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1
Bezrukov, L. A., A. N. Fartyshev, and S. Enkh-Amgalan. "Export transportability of Mongolia and Russia-Mongolia relations in the commodity markets." IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 885, no. 1 (October 1, 2021): 012006. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/885/1/012006.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Abstract The commodity and geographical structure of Mongolia’s exports, dynamics and features of Mongolia’s foreign trade with Russia are considered. The tendency of weakening of foreign trade interaction of Mongolia with the Eastern regions of Russia is revealed. Using the original author’s method, an assessment of the distribution of Mongolian export goods was carried out, taking into account their transportability in sales markets and areas of remoteness. A pattern has been revealed for the export of low-transportable mineral raw materials, which is almost exclusively directed to neighbouring countries, mainly to China, while more expensive types of Mongolian products (wool, yarn, clothing, gold, etc.) are exported to distant countries. It has been established that the value of Mongolian exports for a number of mineral and raw materials exceeds the Russia’s and have strong growth prospects. The conclusion is drawn that the competition between exporters of Mongolia and the Eastern regions of Russia for foreign markets of mineral commodities, primarily for the Chinese market, will intensify in the near future.
2
Kumar, Subhash, and Souvik Chatterjee. "Mongolia’s assertive and pragmatic role in India’s Connect Central Asia Policy: Current trajectory and Future Ahead." Journal of Political Issues 3, no. 1 (July 31, 2021): 28–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.33019/jpi.v3i1.61.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Mongolia’s uniqueness and importance in contemporary world politics lie in its geographical situating, demography, and economy. Geographically landlocked and situated in the Eurasian intersection, Mongolia has the lowest population density of any sovereign country on the planet. Sandwiched among Russia and China Mongolia's harsh environment limit its economic interests. However, Mongolia's geostrategic position, unexplored energy assets, and democratic governance have expanded its importance in global politics. Because of such Mongolia holds a key position in India's Act East and Connect Central Policy to counter China's expansionist policies in North-East Asia. With regards to India-Mongolia relations, the two nations share a rich historical legacy. Tibetan Buddhism the most prevailing religion in Mongolia makes social linkages, Democracy solidified further connections between India and Mongolia. Because of these old and profoundly established linkages, India-Mongolia are 'spiritual neighbors'. However, China still has an overreaching control over Mongolia’s trade, commerce, and other sectors. China also dominates intra-regional trade in North-East Asia. Under India’s Connect Central Asia India attempts to counter Chinese encirclement by delving into close strategic, economic, and energy relations with China's neighbors like Mongolia and CAS. However, the achievement or failure of India's Connect Asia Policy will depend upon India's political as well as its diplomatic will to transform India's interest in regional integration in reality.
3
Park, Ji-bae. "The Spathari Delegation’s Visits to China and the Formation of Russo-Chinese Contact Lines in 1675-1676." Institute of History and Culture Hankuk University of Foreign Studies 82 (May 31, 2022): 57–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.18347/hufshis.2022.82.57.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The purpose of this paper is to understand the meaning of the new line of contact between Russia and Ch’ing created by the Spathari delegation by examining the its preparation process and the travel route and analyzing it in the change of the Russia-Mongolia relations.
The two tasks of the Spathari delegation were first to establish regular diplomatic and trade relations with Q’ing and then to find a more convenient transportation route for diplomatic envoys and trade caravans to and from China.
The mission to establish stable diplomatic relations failed due to internal circumstances in the Qing Dynasty. However, Spathari was the first official ambassador of the Russian tsar to have an audience with the Qing emperor.
To this end, both sides of Russia and Q’ing made concessions, namely that Q’ing government gave special treatment to the Russian tsar's official documents, and Spathari performed a kowtow instead. In this way, the Russian ambassador could have an audience with the Qing emperor. The fact that ambassador plenipotentiary of the Russian tsar, meets the emperor through official procedures means a direct meeting between the two countries. This marks the formation of the first direct line of contact between Russia and Ching diplomatically.
