Дисертації з теми "Climate Change Convention"

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Urban Studies and Planning, 2005.
Includes bibliographical references.
This study examines the political processes through which the Framework Convention on Climate Change was negotiated and the initial efforts of the United States, the Netherlands, and Japan to adopt national policies and measures to implement it. Using the Advocacy Coalition Framework (ACF) as a theoretical lens, it looks in particular at coalition behavior in the policy processes at the international, national, and sub-national levels, and the nature of cooperation and coordination both within and between these levels. In doing so, it attempts to shed additional light on the capacity and propensity of national governments to implement international environmental agreements.
by Granville Clark Sewell.
Ph.D.

Climate change is the most important issue of our time due to its potential to very seriously disrupt the life sustaining systems of planet Earth as well as its intersec-tions with other important challenges facing humanity. The United Nations Frame-work Convention on Climate Change is the key platform upon which the political process of international climate change politics takes place. The aim of this work is to produce an analysis of the role of transnational climate change advocacy networks in this political process and their internal power dynamics and thus contributing to the understanding of a crucial aspect of this political process. To advance this aim, this thesis engages with two objectives. First, a detailed ethnography is developed which serves to illustrate the political work of the environmental advocacy NGOs involved within this process, especially those that are members of Climate Action Network International (CAN-I). This approach is suitable to uncover the internal dynamics and structures of that NGO network as well as its complex and multi-layered relationships within the larger political configuration of the UNFCCC treaty process. Secondly, the investigation is advanced by analysing this ethnography through the lens of a critical theory of the public sphere. In particular, this analysis features more contemporary conceptualisations of the public sphere which stress the multiplicity of the public sphere concept including notions such as internal and external public spheres, counterpublics, and nested public spheres. Owing to this research design, the thesis has a degree of hybridity: it is expressly both an empirical thesis, with strong empirical flavour imparted by the focus on the detailed ethnographic account, as well a theoretical thesis offering an original contribution that is advanced throughout the thesis. The main theoretical thesis and contribution is that the theory of the public sphere is appropriate to analyse the political practice of civil society engagement on a transnational level if it is further developed to allow for greater degree of multiplicity and a broader conceptualisation of the notions of the “centre of authority” and the translation of the public opinion.

Almost twenty years after the signing of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and negotiations over mitigation and adaptation strategies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions began, the negotiations continue to fall short of scientific goals to curb warming. Current UNFCCC procedures do not provide for mediation in the process of negotiations. Public policy mediation has been used often at local, national, and regional levels to resolve environmental disputes. The characteristics of the climate change negotiations suggest that mediation may provide a number of benefits to the negotiations. Scholars and practitioners have developed criteria for determining the suitability of applying mediation to a dispute. The UNFCCC negotiations meet the majority of these criteria. However, the urgency of the issue, its complexity, the number of stakeholders, institutional capacity, and the power parity of the parties suggest mediation may be most beneficial if applied on a small scale at the UNFCCC negotiations.
10000-01-01

The Swedish government is legally obliged to conduct climate policy work that will protect nature and humanity from the harmful effects of climate change. Obligations related to the environment arise under Swedish domestic law, European law and international law. This thesis investigates the possibilities for the Swedish public to initiate climate change litigation against the Swedish government due to insufficient climate actions. I examine three climate change litigation approaches from selected jurisdictions, including Germany, the Netherlands, Norway and the United Kingdom. By transposing the three litigation approaches into the Swedish legal order I seek to discuss the possibilities for the public to challenge the Swedish state's responsibility in climate matters. This thesis claims that the possibilities for the concerned public to address climate change are restricted. International obligations derived from the European Convention on Human Rights and the Aarhus Convention have given individuals substantive rights and procedural rights in matters related to the environment. However, the implementation of the international obligations are not always enshrined in the national law.

Global warming is a current topic on the international agenda. The rise of temperature in the atmosphere threatens populations living on island, deltas and coastal areas, and people living nearby the Arctic and areas covered by permafrost are threatened. In turn this leads to the people in these areas being projected to be homeless or displaced due to climate change and the rising numbers of natural disasters. Those people are what you can label as climate refugees. According to IOM and Brown (2001) climate refugees are persons who for compelling reasons of change in the environment which change their living conditions have to escape their homes, either within their country or abroad.The United Nations Refugee Convention is the binding legislation followed by 147 (in 2008) of the UN member states. Either the UN Refugee Convention or any other international law recognizes climate refugees, and those people are due to that not granted any legal status. Who will protect these people when they have to escape their homes? This paper aims to explore what distinguish climate refugees from the refugees embraced by the UN Refugee Convention by a comparative literature review, for in this way be able to recognize the assumptions that make the United Nations to not classify climate refugees with refugee status. Both groups of refugees has in common that they live under the pressured decision they have to make as they flee their native homes to ensure their own and their families survival according to Grove (2006).In the long run both climate refugees and the UN Refugee Convention embraced refugees face the same traumatic experiences escaping their homes and have due to that the similar right to get the same mental help and be protected under international law. But populations facing the effects of global warming do not want to leave their land and believe it is an issue of human rights.

The objective of this thesis is to analyze the process of the development of climate change regime within the context of international environmental politics. In this context, this thesis aims to scrutinize how principles, norms, rules and decision-making procedures concerning climate change regime have been created during the course of the climate change cooperation. To this end, having started with the explanation of the emergence of environmental issues as a topic of international politics, the thesis focuses on the general assessment of climate change in terms of science and environmental politics. Then, international climate change negotiations together with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Kyoto Protocol that constitute the basis for climate change regime are studied in this thesis. Finally, the thesis will elaborate on the positions and policies of the key players in relation to climate change for the purpose of clarifying their roles in the formation of climate change regime. This thesis concludes cooperation on climate change constitutes an example of a regime established within the scope of international environmental politics.

The Framework Convention on Climate Change has yet to deal with tropical deforestation although it represents an important source of greenhouse gas emissions. In December 2005 negotiations on a possible regime to reduce emissions from deforestation resume under the impulse of a regime proposal based on the concept of compensated reduction. Over the course of 2006 Panamanian policy-makers working within the National Environmental Authority (ANAM) determine that such a regime is in the interest of Panama given that the integrity of the Kyoto Protocol's existing flexibility mechanisms is protected. However reducing its deforestation rate is not currently possible for Panama due to ANAM's limited institutional capacity to act on the field and limited political capacity to influence the national agenda. Important up-front flows of funds from developed countries combined with the adoption of a progressive project based compensation mechanism could contribute to reverse this trend.

This thesis evaluates why the implementation of a tree plantation project in Chiapas, Mexico, called Scolel Te failed in its attempt to participate in the CDMs scheme. The Scolel Te project brings together farmers and local organisations into a network of exchange of resources that aims at producing an outcome that is only possible through the co-ordination and co-operation of all participants: the emission of carbon certificates. This thesis studies the co-ordination problems that local actors face at the moment of establishing the carbon projects by identifying how formal and informal mechanisms such as contracts, economic incentives, trust, and reputation, create or solve co-ordination problems in the Scolel Te network. The thesis also describes how changes in the distribution of power among actors affect the functioning of the network and how individual's interests and strategic alliances have the potential of derailing the aims of the environmental project. For such purposes, this thesis analyses the exchange relationships among actors at the micro level and identifies how exchange relationships evolve over time. Then an overall picture of the exchange relationships is presented (macro level) with focus in understanding how and why power in the network is exerted. Findings suggest that relying on economic incentives as the main mechanism to generate commitment among communities has failed to create stable exchange relationships in the long term. Trust and reputation are stronger mechanisms to achieve commitment. Moreover, we find that the ability to generate commitment depends highly on the generation of interdependencies between tree plantation projects and the main economic activities of local actors. However, type of land tenure, main economic activity, and pre-existing power relationships embedded at local level are also the principal factors that determine the dynamism of the social exchange relationships and commitment in the long-run. This thesis considers that co-ordination failure occurs because a lack of knowledge about the real dependencies between local actors and their natural resources in the design of CDMs. At macro level, this thesis found that the lack of accountability of the unregulated local carbon market at local level has created unintended incentives for actors to adopt less environmentally responsible strategies and disincentive participation in the CDMs.

The multilateral negotiations aimed at securing international cooperation on climate change and its mitigation have widely been criticised as a political deadlock since the establishment of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 1992. Since the formation of the UNFCCC, the United States of America (USA) has being recognised as both an essential, but also as a highly controversial actor within the negotiations due to its historical responsibility for anthropogenic climate change and relative structural power which has allowed it to wield immense influence in the negotiations. Because of energy’s essential input into all economic sectors, any attempts to mitigate climate change will influence a sector that is essential for a country’s economic strength. Within these processes, there is a link between energy policy and the UNFCCC negotiations. The overarching research aim of this interdisciplinary study is to understand the historical interaction between the USA’s energy policy and its negotiating position in the UNFCCC. Within these dynamics, understanding how different administrations attempt to balance competing policy goals are pivotal in understanding these dynamics within domestic and international constraints. This study analyses this by conducting a historical case study of the USA’s position in these negotiations and how its energy policy interacts with this. This study makes use of the neoclassical realist framework to understand the cooperation of the USA through the interaction between its energy policy and its position in the UNFCCC negotiations within two levels of analysis, that is the unit- and structural-levels, referring to factors found at the state-level and the international distribution of power respectively. The policy positions and energy policies of the administrations of George H.W. Bush (1989 - 1993), Bill Clinton (1993 - 2001), George W. Bush (2001 - 2009) and Barack Obama (2009 - 2017) are investigated through the interaction of the unit- and structural-levels. A historical overview indicates the challenges that succeeding administrations faced in grappling with contradictory policy objectives in accordance with the perceived costs of various policy goals at both the domestic and international levels and its implications for their position and ability to cooperate within the UNFCCC. The thesis has indicated that the history of the United States’ position in the negotiations and the analysis of the influences on this position reveal that simple mono-causal explanations cannot satisfactorily attribute the differences amongst US administrations therein. As such, since 1992, successive US administrations have displayed varying degrees of cooperation towards the UNFCCC that have been based on the domestic and international distribution of power, and policy-makers’ perception of the related costs and benefits of pursuing a set of policy goals. The research has established that since the 1970s, efforts to design US energy policy to factor in environmental externalities have resulted in haphazard progress as two ideational frameworks emerged, one that viewed economic growth and environmental regulation as compatible, and another that promoted the opposing view, which has resulted in stalemate and a cyclical approach complicating the interaction between US energy policy and its position in the UNFCCC. Within these dynamics, domestic constraints, à la the two-level game, place an important limitation on US participation and ratification of climate change agreements and its energy policy and highlights the important role played by domestic institutions with bipartisan politics and ideology forming a staggering fissure. The thesis has found that rather than an objective set of criteria, policy-makers are influenced by a complex range and interaction of factors in their approach to energy policy, international negotiations, as well as international opportunities and threats. Within these dynamics, the structure of the international system is essential in understanding state behaviour. The thesis confirms that the influence of the distribution of power in the international system therefore complements domestic factors in analysing the motivation and behaviour of policy-makers acting on behalf of the state, although it is imperative to understand how its influence is filtered at the unitlevel. Understanding the historical context permits deeper insights into the multi-dimensional influences on decision-makers. It is therefore necessary to delve into the historical origins of state behaviour and the evolution of their domestic and foreign policies.

