution (0.03°, about 3 km) observations of surface currents derived from high-frequency coastal radars (HFRs). The centers and boundaries of submesoscale eddies are identified based on a vector geometry (VG) method. A color index (CI) representing MODIS ocean color patterns with a resolution of 500 m is used to compute CI gradient parameters, from which submesoscale features are extracted using a modified eddy-extraction approach. The results show that surface currents derived from HFRs and the CI-derived gradient parameters have the ability to capture submesoscale processes (SPs). The typical radius of an eddy in this region is 2–4 km. Although no significant difference in eddy properties is observed between the HFR-derived current fields and CI-derived gradient parameters, the CI-derived gradient parameters show more detailed eddy structures due to a higher resolution. In general, the HFR-derived current fields capture the eddy form, evolution and dissipation. Meanwhile, the CI-derived gradient parameters show more SPs and fill a gap left by the HFR-derived currents. This study shows that the HFR and CI products have the ability to detect SPs in the ocean and contribute to SP analyses.

48

Chiu, Soyee, and Christopher Small. "Observations of Cyclone-Induced Storm Surge in Coastal Bangladesh." Journal of Coastal Research 321 (September 2016): 1149–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.2112/jcoastres-d-15-00030.1.

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49

Heiblum, R. H., I. Koren, and O. Altaratz. "Coastal precipitation formation and discharge based on TRMM observations." Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Discussions 11, no. 5 (May 23, 2011): 15659–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acpd-11-15659-2011.

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Abstract. The interaction between breezes and synoptic gradient winds creates persistent convergence zones nearby coastlines. The low level convergence of moist air promotes the dynamical and microphysical processes responsible for the formation of clouds and precipitation. Our work focuses on the winter seasons of 1998–2011 in the Eastern Mediterrenean. During the winter the Mediterrenean sea is usually warmer than the adjacent land, resulting in frequent occurence of land breeze that opposes the commom synoptic winds. Using rain-rate vertical profiles from the Tropical Rainfall Measurement Mission (TRMM) satellite, we examined the spatial and temporal distribution of average hydrometeor mass in clouds as a funtion of the distance from coastlines. Results show that coastalines in the Eastern Mediterrenean are indeed favored areas for precipitation formation and discharge. The intra-seasonal and diurnal changes in the distribution of hydrometeor mass indicate that the land breeze is most likely the main responsible mechanism behind our results.

50

Kunze, E. "Observations of Biologically Generated Turbulence in a Coastal Inlet." Science 313, no. 5794 (September 22, 2006): 1768–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1129378.

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