The mission to explore traffic routes to China was successful in that the Spathari delegation created a new travel route between the two countries that did not pass through Mongolia. Previously, when Russia passed through Mongolian territory and went to and from China under the guidance of the Mongols, the Russians had no choice but to recognize China through the Mongols and to move according to Mongols’ intentions. But now, if necessary, the possibility of reaching Beijing directly without the permission of Mongolia has been opened, regardless of the situation in Mongolia. Geographically, it can be evaluated that Russia and China have established a direct line of contact.
4
Sanders, Alan J. K. "Mongolia: All Quiet on the Western Front." Inner Asia 16, no. 2 (December 10, 2014): 443–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/22105018-12340028.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Alicia Campi and her Mongolian co-author Baasan reconstruct a largely unknown historical record indicating that relations between Mongolia and the u.s. might have been established a century ago, had opportunities not been missed and the ‘China question’ not predominated. Ambassador Jonathan Addleton provides an account of the official establishment of u.s.-Mongolian diplomatic relations in January 1987, as perestroika was already eating away at the foundations of the first ‘people’s republic’, and shows how freedom and democracy have flourished there in the era of globalisation. Dierkes and his contributors indicate some of the challenges Mongolians face in adapting the traditional and the modern to their new society.
5
Yakushev, S. "Mongolia in Modern System of International Relations." World Economy and International Relations, no. 8 (2010): 109–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.20542/0131-2227-2010-8-109-115.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The geographical position of Mongolia between two largest Eurasian states – Russia and China – predetermined the choice of its foreign policy priorities. On the author's opinion, the key difference of Mongolian government's new state policy in the international relations field is a multi-vector course, commitment not only to Russia (as in previous years), but also to China, as well as promotion of cooperation with other developed and high powered countries – the USA and Japan.
6
Kuras, Leonid V., та Bazar D. Tsybenov. "От Уполномоченного императорского российского правительства в Монголии И. Я. Коростовца до Уполномоченного НКИД РСФСР в Монголии О. И. Макстенека: к 100-летию российско-монгольских дипломатических отношений". Монголоведение (Монгол судлал) 13, № 2 (30 листопада 2021): 351–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.22162/2500-1523-2021-2-351-365.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Introduction. An urgent issue of Mongolian studies today is the role of Russian-Mongolian diplomatic relations in promoting the statehood of Mongolia in the first quarter of the twentieth century. The revolutionalry movement in Inner Asia, in particular, and the social-political history of modern Mongolia, in general, are closely associated with the efforts of Russian diplomacy and, especially, with a number of diplomats who greatly contributed to the promotion of Mongolian direction of the Russian politics in the East. The aim of the present article is the study of the activities of Russian diplomats, namely I. Ya. Korostovets, the Plenipotentiary of the Imperial Russian Government in Mongolia, and O. I. Makstenek, the Representative of the People’s Commissariat of Foreign Affairs of the RSFSR in Mongolia. Accordingly, the research has been conducted along the following lines: i) history of the issue, ii) examination of 1912 Russian-Mongolian agreement, iii) description of the events in Outer Mongolia between 1917 and 1920, and iv) analysis of Makstenek’s report as a source on the history of Mongolian Revolution of 1921 and the Soviet-Chinese relations. Conclusions.Both Korostovets, on behalf of the Russian Imperial Government, and Makstenek, on behalf of the RSFSR, played a significant role in establishing the regional system of international relations in the Baikal region. The 1912 Russian-Mongolian Agreement, which was in fact the result of Korostovets’ efforts, was instrumental in promoting Mongolia as a subject of international law and in initiating the movement of Mongolians to their de facto and de jure independence from China. Makstenek’s report shows much effort the Soviet diplomat took in preparing the Mongolian Revolution of 1921. Besides receiving and delegating Mongolian revolutionaries to Soviet Russia, taking an active part in preparations to the First Congress of the Mongolian People’s Revolutionary Party and in the formation of military detachments of Mongolian People’s Revolutionary Army, Makstenek conducted negotiations with the Chinese authorities in Urga and Maimachen, i.e. in fact initiated the diplomatic proceedings designed to prepare the presence of Soviet troops in Mongolia.