Climate change litigation is expanding at fast speed throughout various jurisdictions around the world. Citizens are taking states’ lack of climate mitigation measures to courts, demanding that more has to be done on the climate crisis. More often now, litigants use human rights based argumentation which relies on international human rights law: human rights treaties, conventions, and precedent from human rights courts. According to litigants, states are therefore seen as both creating and prolonging this threat against the lives of their citizens, violating some of their most basic human rights, such as the right to life. Coupling these human rights obligations with climate treaties such as the Paris Agreement has proven effective when attempting to establish a causal connection between state emissions and climate change’s threat to citizen’s lives. This is sometimes characterized as a global ‘rights turn’ or a ‘greening’ of human rights. While a climate litigation case was denied to be brought up in Swedish courts in 2016, the Swedish government is now in 2021 finding itself tested again. Several children and youths in Sweden are currently suing the Swedish state, claiming that Sweden does not live up to its international human rights obligations. The claim is based on a human rights framing and is more similar to other ongoing or successful climate litigation cases at present time. While also facing a lawsuit as defendants in a case under the European Court of Human Rights, Sweden is now finding itself in the midst of this new phenomenon. Since, however, the issue of climate litigation in Swedish courts is quite new, the results of a new case in Sweden based on different grounds and on the precedent established in other successful cases in other similar jurisdictions, could be different.  The overall purpose of this thesis is to shed light on the intentional human rights obligations that the Swedish state is bound by internationally which can be used in a climate litigation case based on human rights argumentation. The issue at hand is therefore to ascertain what, how and why those obligations concerning the climate and human rights makes it possible or challenging to pursue a case against the Swedish government, and what these obligations entail. If the case is tried in Swedish courts, it will establish the current obligations concerning climate change and its threat to human lives under international human rights law, as well as Sweden’s mitigation duties.

Masters in Science
Department of Landscape Architecture/Regional & Community Planning
Stephanie A. Rolley
This case study considers the lessons of Ecuador’s Yasuní-ITT initiative for future climate change policy and international conservation and development efforts. A comprehensive post-cancellation history of the initiative and background information regarding key domestic and international actors and institutions is presented in the Literature Review. Documents identified from LexisNexis and Google searches are analyzed to identify seven narratives of the initiative’s failure, which provide a basis for the suggestion of lessons. Questions regarding supply-side climate policy opportunities and challenges are explored. The initiative’s political mismanagement, design omissions and insufficient domestic political efforts, and a lack of contribution incentives are identified as the key causes of failure. The author concludes that the initiative’s supply-side model of shared sacrifices has the potential to align developed and developing country needs in support of greenhouse gas emissions reduction goals while addressing the difficulties posed by an emergent political economy of developing world resource extractivism in Ecuador and elsewhere. Future research regarding supply-side climate policies is suggested.

Cette thèse a pour objet les politiques d'adaptation au changement climatique. Il est montré que la Convention-cadre sur le changement climatique (1992), ainsi que la construction des stratégies de réponse, sont caractéristiques d'une approche pollutioniste. Cette approche a conduit à appréhender la question du changement climatique comme un problème classique de pollution et d'environnement. Il en est résulté un double biais en défaveur de l'adaptation par rapport aux politiques d'atténuation : l'adaptation a été confinée dans un rôle secondaire et marginal dans la structuration des politiques, avec un cadre conceptuel et méthodologique inopérationnel pour sa mise en oeuvre. La thèse propose une déconstruction de cette conception du changement climatique ; les limites majeures qui caractérisent les politiques d'atténuation remettant par ailleurs en cause la prépondérance qui leur a été accordée. La déconstruction de cette approche pollutioniste permet tout d'abord de montrer que la définition et l'opérationnalisation de stratégies d'adaptation efficaces nécessitent de dépasser (i) le cadre analytique standard des politiques climatiques et, (ii) la conception du changement climatique comme une question de pollution classique et de gestion de l'environnement. Il est alors soutenu que l'adaptation doit être inscrite dans la promotion du développement, c'est-à-dire qu'elle doit être appréhendée non plus dans une problématique de gestion ad hoc des effets d'une pollution mais dans une problématique de développement. Que ce soit dans le contexte propre aux politiques d'adaptation, ou plus largement dans celui des politiques climatiques, la thèse laisse cependant ouverte les questions relatives à la viabilité et aux modalités d'organisation et de financement d'un régime climat inscrit dans la promotion du développement.

The transfer of low-carbon technology to developing countries is one of the key means to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in developing countries and therefore a key aspect of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). This thesis aims to contribute to the understanding of international low-carbon technology transfer and how it might do justice to the interest of developed and developing countries. The empirical example is the technology transfer approach and its implementation by the Global Environmental Facility, which acts as the financial mechanism of the UNFCCC. My theoretical framework includes two sets of theories. The first includes theories of international technology transfer. This set explains how international technology transfer may lead to economic benefits on the side of the technology recipient. This theory, however, does not explain how international technology transfer will lead to significant environmental benefits. I therefore included a second set of theories in my theoretical framework. Theories of diffusion of environmental technologies explain how technology might achieve environmental benefits such as the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions in developing countries. A case study was chosen as method. In order to do justice to the research question, the empirical enquiry takes place on three interconnected levels. On the first level, the positions of developed and developing countries on the subject of technology transfer under UNFCCC were established. These serve as additional yardsticks for the discussion of the GEF approach and its outcomes. On the second level, the technology transfer approach of the GEF and the relationship to GEF and UNFCCC on the subject on technology transfer was established. On the third level, the GEF project Photovoltaic Market Transformation Initiative (PVMTI) in India, which follows the GEF approach to technology transfer, was investigated. The thesis concludes, in relation to the research question, that the current GEF approach to technology transfer is unlikely to achieve the goals of both developed and developing countries. It is able to achieve the goals of developed countries as it tends to prioritise the environmental goals through selected demand side measures that are effective in achieving emission reductions. It is less effective in achieving development goals as international technology transfer is left to the private actor.

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Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)
No ano de 2009, durante a décima quinta edição da Conferência das Partes (COP) da Convenção-Quadro das Nações Unidas para as Mudanças Climáticas (UNFCCC, na sigla em inglês), a representação diplomática brasileira assumiu para o país um compromisso voluntário de redução das emissões nacionais de gases causadores do efeito estufa. Tal evento foi marcante no regime internacional de mudanças climáticas e na trajetória da política externa ambiental brasileira por conta do pioneirismo do país entre os intermediários que não pertencem ao Anexo I. Essa atitude da diplomacia brasileira é parte da conjuntura vivida pelo multilateralismo ambiental em que a tradicional clivagem Norte-Sul ganhava também a categoria intermediária das economias emergentes. A atuação do Brasil e de outros países dessa categoria teve reflexos nos debates nos anos posteriores à COP-15. O objetivo desse trabalho é, assim, analisar a atuação da diplomacia brasileira entre a COP-15 e a COP-21 diante dos desafios das mudanças climáticas e do multilateralismo. Para tanto, faz-se uma análise da política externa ambiental do país neste período, bem como um paralelo com a atuação dos países do BASIC na mesma cronologia.
In 2009, during the fifteenth edition of the Conference of the Parties (COP) of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Brazilian diplomatic representation took a voluntary commitment to reduce national emissions of greenhouse gas effect. This was an outstanding event in the international climate change regime and in the trajectory of Brazilian environmental foreign policy because of the country's pioneering among the intermediaries economies that do not belong to Annex I. This attitude of Brazilian diplomacy is a part of the framework experienced by environmental multilateralism where the traditional division between North-South includes now the intermediate category of emerging economies. The performance of Brazil and other countries in that category was reflected in the discussions in the years after COP-15. The aim of this study is to analyze the performance of Brazilian diplomacy between the COP-15 and COP-21 concerning the challenges of climate change and multilateralism. Therefore, it is an analysis of the Brazilian environmental foreign policy during this period as well as a comparison with the performance of the BASIC countries in the same timeline.

A comunidade internacional tem se convencido sobre a seriedade da mudança climática e a necessidade de respostas urgentes para combatê-la. No entanto, a ausência de um regime universal com metas para os principais poluidores faz com que cada país adote ações individuais de maneira descoordenada. Esse descompasso levanta preocupações sobre possíveis impactos para a competitividade e a eficácia dos esforços dos países com políticas climáticas mais ambiciosas. Com o escopo de neutralizar tais ameaças, desponta a alternativa de adoção de ajustes de carbono na fronteira para equalizar os encargos ambientais entre a indústria doméstica e as importações. Nesse contexto, a presente tese defende a criação de disciplinas internacionais para orientar o uso de ajustes de carbono em sintonia com os valores do livre comércio e da preservação do clima. Recomenda-se que as negociações internacionais sejam lideradas pelas Nações Unidas, na moldura do regime climático, porém, em estreito diálogo e cooperação com a Organização Mundial do Comércio (OMC). A partir da análise de possíveis cenários, o trabalho expressa preferência por disciplinas multilaterais. Reconhece-se, contudo, méritos em arranjos intermediários, como os instrumentos setoriais. Por fim, indica-se um roteiro sobre os principais aspectos da aplicação dos ajustes de carbono que mereceriam apreciação em plano internacional.
The international community has acknowledged the need for urgent responses to address climate change. However, in the absence of a global agreement setting binding targets for all major polluters, countries pursue individual actions in an uncoordinated fashion. Such a situation raises concerns on competitiveness impacts and on the environmental effectiveness of climate policies of most countries, especially those leading the way. As a solution to level the playing field vis-à-vis international competitors, countries evaluate the use of border carbon adjustments. Against this background, this analysis supports the design of international disciplines to guide the use of border carbon adjustments in line with the goals of free trade and climate protection. It argues that the United Nations should lead those negotiations in the framework of the climate regime, in close dialogue and cooperation with the World Trade Organization (WTO). Based on an analysis of multiple scenarios, this essay favours the adoption of multilateral disciplines. It recognizes, however, advantages in alternative approaches such as sectorial agreements. Finally, it proposes a roadmap on key aspects concerning the use of border carbon adjustments that merit consideration in the international arena.

Dans le contexte du pluralisme juridique et de l’inter-normativité croissante, la présente thèse démontre l’influence du droit international des changements climatiques sur la formation et le développement du droit de l’environnement de l’Union Européenne (UE) à travers les techniques, méthodes et règles d’intégration prévues aussi bien par le droit international que par le droit européen. Le droit européen de l’environnement comporte désormais les concepts (économie verte, développement durable, marché de carbone...) et principes (responsabilité commune mais différenciée, précaution, prévention, responsabilité, etc.) du droit international des changements climatiques. Ainsi, l’européanisation et la constitutionnalisation du droit international des changements climatiques ont eu pour conséquence son insertion dans le système juridique des Etats membres. En effet, en vertu de ses engagements internationaux en matière de lutte contre le réchauffement global, l’UE a adopté des instruments juridiquement contraignants qui impactent les systèmes juridiques nationaux et s’est engagée sur le Kyoto II. Les dynamiques, les controverses, les heurs et les malheurs de la politique et des négociations climatiques multilatérales ont suscité la mise en place d’une diplomatique climatique européenne bien structurée et d’une politique d’économie verte qui ne manquent pas de se heurter à des défis de la coopération internationale, de l’action collective internationale, de production et de consommation équitables des biens publics mondiaux, ainsi qu’à des obstacles techniques, technologiques, institutionnels, humains, économiques, financiers, souverainistes, sociaux, énergétiques, écologiques et transformationnels. Sur le fondement de l’effet obligatoire et de la force exécutoire des dispositions du droit international du climat et du droit primaire européen, le régime international climatique produit des effets juridiques à l’intérieur des Etats membres et même à l’égard des Etats tiers traitant avec l’organisation européenne. En effet, en raison de la supranationalité, de l’effet direct et de la primauté du droit européen, les règles juridiques internationales relatives à la lutte contre les changements climatiques, transposées et intégrées, ont force obligatoire dans les ordres juridiques nationaux où elles requièrent une application uniforme. Il s’ensuit que le droit de l’UE, de par son caractère supranational et ses mécanismes de contrôle et de sanction, notamment juridictionnels, est devenu l’instrument d’effectivité et d’efficacité du droit conventionnel international du climat. De ce fait, les défaillances de ce droit relatives à l’absence d’une juridiction obligatoire, au non-respect par les Etats de leurs engagements internationaux et à la faiblesse du contrôle international sont largement compensées par l’efficacité du système juridique européen et national
In the legal pluralism and increasing inter-normativity context, this thesis demonstrates the influence of international climate change law on the formation and development of European Union (EU) environmental law through the techniques, methods and rules of integration provided for by international law as well as by European law. European environmental law now includes the concepts (green economy, sustainable development, carbon market ...) and principles (common but differentiated responsibility, precaution, prevention, responsibility, etc.) of the climate change international Law. Thus, the Europeanisation and constitutionalisation of international climate change law resulted in its insertion into the legal system of member states. Indeed, by virtue of its international commitments to combat global warming, the EU has adopted legally binding instruments that impact national legal systems and is committed to Kyoto II. The dynamics, controversies, clashes and the woes of the multilateral climate policy and negotiations have led to the establishment of a well-structured European climate diplomacy and a green economy policy that do not fail to come up against challenges of international cooperation, international collective action, global public goods equitable production and consumption, as well as technical,technological, institutional, human, economic, financial, sovereignist, social, energy, and ecological and transformational barriers.On the basis of the binding effect and enforceability of the provisions of international climate law and European primary law, the international climate regime produces legal effects within the member states and even towards third states dealing with the European organization. Indeed, because of supranationality, direct effect and the primacy of European law, the international legal rules relating to the fight against climate change, transposed and integrated, are binding in the national legal orders where they require a uniform application. As a consequence, the EU law, by virtue of its supranational character and its control and sanction mechanisms, including jurisdictional ones, has become the instrument of effectiveness and efficiency of international conventional climate law. As a result, the shortcomings of this right relating to the absence of compulsory jurisdiction, the non-compliance by States with their international commitments and the weakness of international control are largely offset by the effectiveness of the European and national legal system

Les contestations normatives relatives à la nature des transferts financiers Nord-Sud visant l’adaptation au changement climatique et à ses relations avec l’aide publique au développement (APD) se sont considérablement accentuées depuis 2009 lorsque les pays développés se sont conjointement engagés à fournir des ressources «nouvelles et supplémentaires » à hauteur de 30 milliards de dollars pour la période 2010-2012 et à mobiliser collectivement 100 milliards de dollars par an d’ici à 2020, en les répartissant de manière « équilibrée » entre l’atténuation et l’adaptation dans les pays en développement. Mouvements de solidarité internationale, organisations non gouvernementales de protection de l’environnement, représentants des pays en développement, et parfois institutions multilatérales de développement :nombreux sont les acteurs qui appellent à la mise en place d’un financement international de l’adaptation qui existerait séparément de l’aide, en représentant une forme de « compensation » liée à la responsabilité disproportionnée des pays développés dans l’occurrence du changement climatique.

Notre thèse se construit à partir d’un constat :celui de la déconnexion entre une hypothèse largement répandue dans la littérature académique (i.e. l’existence d’un financement international de l’adaptation qui serait distinct de l’APD – et original sous divers aspects) et la réalité observable (i.e. l’existence d’un tel financement ne se vérifie pas dans les faits). Comment expliquer cette déconnexion ?Telle est précisément la question que nous tentons d’élucider dans le présent document. Nous formulons l’hypothèse selon laquelle les discours opposant le financement international de l’adaptation et l’aide au développement sont le produit d’une vision particulière de ce que devrait être l’APD. L’ambition de notre recherche est dès lors de caractériser cette vision normative de l’aide et d’examiner ses manifestations dans une série de débats récurrents qui traversent la question du financement international de l’adaptation. Nous mettons en évidence le fait que ces discours renouvellent une vision de l’aide entre États souverains destinée à répondre aux injustices internationales et à alimenter un transfert de ressources régulier entre pays riches et pays pauvres.
Doctorat en Sciences
info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Comment le droit international peut-il règlementer des phénomènes complexes ? Cette question se pose avec une acuité particulière en ce qui concerne la déforestation tropicale. En effet, les difficultés techniques et les intérêts divergents des États, découlant de l’interaction des multiples services assurés par les forêts, ont empêché l’adoption d’une convention internationale en ce domaine. Néanmoins, les négociations menées au sein du régime international du climat ont créé un mécanisme dit de « réduction des émissions résultant du déboisement et de la dégradation des forêts et le rôle de la conservation et de la gestion durable des forêts et du renforcement des stocks de carbone forestiers dans les pays en développement » (REDD+). Défini par un ensemble de décisions de la Conférence des parties à la convention-cadre des Nations-Unies sur les changements climatiques, il a déjà permis d’initier, sur le territoire des pays en développement, une amélioration substantielle du contrôle des ressources forestières et des réformes règlementaires et institutionnelles de grande ampleur. Notre étude se propose d’évaluer les spécificités du système normatif mis en place sur la REDD+. Elle a pour objet, en dépassant l’apparente faiblesse formelle des instruments juridiques sur lesquels il repose, de mettre en évidence sa portée normative. Elle révèle l’aptitude du droit international à règlementer des phénomènes complexes en donnant naissance à des systèmes juridiques adaptatifs. Elle démontre que la spécificité de tels systèmes normatifs réside dans la satisfaction de deux exigences opposées : la flexibilité et la sécurité juridique
How International law can regulate complex phenomenon? This question appears particularly relevant if we consider tropical deforestation. Technical issues and the opposite interests of States, stemming from interlinked services provided by forest, had prevented International community to adopt a convention on forests. Nevertheless, climate regime has recently created a so-called mechanism on « reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries and the role of conservation and sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries » (REDD+). The normative framework laid down in decisions of the Conference of the parties has stimulated control improvement on forest resources and wide-ranging reform in developing countries. The study will evaluate the specificities of this normative system by going further its apparent normative weakness. It will expose how International law manage to regulate complex phenomenon by producing adaptive legal system. The study will demonstrate that the specific feature of this system lies in its ability to conciliate two opposite needs: flexibility and legal security

Thesis (MBA)--Stellenbosch University, 2002.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: One of the most topical and widely discussed factors which could lead to the ultimate end of life on earth is global warming and its devastating effects. Several current trends clearly demonstrate that global warming is directly impacting on rising sea levels, the melting of icecaps and other significant worldwide climatic changes. These climatic changes will have a profound effect on the economy of the world as well as having health and social consequences for humans on earth. It has also become evident that mankind has played a significant role in causing global warming through its excessive burning of fossil fuels and its deforestation activities. Mainstream economists have increasingly realised that the prime cause of environmental problems is the absence of markets and more specifically, the absence of private ownership, which provide the foundation for markets. This occurrence has also been described in the literature as the tragedy of the commons. Mankind has come to a point in its history whereby it is in great danger of causing its own annihilation through the destruction of its natural environment. As a result of this, world leaders and many industrialists have realised that it is essential that the world must do something to preserve the natural environment. This was the rationale behind the Kyoto Protocol. In Kyoto 38 industrial states undertook to reduce their total emissions of six important greenhouse gases by at least 5 percent by the period 2012 at the latest. It was agreed in Kyoto that the system to be used to curb global warming should be based on free market principles that would focus on limiting the tragedy of the commons. On this basis it was agreed that the international trade in greenhouse gas emission allowances might fulfil an important role in providing countries and companies with the capabilities to achieve part of their reduction obligations. The Kyoto mechanism was therefore designed on the basis of emissions trading, but also had an equity objective with respect to developing countries. Supporters of the trading scheme are of the opinion that this market will guarantee that certain emission targets are met. In principle, the international trade in emission credits offers several advantages in terms of a flexible and cost-efficient realisation of the reduction obligations undertaken at Kyoto. Supporters of emissions trading are also of the opinion that trading in these gases also has economic and technological benefits. The answer to global warming might be as simple as buy low, sell high conventions. Now greenhouse-gas emissions are becoming a commodity that can be bought and sold on a worldwide scale, just like gold or soybeans. It is expected that the trading in greenhouse-gas emission rights will ultimately constitute the largest commodities market in the world. An international market for greenhouse gas emission allowances is already developing. However, rules governing such transactions are not fully worked out yet. The 178-nation Kyoto Protocol on global warming may provide a start, despite the US's refusal to support the treaty. It will be the aim of this thesis to provide understanding in terms of the functioning of emissions trading schemes and therefore the Kyoto mechanism as a solution to this problem of global warming. It will also be an important objective of this thesis to provide insight into the issues applicable to climatic change and the Kyoto mechanism.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Atmosfeerverwarming is wêreldwyd een van die mees bespreekte kwessies. Die nadelige effek van atmosfeerverwarming as gevolg van die toenemende kweekhuiseffek, het die potensiaal om tot die uiteindelike uitwissing van lewe op aarde te lei. Verskeie tendense dui daarop dat atmosfeerverwarming 'n direkte impak op stygende seevlakke, die ontvriesing van die pakys by die pole en ander noemenswaardige klimaatsversteuringe het. Indien iets drasties nie gedoen word om atmosfeer verhitting te keer nie, sal klimaatsversteuringe 'n geweldig nadelige effek op die wêreld ekonomie te weeg bring, asook 'n nadelige effek op gesondheids- en sosiale toestande tot gevolg hê. Dit het duidelik geword dat die aktiwiteite van die mensdom, hoofsaaklik verbranding van fossielbrandstowwe en ontbossing, te blameer is vir atmosfeerverwarming. Ekonome wêreldwyd het toenemend besef dat die hoofrede vir omgewingsprobleme, soos atmosfeerverwarming, toegeskryf kan word aan die afwesigheid van markte en meer spesifiek die afwesigheid van privaatbesit, wat in effek die basis van die vrye mark vorm. Hierdie gebeurtenis word in die ekonomiese literatuur beskryf as die "tragedie van die gemene goedere" . Wêreldpolitici en industriële leiers het besef dat die mens by 'n punt in sy geskiedenis gekom het waar hy moontlik sy eie uitwissing kan bewerkstellig en dat iets drasties gedoen moet word om die natuurlike omgewing te beskerm om sodoende volhoubare ekonomiese groei te verseker. Hierdie besef het gelei tot die totstandkoming van die Kyoto Protokol waar 38 nywerheidslande ooreengekom het om voor die jaar 2012 hul totale nasionale emissies van die ses belangrikste kweekhuisgasse met ten minste 5 persent tot onder hul 1990 emissievlakke te verminder. Daar was in Kyoto ooreengekom dat die stelsel wat gebruik moet word om die Kyoto doelwitte te bereik sterk vryemark eienskappe moet besit asook meganismes om regverdigheid en gelykheid tussen lande in terme van kweekhuisgasbeperkings te verseker. Die Kyoto meganismes is ontwerp met sterk vryemark eienskappe, wat basies 'n stelsel is waarvolgens lugbesoedelingsregte verhandel kan word. Hierdie verhandeling van besoedelingsregte kan toegepas word om kweekhuis gasse te verminder. Die Kyoto meganismes en dus lugbesoedelingsverhandeling verskaf buigbaarheid aan besighede en lande om hul onderskeie besoedelingsbeperkingsdoelwitte op die mees koste effektiewe manier te bereik. Die antwoord op atmosfeer verwarming kan dalk so eenvoudig wees soos koop laag en verkoop hoog. Kweekhuisgasse is besig om net soos graan of goud 'n kommoditeit te raak. Daar word verwag dat die verhandeling in kweekhuis gas besoedelingsregte uiteindelik sal groei tot die grootste kommoditeitsmark ter wêreld. Ondersteuners van die Kyoto meganismes is van mening dat kweekhuisgas verhandeling ook ekonomiese en tegnologiese voordele inhou. Dit is 'n oogmerk van die Kyoto meganismes om die verskuiwing van tegnologie tussen ontwikkelde en ontwikkelende lande asook volhoubare groei te verseker. 'n Grysmark vir kweekhuisgas regte is reeds internasionaal, voor die beplande instelling van die Kyoto meganismes, aan die ontwikkel. Die reëls en regulasies vir die Kyoto meganismes is nog nie gefinaliseer nie. Dit en die onwilligheid van die VSA om die Protokol te onderteken, belemmer die vroegtydige implementering van die Kyoto meganismes en die effektiwiteit van die stelsel. Dit is die doelwit van die werkstuk om die leser bekend te maak met die funksionering van emissieverhandeling as 'n vryemark stelsel om omgewingsprobleme soos atmosfeerverwarming te verminder. Die werkstuk beoog ook om die kwessies betrokke by klimaatsverandering en die Kyoto meganismes aan die leser te verduidelik.

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Bachelors
Business Administration
Business Economics

Résoudre la crise climatique est un défi intrinsèquement économique. Il s'agit d'inventer une nouvelle économie, moins dépendante des énergies fossiles et capable, face à l'attrait de l'immédiat, de défendre suffisamment les intérêts des générations futures. Partant de ce constat, cette étude repose sur l'idée qu'une réponse normative crédible face aux changements climatiques ne peut passer que par un droit qui soit axé sur la promotion de la transition énergétique et qui garantisse une articulation équilibrée entre les préoccupations économiques de court terme et les préoccupations, à plus long terme, liées à la préservation du climat. L'étude de La prise en compte des aspects économiques du défi climatique dans le régime juridique international du climat vise à déterminer l'importance que les membres du système multilatéral de lune contre les changements climatiques accordent à la nécessité de promouvoir la transition énergétique et d'encadrer l'expression des préoccupations économiques nationales dans le cadre de leur coopération. Fondée sur une analyse de la Convention-cadre des Nations Unies sur les changements climatiques, du Protocole de Kyoto et de leur droit dérivé, cette recherche démontre la portée limitée des outils élaborés pour réformer les modes de développement ainsi que le haut niveau de protection que la norme internationale garantit aux intérêts économiques immédiats des États. Elle démontre également que la coopération climatique multilatérale tend désormais à être marquée par un mouvement de renationalisation des questions relatives à la promotion de la transition énergétique et à l'articulation des valeurs économiques et environnementales
Tackling climate change is indisputably an economic challenge. It requires a shift towards a new kind of economy Jess dependent on fossil fuel, and capable to protect the interests of future generations. Given that context, it thus appears essential that international climate policies mainly focus on promoting energy transition and maintaining a balanced approach between short-term economic interests and longer-term benefits associated with mitigating climate change. Based on this assumption, the thesis questions the importance granted by members of the UN climate change regime to the need of setting rules that favor a low-carbon growth model and regulate the pursue of immediate national economic interests. Through a detailed analysis of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, the Kyoto Protocol and their law-making process, this study first underlines the limited scope of the international tools (such as market mechanisms) specifically designed by member States to promote a low-carbon economy. It also demonstrates that international climate rules ensure to all member States a high level of protection of their national short-term economic interests. Finally, the thesis shows that UN climate cooperation now tends to be characterized by a movement of renationalization of issues related to the promotion of energy transition and the articulation of economic and environmental values

Thesis (MBA)--Stellenbosch University, 2006.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The Kyoto protocol was signed early in 2005 whereby Annexure 1 industrialised countries committed to reducing their greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. South Africa signed the Protocol. however being a developing country it has no GHG emissions reduction target for the first commitment period until 2012. Primary aluminium is a GHG intensive global commodity to which Southem Africa contributes significantly. This dissertation aims to investigate how the profitability of the Southern African primary aluminium sector may be affected by Kyoto Protocol GHG restrictions even though the smelters are situated in non-Annexure 1 countries. A Delphi-type survey is conducted to gather opinions on identified pressures and drivers that could affect the industry. The survey respondents indicate that the greatest impact will occur from internal pressures from holding companies. Further pressure will originate from external sources namely government, Non Governmental Organisations, shareholders and investors. Direct manufacturing costs are not expected to increase as a result of the Protocol. Rather. industry changes are expected to be the result of internal and external pressures. Opportunities for Clean Development Mechanism (COM) projects are rated as highly importance and are strongly recommended. Various strategies are identified and presented in a matrix to compare the effect of each on the various identified pressures and drivers. From the matrix it is observed that the majority of the selected strategies have a profound impact on the internal and external pressures. From this research report it is recommended that a cooperative proactive strategy be followed . focusing initially on low cost GHG emissions reduction projects and rigorously pursuing COM projects.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die Kyoto Protokol, waardeur Anneks 1 geindustraliseerde lande hul daartoe verbind het om hul kweekhuis gas (GHG) emissies te verminder, is vroeg in 2005 onderteken. Suidelike Afrika het die Protokol onderteken, maar weens sy status as ontwikkelende land, het dit geen GHG emissieverminderingsdoelwit vir die eerste verpligtingsfase tot en met 2012 nie. Primere aluminium is 'n GHG intensiewe globale kommoditeit waartoe Suidelike Afrika 'n groot bydrae lewer. Hierdie tesis poog om ondersoek in te stel na die impak van Protokol GHG beperkings op die winsgewendheid van die Suidelike Afrika primere aluminium sektor, ten spyle daarvan dat die smelters in nie-Annex 1 lande gelee is. 'n Delphi-tipe opname was geloods om opinies in te win oor geidentifiseerde drukpunte en drywers wat 'n impak kon he op die industrie. Die respondente het aangedui dat die grootste impak sal kom van interne druk van beheermaatskappye. Addisionele druk sal afkomstig wees van eksteme bronne soos die regering, Nie-regerings organisasies (NGO's), aandeelhouers en beleggers. Daar word nie verwag dat die direkte vervaardigingskoste sal eskaleer as gevolg van die Protokol nie. Daar word eerder verwag dat veranderinge in die industrie die gevolg sal wees van interne en eksterne druk. Geleenthede vir skoon-ontwikkelings meganisme (COM) projekte is geweldig belangrik en word sterk aanbeveel. Verskeie strategiee word geidentifiseer en voorgele in 'n matriks om sodoende 'n vergelyking te tref tussen die effek wat elk het op die onderskeie drukpunte en drywers. Uit die matriks kan afgelei word dat die meerderheid strategiee 'n diepgaande invloed het op die inteme en eksterne drukpunte. Hierdie navorsingsverslag beveel aan dat 'n samewerkende proaktiewe strategie gevolg word, wat aanvanklik sal fokus op lae-koste GHG emissieverminderingsprojekte, asook die nougesette najaag van CDM projekte.

In 1997 industrialized nations, the Third Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, met in Kyoto, Japan to sign a treaty (the “Kyoto Protocol”) in terms of which industrialized nations would be required to reduce their greenhouse gas emission by at least five percent below 1990 levels by the end of the “first commitment period” 2008-2012. South Africa is not regarded as an industrialized nation, but nonetheless acceded to the Kyoto Protocol in 2002. The literature reviewed in the present research reveals that, although idealistic, the Kyoto Protocol has been problematic. Fourteen meetings of the Conference of Parties to the Kyoto Protocol between 1997 and 2011 have achieved little more than to repeatedly defer and redefine Kyoto obligations. This research was undertaken to document the existing environmental taxation policies employed in selected international jurisdictions with a view to providing a framework for environmental tax policy formation in South Africa to assist this country in meeting its “greenhouse gas” emission targets, while at the same time promoting economic growth. A doctrinal research methodology was adopted in this study as it mainly analysed and interpreted legislation and policy documents and therefore the approach was qualitative in nature. An extensive literature survey was performed to document the various environmental policies that have been legislated in the selected jurisdictions. Comparisons were drawn with proposed tax policy measures for South Africa. The literature indicates that in the selected international jurisdictions carbon taxes achieved less-than-optimal results, largely due to political and industry-competitive agendas. With South Africa planning to introduce a carbon tax, it is submitted that the implementation of a carbon tax regime in isolation will be counter-productive, given South Africa’s economic profile. On the basis of the literature reviewed, it was concluded that South Africa should consider “recycling” carbon tax revenues within the economy to fund a broad-based tax incentive regime that will stimulate the change to non-carbon energy whilst promoting growth through sustainable development

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Industrialization, that was already seen as synonymous of progress and hope of a better future for most nations, reaches the XXIth century facing many detractors and being seen as a major threat because of its voracious consumption of raw material which exhausts seas, forests, soil, subsoil and releases harmful gases that contribute to the greenhouse effect, causing the reaction of sectors of society concerned with the legacy that will be let to future generations. Among most harming sectors, are mining and related industry, whose degrading and polluting activities demonstrates the need for quality control and environmental monitoring. This study seeks to contextualize the concern about global warming and the rise of international treaties on the subject for the defense of the environment, mentioning Kyoto Protocol, Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee for a Framework Convention on Climate Change (INC/FCCC), the conferences between the parties, and also the Brazilian legislation related to the issue of climate change mitigation. The study seeks to know about the flexibility mechanisms proposed by Kyoto Protocol, aiming to achieve emission reductions by developed countries signatories. The research analyzes the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), the Certified Emission Reductions (CER) and the efficiency of these instruments as a form of environmental compensation, highlighting the various modalities, to finish with the presentation of the carbon market and CDM related projects that help in global warming mitigation undertaken by mining sector. Among the findings, it appears that compensation measures are able to meet the recommendations of the Kyoto Protocol and to assist in combating the adverse effects of mining to the environment
A industrialização, antes sinônimo de progresso e esperança de um futuro melhor para a maioria das nações, alcança o século XXI enfrentando muitos detratores e sendo vista como grande ameaça em razão da voracidade no consumo de matéria-prima que exaure os mares, as florestas, o solo, o subsolo e libera os nocivos gases que contribuem para o efeito estufa, provocando a reação de setores da sociedade preocupados com o legado que será herdado pelas gerações futuras. Entre os setores que mais poluem está a mineração e as atividades relacionadas, cuja ação degradadora para o meio ambiente demonstra a necessidade de controle de qualidade ambiental e monitoramento. Este estudo busca contextualizar a preocupação com o aquecimento global e o surgimento de tratados internacionais sobre o tema para a defesa do meio ambiente, fazendo menção ao Protocolo de Quioto, à Convenção- Quadro das Nações Unidas sobre Mudança do Clima e às Conferências entre as partes, e também as legislações brasileiras relacionadas à questão da mitigação das mudanças climáticas. Buscam-se conhecer os mecanismos de flexibilização propostos pelo Protocolo de Quioto, visando atingir às reduções de emissão pelos países desenvolvidos signatários. A pesquisa analisa os Mecanismos de Desenvolvimento Limpo (MDL), as Reduções Certificadas de Emissões e a eficiência desses instrumentos como forma de compensação ambiental, destacando-se as várias modalidades, para finalizar com a apresentação do mercado de carbono e projetos relacionados com MDL que auxiliam na mitigação do aquecimento global empreendidos pelo setor minerário. Entre os achados, verifica-se que as medidas de compensação são capazes de atender às propostas do Protocolo de Quioto e auxiliar no combate aos efeitos adversos da mineração ao meio ambiente

In the first part we introduce what we consider the main features of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (CMCC) and its context, in terms of prejuridical issues about climate diplomacy and general considerations about this convention. In the second part, we discuss some references in order to show the synergies between the international agreements and the CMCC and some other more specific legal instruments.
En la primera parte se elabora una caracterización de la Convención Marco de las Naciones Unidas sobre el Cambio Climático (CMCC) y su contexto en términos de consideraciones prejurídicas acerca de la diplomacia climática y de consideraciones generales sobre dicha convención. En la segunda parte se abordan, a modo de muestra, referencias sobre las sinergias entre compromisos internacionales y la CMCC y algunas derivaciones jurídicas más específicas.

Du Protocole de Kyoto est née une série d’objectifs de réduction des émissions de GES. Le respect de ces objectifs peut entraîner des coûts très lourds pour les économies des pays développés engagés dans la lutte contre les changements climatiques. Pour minimiser les coûts imposés par ces objectifs, des instruments économiques ont été développés, avec notamment la création de marchés du carbone. Y participent les trois mécanismes de flexibilité du Protocole de Kyoto parmi lesquels figure le Mécanisme pour un Développement Propre (MDP).

Parmi les problèmes posés par ce mécanisme de compensation, il y a des disparités observées dans la répartition géographique de sa mise en œuvre, alors qu’il est censé contribuer au développement de nombreux pays non-Annexe I. Parmi ceux-ci, les Pays les Moins Avancés (PMA) en général et ceux d’Afrique en particulier restent largement sous-représentés. Pourtant, le MDP a été adopté à la fois comme une contribution innovatrice à l’atténuation des changements climatiques et comme un moteur de promotion du développement durable dans les pays en développement.

Dans ce contexte, l’objectif général de cette thèse est triple. Primo, elle vise à étudier en profondeur cet instrument en dégageant ses principales caractéristiques, y compris les disparités d’implantation d’activités de projets qui lui sont liées. Secundo, elle en examine les causes par une analyse des barrières ou freins à la mise en œuvre d’activités de projets du MDP dans ces PMA d’Afrique en général et au Burundi en particulier. Tertio, elle révèle les opportunités (avantages/bénéfices) potentielles qui restent toujours non valorisées par l’implémentation d’activités de projets éligibles au titre du MDP.

L’analyse menée montre que les disparités susmentionnées jouent essentiellement en faveur des grands pays émergents d’Asie et d’Amérique latine, ce qui va à l’encontre du principe d’équité. En effet, en décembre 2011, le Brésil, la Chine et l’Inde détenaient 72,7 % de toutes les activités de projets du MDP et 75,8 % de crédits-carbone attendus en 2012. A l’opposé, les PMA ne disposaient dans le même temps que de 1,3 % de toutes les activités de projets du MDP et 1,2 % de leurs crédits attendus d’ici 2012. Les PMA d’Afrique ne restent qu’avec des parts de l’ordre de 0,8 % et 0,9 % respectivement. Cette situation reste si drastiquement critique qu’il importe d’en déceler les raisons.

Des caractéristiques de l’instrument, des expériences menées jusqu’ici et de la situation dans des pays hôtes, il ressort que les barrières sont de deux types. D’une part, les barrières endogènes, c'est-à-dire les barrières liées à l’organisation interne des pays. D’autre part, les barrières exogènes qui sont liées essentiellement à l’organisation générale du processus du MDP. L’étude a permis ainsi de montrer que les barrières endogènes constituent le nœud du problème en termes de visibilité des pays hôtes dans le marché du MDP. Celle-ci reste largement limitée dans ce marché international du carbone.

Les barrières identifiées dans ce travail, en particulier les barrières endogènes, risquent de se révéler difficiles à lever, car elles exigent des réformes structurelles au sein de l’organisation politique, institutionnelle, économique, et juridique du pays hôte. En outre, l’intégration de ces barrières dans un système unique d’interrelations constitue un des points originaux du travail. Ces interrelations ne sont pas négligeables et complexifient l’application du mécanisme, car, dans la plupart des cas, une action amorcée pour lever une barrière peut s’avérer inefficace si d’autres barrières associées ne sont pas prises en compte.

L’étude s’est également attachée à évaluer les retombées potentielles liées à la mise en œuvre d’activités de projets du MDP au Burundi. Les principales opportunités perdues jusqu’ici se situent dans quelques secteurs socioéconomiques du pays, essentiellement dans la gestion des déchets et l’énergie. L’étude en a ainsi retenu des options technologiques susceptibles de contribuer à des solutions à la problématique de la gestion des déchets et de l’approvisionnement énergétique au Burundi, tout en favorisant la stabilisation d’émissions de GES. Il s’agit de technologies adaptées de compostage et de bio-méthanisation dans le secteur de la gestion des déchets et les technologies de production d’énergies à partir de sources renouvelables (hydro, solaire, biogaz) et d’amélioration de l’efficacité énergétique de la biomasse (foyers améliorés, carbonisation) dans le secteur de l’énergie.

Ces opportunités ont également été analysées suivant des critères et indicateurs de durabilité (matrice de développement durable du Gold Standard). Les résultats montrent que ces options technologiques peuvent apporter une contribution au développement durable du pays. En effet, les opportunités se rencontrent à la fois dans le développement social (création d’emplois, moyens de subsistance des pauvres, accès aux énergies propres, renforcement des capacités), le développement écologique (réduction des émissions de GES, amélioration de la qualité de l’air, de l’eau et du sol, sauvegarde de la biodiversité), et le développement économique et technologique (rémunération d’emplois créés, augmentation des investissements, transfert et autonomie technologiques).

Afin de faire bénéficier le pays des retombées des activités de projets du MDP, il est proposé des solutions qui peuvent contribuer à une levée/atténuation de ces barrières. Ces propositions forment une combinaison d’actions à mener au niveau international, régional et surtout local/national. Au niveau international, des organes habilités devraient apporter des réformes profondes au MDP. Au niveau régional, le renforcement des capacités par des actions de coopération pourrait favoriser l’échange d’expériences en la matière. Au niveau local/national, l’adoption des réformes profondes aux niveaux institutionnel, législatif et juridique, dans une logique d’améliorer les politiques de planification du développement socioéconomique et environnemental, rendrait le pays naturellement plus attractif. En particulier, la mise en place et la mise en œuvre d’une stratégie nationale du MDP pourrait contribuer à relever le défi.

Les propositions de solutions pour réduire les barrières à la mise en œuvre d’activités de projets du MDP sont susceptibles de stimuler l’investissement en général. Ainsi, toute stratégie adoptée dans cette logique peut contribuer non seulement à la participation du pays au processus du MDP, mais aussi à favoriser la mise en œuvre d’autres projets conventionnels de développement au niveau national. Finalement, la considération de ces différentes opportunités associées à la mise en œuvre d’activités de projets du MDP au niveau du pays par des instances habilitées (décideurs politiques, acteurs institutionnels et économiques) conduirait à faire de ce mécanisme une contribution utile au développement du pays/The Kyoto Protocol has established a series of targets for reducing GHG emissions. The fulfilment of these objectives may result in heavy costs for the economies of developed countries engaged in the fight against climate change. To minimize the costs imposed by these targets, economic instruments were developed, notably with the creation of carbon markets. The three flexible mechanisms of Kyoto Protocol are involved in this, one of which being the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM).

Among the problems posed by this offset mechanism, disparities can be observed in regional distribution after it has been implemented, when it ought to be contributing towards the development of a number of Non-Annex I countries. Among these countries, the least developed ones (LDCs) in general and Africa ones in particular are largely under-represented. However, the CDM was adopted both as an innovative solution to mitigate climate change and as an engine to promote sustainable development in developing countries.

Within this context, the overall objective of this thesis is threefold. First of all, it aims to study this instrument in depth, by picking out its main characteristics, including the disparities in project activities implementation related to it. Secondly, it examines the causes for these disparities by analyzing the barriers or restrictions preventing implementation of CDM project activities in these African LDCs in general and in Burundi in particular. Its third purpose is to reveal the potential opportunities (advantages/benefits) which have yet to be developed by setting up eligible CDM project activities.

The analysis carried out shows that the aforementioned disparities come out in favor of the large emerging countries in Asia and Latin America primarily, which goes against the principle of equity. In fact, in December 2011, Brazil, China and India held 72.7% of all CDM project activities and 75.8% of carbon emission credits expected in 2012. On the contrary, for the same time period, the LDCs had only 1.3% of all CDM project activities and 1.2% of their carbon emission credits expected up until 2012. The African LDCs are left only with shares of 0.8% and 0.9% respectively. This situation is extremely critical. It is crucial to discover the reasons for it.

The instrument’s features, experiments carried out so far and the situation in host countries all reveal that the barriers fall into two categories. On the one hand, there are endogenous barriers, i.e. barriers related to the internal organization of countries. On the other hand, exogenous barriers are related to the general running of the CDM process especially. The study has thus revealed that the endogenous barriers are the crux of the problem where the presence of host countries is concerned in the CDM market. The visibility of host countries is rather limited in this international carbon market.

The barriers identified in this thesis, particularly endogenous ones, may be difficult to remove because they demand structural reforms in the political, institutional, economical and legal organization of the host country. In addition, the integration of these barriers into a single system of interrelationships is one of the original points of this thesis. These interrelationships are not insignificant and complicate the mechanism’s application, because in most cases, initiating an action to remove a barrier may be ineffective if other associated barriers are not taken into account.

The study has also focused on evaluating the potential impacts linked to the implementation of CDM project activities in Burundi. The main opportunities lost up to date are in some socioeconomic sectors in the country, particularly in the waste management and energy sectors. The study has therefore identified technological options that are likely to bring solutions to the question of waste management and energy supply in Burundi, while at the same time contributing to the stabilization of greenhouse gas emissions. These options are notably composting and anaerobic digestion technologies in the area of waste management, and energy generation technologies from renewable sources (hydro, solar, biogas) and improved energy efficiency of biomass (better households, carbonization) in the energy sector.

These opportunities were also analyzed in accordance with sustainability criteria and indicators (Gold Standard sustainable development matrix). The results show that these technological options may contribute to sustainable development in the country. Indeed, the opportunities can be seen at the same time in social development (job creation, means of subsistence for the poor, clean energy access, capacity building); ecological development (reducing GHG emissions, improvement in quality of air, water and soil, preservation of biodiversity) and economic & technological development (better pay for jobs created, increased investment, technology transfer and technological autonomy).

In order to allow the country to take advantage of these opportunities through CDM project activities, it has been proposed solutions that can help raise/mitigate these barriers. These proposals are a combination of actions to be taken at international and regional levels and above all at a local/ national level. In the international arena, authorized bodies should make major reforms to the CDM. At a regional level, capacity building through joint actions could encourage the exchange of expertise in the field. Locally/nationally, adopting major reforms at institutional, legislative and legal levels, with a view to improving planning policies in socioeconomic and environmental development, would make the country naturally more attractive. In particular, establishing and implementing a national CDM strategy could also contribute towards taking up the challenge.

Proposals of solutions for mitigating barriers to implement CDM project activities are likely to stimulate investment in general. Thus, any strategy adopted along these lines can contribute not only to the country’s participation in the CDM process, but also to favoring implementation of other conventional projects for development at national level. Finally, considering these different opportunities associated with implementing CDM project activities in the country via authorized bodies (policymakers, institutional and economic actors) would lead to this mechanism being a useful contribution towards national development.

Doctorat en Sciences
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The problem of climate change is one of the major challenges faced by mankind. The situation of the greenhouse effect and the ozone layer hole is the foremost threat to human life. One of the key causes for this situation was the exploration and fossil fuels usage and the high rates of deforestation in the world, mainly in Brazil. The Kyoto Protocol, created during the Conference of the Parties nº III held in the city of Kyoto, Japan in 1997 with the purpose of supplementing the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and establish a quantitative emission reduction limit of greenhouse gas (GHG) for countries under such Convention. At the present time the Kyoto Protocol is the only international climate agreement. The Protocol created flexibility mechanisms to achieve the ultimate goal of the Framework Convention, which is highlighted by the Clean Development Mechanism, which generated the carbon credits market. The mechanism for Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation with increasing forest carbon stocks in developing countries (REDD) is currently a voluntary mechanism suggested by some countries that take part in the Convention, and recommended to assist developing countries to combat deforestation and degradation especially in tropical forests. The present paper aims to provide an overview of the trajectory of the Kyoto protocol in international environmental law, as well as demonstrate the importance and urgency of the matter of the problem of climatic changes.
O problema das mudanças climáticas é um dos maiores desafios enfrentados pelo ser humano. A situação do efeito estufa e do buraco na camada de ozônio é uma grande ameaça para a vida humana. Uma das maiores causas para esse panorama foi a exploração e uso de combustíveis fósseis e as taxas elevadas de desmatamento no mundo, principalmente no Brasil. O Protocolo de Quioto, criado durante a Conferência das Partes n° 3, realizada na cidade de Quioto, Japão, em 1997, com a finalidade de complementar a Convenção Quadro das Nações Unidas sobre o Clima e estabelecer de maneira quantitativa limites de redução de emissão de gases de efeito estufa (GEE) para os países comprometidos pela Convenção. Atualmente o Protocolo de Quioto é o único Protocolo internacional climático. O Protocolo criou mecanismos de flexibilização para alcançar o objetivo final da Convenção Quadro, dos quais destacamos o Mecanismo de Desenvolvimento Limpo, que gerou o mercado de créditos de carbono. O mecanismo de Redução de Emissão do Desmatamento e Degradação Florestal com aumento de estoques de carbono florestal em países em desenvolvimento (REDD+) é atualmente um mecanismo voluntário sugerido por alguns países partes da Convenção, e recomendado para auxiliar os países em desenvolvimento a combaterem o desmatamento e degradação em especial nas florestas tropicais. O presente trabalho pretende fornecer um panorama sobre a trajetória do Protocolo de Quioto e do problema das mudanças climáticas, bem como mostrar a importância e urgência do tratamento do tema em questão.

The agricultural sector of Andean countries like Peru and Bolivia perceives the consequences of climate change in increasing water stress due to melting glaciers and changing precipitation patterns. Therefore mainly subsistence agricultural systems are increasingly vulnerable. Traditional inhabitants of the tropical Andean region are aware of the recurrent diversity of climate related impacts and its consequences, thus livelihood strategies are based on principles of risk management. Andean farmers are nowadays applying traditional strategies in a combination of homegrown experimentation and scientific know-how to cope with and adapt to a changing climate. Understanding these adaptations has become one of the most important aspects of research into climate change impacts and vulnerability. It provides essential knowledge for developing and transferring strategies towards a sustainable management in agriculture and agroforestry systems. But there still is a lack of a comparative assessment, especially in regions with high impact of extreme climate conditions. The endogenously determined strategies, which are based on the experience of the farmers, are to be complemented by knowledge and experiences coming from outside farm-household systems and communities. In a collaborative way, this exogenous knowledge is to be placed at the disposal of local actors. The necessary network approach leads to a comprehensive involvement of local stakeholders. Therefore a participative network on climate change may work as a tool to bridge the gap between the global discourse on climate change and local action.

The overarching objective of the research was to identify the existence and nature of international legal principles governing sustainable forest use and management. This research intended to uncover a set of forest legal considerations that are relevant for consideration across the globe. The purpose behind this, is to create a theoretical base of international forest law literature which be drawn upon to inform future international forestry research. This research will be of relevance to those undertaking examination of a particular forest issue or those focusing on forests in a particular region. The thesis explains the underlying legal issues in forest regulation, the dominant international regulatory approaches and makes suggestions as to how international and national forest policy could be improved.

O atual momento de incertezas induzidas pelas mudanças climáticas no agronegócio brasileiro tem-se mostrado oportuno para pesquisar as ações em torno das cadeias produtivas como um todo. Analisar como o agronegócio brasileiro está se preparando para se posicionar e agir diante das novas realidades climáticas é crucial tanto para a academia como para o futuro das atividades produtivas. As incertezas geradas por esse novo contexto associadas à ausência de diálogos e de diretrizes assim como a resistência a mudanças e a falta de confiança entre os stakeholders do agronegócio tornam-se problemas para o agronegócio,. Assim, a formação de redes entre stakeholders do agronegócios é fundamental para promover o conhecimento coletivo e propor convenções específicas para o momento atual e para o futuro. Nesse contexto, o conflito entre produção de bioenergia e alimentos é uma discussão central no agronegócio mundial e nacional. As questões levantadas nesta pesquisa são: como os diálogos entre stakeholders do agronegócio podem contribuir com os relacionamentos entre as organizações em rede? Qual o papel no agronegócio na discussão das mudanças climáticas no contexto do dilema da bioenergia? O objetivo da presente pesquisa é o de propor um framework para analisar a natureza dos diálogos entre stakeholders e os modelos criados para atuar nos conflitos da bioenergia e das oportunidades em redes voltadas para bioenergia com relação às mudanças climáticas no agronegócio brasileiro. Para isso, foram usadas as abordagens teóricas de Stakeholders, Redes, Negociação, Conflitos e Teoria das Convenções. Esta pesquisa classifica-se como de natureza exploratória e qualitativa, e o método adotado para a realização desta pesquisa é o de estudo de casos. Foram analisadas as organizações relacionadas com bioenergia participantes do Instituto ARES. O ARES é uma instituição inédita ligado ao agronegócio Brasileiro com intuito de promover o diálogo entre as cadeias produtivas.Os resultados da pesquisa mostram que o dilema de produção de bioenergia e alimento são aceitos seriamente pelos stakeholders, uma vez que estão dispostos a agirem em conjunto, criando bases para construção da confiança entre as diferentes cadeias produtivas; isto é, cadeias produtivas diferentes preocupando-se com outras cadeias. Esta visão permite a formação de redes, mesmo com os conflitos que existem entre elas, com negociações embasadas em confiança, coletividade, comunicação, interesses diversos com soluções únicas (estratégicas) em forma de convenções. A contribuição da pesquisa está relacionada as novas formas de análises teóricas entre os stakeholders do agronegócios.
The current moment of uncertainties induced by climate changes in the Brazilian agribusiness has been convenient for researching the actions related to the productive chains as a whole. Analyzing the way chosen by the Brazilian agribusiness to face the new climate realities is crucial both for the academy and the future of productive activities. The uncertainties generated by the new context associated to the absence of dialogues and guidelines as well as the resistance to changes and the lack of confidence among the agribusiness stakeholders have become a problem for the agribusiness. Then, it is fundamental the network formation among the agribusiness stakeholders to promote the collective knowledge and propose specific conventions for the current moment and the future. In this context, the conflict between bioenergy production and food is the central discussion of the national and international agribusiness. The issues raised in this survey are: How can the dialogues among the agribusiness stakeholders contribute to the relationships among the organizations of the network? What is the role of agribusiness in the discussion of climate changes within the bioenergy dilemma? The goal of this survey is to propose a framework to analyze the nature of dialogues among stakeholders and the models created to act in the conflicts of bioenergy and the opportunities in networks linked to bioenergy in relation to the climate changes in the Brazilian agribusiness. The theoretical approaches of Stakeholdes, Networks, Negotiation, Conflicts and Convention Theories were used to answer these questions. This survey is classified as exploratory and qualitative in nature and the method adopted is the case study. It was analyzed the organizations related to bioenergy participating in the Institute ARES. ARES is a new institution linked to the Brazilian agribusiness, aiming at promoting the dialogue among the production chains. The results of the survey show that the dilemma of bioenergy and food production are seriously considered by the stakeholders, since they want to act together, creating bases for the construction of confidence among the different productive chains; that is, different productive chains worried about other chains. This view allows the network formations, even with the conflicts existing among them, using negotiations based in trust, collectivity, communication and different interests related to exclusive solutions (strategies) used as conventions.The contribution of this survey is related to the new ways of theoretical analyzes among the stakeholders of agribusiness.

Les personnes déplacées à la suite de la destruction de l’environnement sont de plus en plus nombreux. Leur protection au plan juridique pose plusieurs problèmes au niveau international. La notion de souveraineté fait face à celle de l’obligation de protéger ; l’assistance de la communauté internationale après une catastrophe s’impose comme la règle d’or. Un diagnostic du droit international actuel notamment en matière de protection des réfugiés ou de l’environnement montre clairement le vide juridique existant. La création d’un instrument juridique nouveau au plan international visant la protection de ces déplacés environnementaux pourrait être la solution si les obstacles sociaux, politiques, économiques et même idéologiques n’existaient pas. Cette thèse analyse la notion de déplacé environnemental à travers la problématique que pose la recherche de leur statut juridique au plan international, elle nous permet d’analyser à l’aide de la prospective juridique les propositions de solutions présentées par certains universitaires et ouvre des pistes sérieuses de réflexions pour l’adoption d’un instrument de protection efficace
Today, environmentally displaced persons are becoming more numerous. Their legal status poses several problems at international level. The notion of sovereignty faces to that of obligation to protect; assistance by international community after environmental disasters is becoming the standard. A diagnosis of current international situation, especially in the protection of refugees and in environment law, clearly shows the existing of legal vacuum. The creation of a new legal international instrument for protection of these environmentally displaced persons could be the solution if the social, economic, political and even ideological barriers did not exist. This thesis analyzes the concept of environmentally displaced persons through the problem posed by the research of their legal status in international law. We analyze with legal prospective method, proposed solutions presented by some academics which opens serious reflections for an effective instrument of protection

Dans le contexte actuel du changement climatique et de l’augmentation de la fréquence et de l’intensité des épisodes climatiques extrêmes, une question centrale pour l’écologie scientifique est de comprendre les répercussions de ces changements sur le fonctionnement des écosystèmes. Les communautés microbiennes du sol contrôlent une grande partie des processus écosystémiques déterminant la circulation de l’énergie et des nutriments. Dans le cadre des agroécosystèmes se pose donc la question de l’influence des pratiques agricoles sur les communautés microbiennes du sol et sur leur aptitude à maintenir le fonctionnement des écosystèmes face au changement climatique. L’intensification écologique de l’agriculture a récemment été proposée comme une approche intégrant les processus écologiques dans la stratégie de gestion des agroécosystèmes, dans l’objectif d’optimiser leur fonctionnement et leur résilience. L’écologie fonctionnelle pourrait répondre à certains des enjeux posés par le changement climatique et l’intensification écologique de l’agriculture.Dans cette thèse, j’ai cherché à mobiliser le cadre conceptuel des traits fonctionnels pour apporter de nouveaux éléments de compréhension de l’influence de différentes modalités d’intensité de gestion d’agroécosystèmes prairiaux (gestion extensive, conventionnelle-intensive et écologiquement-intensive) : 1) sur les caractéristiques fonctionnelles des communautés microbiennes du sol; 2) sur la capacité de ces communautés microbiennes à maintenir le fonctionnement de l’écosystème face à des périodes de stress climatiques (résilience). Dans le cadre de ma thèse, trois expérimentations ont été réalisées en faisant varier le degré de contrôle des facteurs de gestion, le type de stress climatique et la durée de ces stress. S’appuyant sur des agroécosystèmes prairiaux répartis dans trois pays Européens (France, Suisse, Portugal), les résultats des deux premières expérimentations de cette thèse montrent que les communautés microbiennes des sols des prairies écologiquement-intensives disposent d’une plus faible capacité à maintenir les propriétés écosystémiques microbiennes durant les stress (faible résistance) mais disposent d’une meilleure capacité de récupération comparée aux communautés microbiennes des sols en gestion conventionnelle-intensive. Une autre étude montre que la gestion éco-intensive favorise des communautés microbiennes protéolytiques bénéfiques à l’assimilation de l’azote pour les plantes en conditions perturbés. L’étude des traits végétaux suggère que ces effets de la gestion sur la composition des communautés microbiennes et sur leur résilience passe par certains traits, notamment une augmentation de la richesse en phosphore des litières en gestion écologiquement-intensive. En effet ces traits fonctionnels des plantes semblent influencer les traits microbiens, favorisant des communautés microbiennes copiotrophes, caractérisées par un ratio azote:phospore faible de leur biomasse et un faible investissement dans la production d’enzymes extracellulaires, deux traits négatifs pour la résistance au stress mais favorisant une récupération rapide. Ainsi, ces deux expérimentations soulignent l’importance de la gestion des traits des plantes dans le contrôle des traits microbiens et de la résilience des écosystèmes au changement climatique. La troisième expérimentation a cherché à tester spécifiquement les effets d’un épisode de fertilisation minérale sur la résilience des communautés microbiennes à différents stress climatiques. Les résultats montrent que la fertilisation modifie la composition et les traits microbiens avec des répercussions négatives sur la stabilité de l’écosystème face à la sécheresse et à l’inondation.Mobilisant une approche par le concept de trait fonctionnel microbien, ce travail de thèse apporte de nouveaux éléments de compréhension des effets de l’intensité de gestion sur la résilience des écosystèmes prairiaux face aux stress climatiques
In the current context of climate change, associated with increases of climate extremes frequency and intensity, understanding the ecosystem response to climate variability is a central challenge in ecology. Soil microbial communities control most ecosystem processes driving energy and nutrients fluxes. In the context of agriculture management, an important question is to understand the influence of farming practices on soil microbial communities and their capacity to maintain ecosystem functioning under climate change. Ecological-intensive agriculture has been recently proposed as an approach integrating ecological processes in management strategies to optimise agroecosystems functioning and resilience to climate change. Functional ecology might be relevant to address these challenges associated with climate change and ecological-intensification of agriculture.In this PhD thesis, I used the functional trait framework to grassland ecosystems to address how different modalities of management intensity (extensive, conventional-intensive, ecological-intensive management) influence: 1) functional parameters of soil microbial communities; 2) the capacity of these soil microbial communities to maintain ecosystem functioning during and after climatic stresses (Resilience). During my PhD, three experiments have been conducted using different degrees of control of management factors and simulating different kind of climatic stresses, with different durations. Based on grassland agroecosystems in three countries across Europe (France, Switzerland, Portugal), results from the first two experiments of this PhD showed that ecological-intensive management select soil microbial communities with a lower capacity to maintain microbial ecosystem properties during stresses (resistance) but with higher capacity to recover compared with soil microbial communities of soils under conventional-intensive management. Moreover, another study showed that ecological-intensive management promotes beneficial proteolytic soil microbial communities for plant nitrogen uptake under climate change-induced rain regimes. Plant functional traits assessment suggest this management effect on microbial communities composition and resilience to be explained by higher litter phosphorous content in ecological-intensive systems. Indeed, this plant functional trait affect microbial traits, favouring copiotrophic microbial community characterized by a lower nitrogen:phosphorous ratio of their biomass and a lower investment in extracellular enzymes production, two traits decreasing stress resistance but increasing recovery capacities. Thereby, these two experiments stress the relevance of plant traits management to control soil microbial traits and the resilience of soil microbial communities to climate changes. A third experiment tested specifically the impact of a mineral fertilisation event on the resilience of soil microbial communities to different climatic stresses. Results clearly demonstrated that fertilization modify soil microbial community composition and soil microbial traits and decrease ecosystem stability under climatic stresses.Implementing an approach based on the microbial functional trait concept, this thesis brings new insights on the effects of management intensity on grassland ecosystem resilience to climatic stress

A iniciativa assumida neste trabalho visa procurar, recolher, analisar e apresentar, de maneira clara e objectiva, dados sobre o trabalho da Cruz Vermelha Internacional e do Crescente Vermelho ao longo dos tempos em torno do mundo, com particular destaque em Angola e na Namíba, países situados na Região da África Austral, no Continente Africano. A análise constitui uma reflexão sobre o impacto das actividades humanitárias da Cruz vermelha e documenta algumas políticas e práticas que afectam os fluxos de serviços de ajudas de alívio na zona mais a sul do continente Berço da; A iniciativa assumida neste trabalho visa procurar, recolher, analisar e apresentar, de maneira clara e objectiva, dados sobre o trabalho da Cruz Vermelha Internacional e do Crescente Vermelho ao longo dos tempos em torno do mundo, com particular destaque em Angola e na Namíba, países situados na Região da África Austral, no Continente Africano. A análise constitui uma reflexão sobre o impacto das actividades humanitárias da Cruz vermelha e documenta algumas políticas e práticas que afectam os fluxos de serviços de ajudas de alívio na zona mais a sul do continente Berço da humanidade.O presente trabalho integra seis (6) capítulos diferentes, onde o primeiro versa sobre origem, os componentes e o processo de integração do movimento, assim como os objectivos, missão, trabalhos, importância do voluntariado e algumas políticas e regulações da Cruz Vermelha Internacional. O segundo capítulo trata de enfatizar a importância e desafios da Cruz Vermelha Internacional na aplicação do Direito Internacional Humanitário, assim como de alguns direitos fundamentais dos cidadãos, no processo de realização do trabalho humanitário da Cruz Vermelha. De igual modo, é nesta parte do texto onde o autor aborda, com certo destaque, a questão das Convenções de Genebra e dos seus Protocolos adicionais. Os desafios e os obstáculos verificados na implementação da estratégica da missão humanitária da Cruz Vermelha Internacional encontram-se reflectidos no Capítulo 3. Mais concretamente, este capítulo destaca o conceito da missão humanitária, os actuais desafios do movimento face as fortes mudanças climáticas e outros desastres e, mobilidades populacionais, bem como uma tabela estatística que reflecte alguns impactos provenientes de desastres naturais. No quarto e quinto capítulos encontram-se reflectidas algumas experiências humanitárias, desafios e prioridades estratégicas das Sociedades Nacionais da Cruz Vermelha Internacional em Angola e na Namíbia, no processo de protecção de vidas de famílias, através da implementação de programas e projectos direccionados à identificação de riscos, redução de vulnerabilidade, prevenção sobre o HIV e SIDA, saúde social e outros tendentes a melhoria do estado de vivência das populações mais desfavorecidas. Finalmente, o último ou sexto capítulo contém as conclusões que integram algumas lições aprendidas, bem como principais sugestões e ou recomendações, visando, futuramente, melhorar o desenvolvimento do trabalho da organização, facto que grandemente proporcionará positivo impacto na vida de comunidades vulneráveis de vários países do mundo, particularmente em Angola e na Namíbia; ABSTRACT:The initiative assumed on this work tend to search, collect, analyze and present, in a clear and objective manner, data about the work of International Red Cross and Red Crescent all over the times around the world, with particular emphasis in Angola and Namibia, countries located in the Southern African Region, in the African Continent. The analysis constitutes a reflection on the impact of the humanitarian activities of the Red Cross and document some politics and practices that affect the flowing of services and relief aids on the zones more in the Southern African continent, the Cradle of Humanity. The present work integrates six (6) different chapters, where the first deals with the origin, the components and the process of the movement integration, as well as the objectives, mission, works, importance of volunteering and some politics and regulations of the International Red Cross.The Second Chapter manages to emphasize the importance and challenges of the International Red Cross on the application of the International Humanitarian Law, as well as of some fundamental rights of citizens, in the process of implementation of Red Cross Humanitarian work. Similarly, it is on this part of the text where the Author approaches, with some outstanding, the issue of the Geneva Conventions and its Additional Protocols.The challenges and obstacles observed on the implementation of the strategy of the humanitarian mission of International Red Cross are reflected in Chapter 3. More precisely, this chapter points out the concept of the humanitarian mission, the actual challenges of the movement due to the strong climate changes and other disasters and the populations mobility’s, as well as a statistical table that reflects some impacts proceeding from natural disasters. On the fourth and fifth Chapters are reflected some humanitarian experiences, challenges and strategic priorities of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent National Societies in Angola and in Namibia, in the process of protecting the lives of families, through the implementation of projects and programs aimed to identify risks, reduce vulnerability, prevent HIV and AIDS, and social health and others tending to improve the living status of the most unfavorable populations. Finally, the sixth or last Chapter contains the conclusions which integrates some lessons learned, as well as the main suggestions and or recommendations, tending to improve the development of the organization’s work in the future, fact that greatly will provide positive impact on the lives of the most vulnerable communities in various countries of the world, particularly in Angola and in Namíbia.

It is more than 20 years since 1985, when world climate and atmospheric scientists first issued an authoritative warning of the danger of global warming. In 1988, scientists, environmentalists and politicians from 48 countries endorsed the Toronto Declaration to address global warming that called for a twenty percent worldwide reduction in CO emissions by the year 2005 leading to an eventual fifty percent reduction. Contestation and collaboration in the global climate change public policy process, involving a wide range of actors, has continued since then. Two organisations were founded in 1989 by non-state actors on opposite sides of the climate policy debate. These were the Global Climate Coalition (GCC), which was established by a range of US business interests, and Climate Action Network (CAN) established by a range of environmental and scientific non-governmental organisations. The thesis documents, analyses and compares how each organisation was formed, organised and developed. It reviews how GCC and CAN enabled more effective national and transnational advocacy and how they fostered opposing policy coalitions on climate policy. The respective approaches are assessed, evaluated and contrasted as each sought to gain support for their opposing policy positions in the global climate change policy process. The research uses a neo-Gramscian theoretical perspective and develops and applies an analytical framework focused on policy coalitions of state and non-state actors to investigate the role that non-state actors played in the global climate policy process. GCC and CAN played major roles within opposing policy coalitions that became particularly important in shaping the outcome of the global and national climate policy processes. The thesis focuses on the role of GCC and CAN and their associated policy coalitions in influencing the framing, developing, implementation and review of global climate policy. It examines the global climate change policy process through this analytical lens of contestation between policy coalitions from the creation of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change in 1988 to the first Meeting of the Parties of the ratified Kyoto Protocol in 2005. The thesis assesses the analytical framework and concludes by identifying critical issues that the current global public policy processes have encountered in developing and implementing effective global climate change public policy.

碩士
國立中山大學
大陸研究所
90
Abstract As ecological deterioration getting worse and worse, the degree from global environment problem threat human life is more and more striking, and brings the rise of environmental diplomacy and global environmental politics. The PRC has wide territory, numerous population, and abundant natural resource, however after twenty years of modernizing, result in environment crisis. Since 1989, the PRC being forced to enhance her attention and participation in international environmental protection field by the pressure from domestic and foreign factors. The purpose of this thesis is to realize the details about the development of the PRC environmental diplomacy during the post cold-war era. The author try to combine domestic and international approaches, and use regime theory to analyze the actions of the PRC. The findings as follows: 1. The PRC make their objectives (ex : gain financial and technical assistance, improve the domestic environmental protection ability, modify her international image, etc. ) come true by holding the principles, including secure sovereignty, the unequal responsibilities between developed and developing countries, and developed countries should bare the major responsibilities of global environment problems. 2. The decision-making about the policy guide participation in the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change origins from the result of the bargaining between bureaucracies. Besides, climate regime can change the options of environmental and science agencies, but the effect doesn’t show in ultimate decisions. 3. Although the PRC still fear participation in regime will let her sovereignty invaded and economic potential repressed, try to make long-term plans and make capital of foreign firms to improve her environmental protection abilities.

碩士
國立暨南國際大學
公共行政與政策學系
103
Nowadays, more and more attention has been spent on environmental issues and such issue has become one of the key international concerns around the globe. Anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions leading to global warming causing a change in the Earth's climate, furthermore, leading to serious damage to the natural environment, such as melting glaciers, rising sea level, changes in storm frequency or intensity, etc., is a direct consequence of the impact to the flora and fauna as well as the survival of mankind, biodiversity and climate systems have been destroyed, and therefore, global warming and climate changes need urgent improvement. Former US Vice President Al Gore used the theme of global warming to produce a documentary, "An Inconvenient Truth," to point out that the current global climate issues are no longer confined to articles on climate change, or carbon dioxide related problems, highlighting the importance of environmental issues. As of our country, being a sea-island, is bound to be affected by this environmental issue. Given the environmental changes in the background above, the world began to agree on equally measures, hoping to reduce the impact of greenhouse gases on the planet, as one of the members in the globe, we should adjust our greenhouse gas policy development process accordingly, in order to contribute to our next generation. In conclusion, in the present era of globalization, there is an urgent need to resolve these environmental issues, which is the main orient of this research.

Climate change is no longer a subject restricted to scientific discussions. The dangerous consequences caused by global warming are now a pivotal part of the international political negotiations. In December 2015, almost 200 countries gathered in France to reach an unprecedented multilevel agreement to reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases and to keep the increase of Earth’s temperature below the level considered “safe” by climatologists. This historical document has many limitations, but it was considered by most experts as a landmark. Taking into consideration the historical moment marked by the Paris Agreement, this thesis aims to discuss and analyze the role played by civil society in the climate negotiations. In order to do so, we started by presenting the philosophical and theoretical background of the concept of civil society. We also reviewed the history of multilateral climate negotiations and the rising of the United Nations and the UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change) as mediators in this process. The presence of the civil society at COP-21 in Paris is analyzed as a case study, highlighting some new especially relevant situations, like the attempt made by governments and the organization itself to engage younger audiences by having a strong activity in social media.

The urgent need to address climate change poses a range of complex moral and practical concerns, not least because rising to the challenge will require cooperation among countries that differ greatly in their wealth, the extent of their contributions to the problem, and their vulnerability to environmental and economic shocks. This thesis by publication in the field of climate ethics aims to characterise a range of national responsibilities associated with acting on climate change (Part I), and to identify proposals for fulfilling those responsibilities through fair and feasible institutional arrangements (Part II). I aim not only to address substantive gaps in scholarly understanding of those responsibilities, but also to strengthen the ability of climate ethics to engage meaningfully with climate policy. Chapter 2 addresses the question of whether wealthy countries owe a “climate debt” to poor countries. It finds that even if climate debt (suitably interpreted) may provide a coherent and morally plausible concept, its political value as a discursive frame that can provide a basis for cooperation is limited. Chapter 3 investigates the role that equity may play in negotiations on a long-term climate change agreement. It argues that developed and developing countries may reach a “principled bargain” if both converge on a way of differentiating their responsibilities that places less emphasis on a rigid dichotomy between the two groups and more emphasis on objective criteria relating to their contribution to the problem and capacity to address it. Chapter 4 explores a question largely overlooked in climate ethics, namely whether wealthy countries owe compensation to those who are adversely affected by the climate policies which they enact. I find that enacting countries have responsibilities to compensate both domestic and foreign citizens who would suffer disproportionate losses from the effects of policies. Chapter 5 assesses whether wealthy countries may legitimately adopt unilateral (or “fragmented”) rather than multilaterally coordinated approaches to raising climate finance for developing countries. It finds that coordinated target-setting, effort sharing and oversight arrangements are essential, but that a mix of unilateral and coordinated approaches to raising funds will be necessary for securing legitimacy. In Chapter 6, through addressing the broader question of what should count as official aid, I consider whether wealthy countries may draw on aid budgets to support developing countries’ efforts to address climate change. I find that the current definition of official aid should be retained but supplemented by specified exclusions from eligibility in order to preserve the aid regime’s integrity. Nevertheless, some climate finance may justifiably be counted as aid provided that concerns relating to the diversion of aid funding are addressed. In addressing these research questions, the thesis seeks not only to make original theoretical contributions to climate ethics but also to strengthen broader scholarly understanding of the ways in which ethics and international public policy may inform one another, particularly by highlighting the role of framing considerations (Chapter 2), feasibility considerations (Chapter 3), and the ways in which principles of fairness and legitimacy map onto institutional functions (Chapters 4, 5 and 6).

The thesis International Climate Change Law presents international legislation in the area of climate protection. Specifically, it focuses on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, the Kyoto Protocol and proposed legal aspects of the new agreement, which is to arise from the 21st yearly session of the Conference of the Parties in Paris. In its introduction the thesis outlines the scientific background of the climate change and political and technical approaches to its solution. Then, it gives an overview of the development of the international law in this area, including its political context. The following chapters analyse key legal documents highlighting their objective, principles, commitments, and tools. The last chapter sums ups and briefly analyses the most important aspects of the proposed legislation.

碩士
國立中正大學
法律系研究所
104
It’s been sixty-seven years since the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) was adopted by United Nations. This Declaration is a fundamental document to protect human rights, which provided some fundamental human rights to be universally protected for the first time. In 1996, another four documents besides the UDHR were all together making up the International Bill of Human Rights. The common standard to protect general human rights has been developed and affirmed over the past sixty years. It’s necessary and interesting to realize the “density” of protected human rights for dealing with the cases about human rights affected by climate change. More frequently the extreme weather happen, more worth the issue of affected human rights is paid attention to. The objective of international law about climate change and human rights is to protect fundamental rights of human beings and make sure the existence and stability of human society. For fulfilling this purpose, it’s necessary to examine the adequacy of international law timely as Anne-Marie Slaughter said. In this course, comparative law is a good method to use. That is the expect to building a efficient way to applying international law for protecting the human rights affected by climate change based on the spirit, objective and methods of comparative law in this thesis.

Yu Hongyuan.
"January 2004."
Thesis (Ph.D.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2004.
Electronic reproduction. Hong Kong : Chinese University of Hong Kong, [2012] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web.
Electronic reproduction. Ann Arbor, MI : ProQuest Information and Learning Company, [200-] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web.
Mode of access: World Wide Web.
Abstracts in English and Chinese.

碩士
東吳大學
法律學系
99
The effect of global warming and climate change is unavoidable. It has made significant impacts on our everyday life and brought natural, ecological disasters, and extreme weather conditions to the planet. According to the 2008 report published by the International Energy Agency, the global carbon dioxide (CO2) emission is predicted to rise by more than 57% by the year 2030. The US, China, Russia and India will make up to two third of the world’s increasing emissions. As in 2007, China has already overtaken the US as the world’s biggest CO2 emitter. Its average citizen’s carbon emissions per capita (person) will soon match up to that of a European person. In response to the pressing issues, the government of the People’s Republic of China (here-in-after referred to as PRC) has recognised the importance of environmental protection and demonstrated continuously their efforts in legislating the nation’s laws and regulations. Yet, the establishment of the Tort Liability Law for Environmental Pollution still demands further development. With China’s first Tort Liability Law (here-in-after referred to as Tort Liability Law ) made effective on 1st July 2010, a special chapter has been dedicated to the establishment of liability for environmental pollution. This shows the PRC authority’s profound shift in recognising its importance. This dissertation therefore aims to discuss the application and the future of China’s Tort Liability Law for environmental protection, and furthermore provide constructive recommendations.

This thesis examines whether Australia acted as a 'good international citizen' in its engagement with international climate change law (ICCL) during the term of the first Rudd Labor government (3 December 2007 – 24 June 2010). The assessment is undertaken by examining the Rudd government's engagement with the key development in ICCL during its term of office, namely, the 'post-2012' negotiations under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and Kyoto Protocol. Launched by the Bali Roadmap, December 2007, the period of negotiations reviewed by this thesis culminated in the adoption of the landmark Copenhagen Accord in December 2009. Given the complexity and breadth of issues addressed by the post-2012 negotiations, the thesis focuses on one major aspect of the negotiations, namely: the mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions. This was the central issue for the post-2012 negotiations to resolve and the key negotiating priority of the Rudd government. The thesis undertakes its assessment by utilising the concept of good international citizenship – a foreign policy goal first espoused in Australia by former Labor Foreign Minister, Gareth Evans, in the late 1980s – and later endorsed by the Rudd government. While there is no agreed definition of good international citizenship, essentially it requires states to adopt a more ethical approach to foreign policy. This means that states must forego the dogged pursuit of narrow national interests, recognising that they have a responsibility to promote the common good of the international community, not just self-interest. The concept is associated with a number of attributes such as showing respect for international law and providing leadership in the international sphere. The ramifications of good international citizenship for governmental engagement with ICCL have received little attention in the literature, and thus this thesis explores the practical requirements of the concept in this field.