7
Batbayar, Tsedendamba. "MONGOLIAN-RUSSIAN RELATIONS IN THE PAST DECADE." Asian Survey 43, no. 6 (November 1, 2003): 951–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/as.2003.43.6.951.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Abstract Because of its location between Russia and China, today, as in the past, Mongolia is likely to be of strategic importance to Russia. Due to its own weakened position, Moscow favors Mongolia's adopting a neutral posture vis-àà-vis its two giant neighbors. This article analyzes the evolution of Moscow's policy toward Mongolia in the 1990s. Russian policy went through three stages: a breakdown of bilateral relations, stagnation, and revival of bilateral relations. Russian interests in Mongolia include both political-strategic and trade and economic aspects.
8
Makarov, Aleksandr. "China — Mongolia — Russia Economic Corridor Program: Problems and Prospects for Implementation." Problemy dalnego vostoka, no. 4 (2021): 84. http://dx.doi.org/10.31857/s013128120015640-5.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The 100-th anniversary of the establishment of diplomatic relations between Russia and Mongolia, which the two neighboring countries will celebrate on November 5, 2021, gives a serious reason to assess the current state of bilateral cooperation, existing problems and prospects for its development. In recent years, the issues of intensification of Russian-Mongolian relations have been considered in the context of the trilateral «Program for the creation of the China-Mongolia-Russia economic corridor». Despite the lack of concrete results within the framework of this program, the implementation of a number of infrastructure projects is being prepared, which will seriously strengthen the economic base of cooperation between Russia and Mongolia and China. The paper analyzes the problematic issues of the implementation of plans for the development of transport and energy infrastructure through Mongolia, which are considered as the basis for trilateral cooperation. Particular attention is paid to plans for the development of the railway network. The promising directions for the development of cross-border infrastructure in the framework of the program for the creation of the Mongolian corridor are identified.
9
Namsaraeva, Sayana. "Border Language." Inner Asia 16, no. 1 (August 19, 2014): 116–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/22105018-12340006.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The conceptual framework of this paper is to view Mongolia as a ‘contact zone’ which geographically bridged the gap between two rapidly growing Eurasian empires—Russia and China. It allows a rethinking of the historical and social circumstances that led to the formation of Chinese Pidgin Russian (cpr)1 by highlighting the lexical and grammatical influence of the Mongolian language on contact languages in the China–Russia border area. In particular, it discusses Mongolian language in various encounters in Russian–Chinese interactions, such as the use of Mongolian as mediation language during the initial stage of Qing–Russian diplomatic relations and aslingua francain caravan trade and border relations between Russia and China, as well as its influence on the formation of Transbaikal dialect (orZabaikal’skoe narechie), which was widely spoken by Russians in Mongol-speaking colonial frontiers of Russia in Eastern Siberia. Moreover, the paper highlights the Mongolian elements in the firstcpr, questioning a common scholarly perception that Kiakhta (or Maimacheng)2 pidgin consisted primarily of Russian and Chinese borrowings. Therefore, unique language hybridisation of these three languages continues to be noticeable in Russia–China trade hubs in Inner Mongolia nowadays, where transborder ethnic and economic contacts between Russia, China and Mongolia are becoming more complicated and diverse.
10
Sukhodolov, Yakov, Avirmed Davaasuren, and Alexei Manzhigeev. "Contemporary Peculiarities and Prospects for the Development of Russian Foreign Trade Cooperation with Mongolia." Bulletin of Baikal State University 28, no. 4 (December 27, 2018): 632–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.17150/2500-2759.2018.28(4).632-639.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Russia attaches great importance to the development of cooperation with the Asia-Pacific region, which is one of the centers of world economic development. These countries include Mongolia. Russian-Mongolian relations are based on a long-term history of good neighborly relations and traditionally have a multidimensional nature. The article discusses the main aspects of Russian-Mongolian foreign trade relations based on the analysis of the dynamics of foreign trade turnover in bilateral trade and commodity structure. Currently, there is a decline in foreign trade cooperation between the countries. The article also touches upon the monostructural nature of trade between the two countries, which is very vulnerable. The national interests of Russia and Mongolia in the Russia - Mongolia - China triangle are acquiring special relevance and importance in modern conditions. The intensification of trade, economic and investment relations between Russia and Mongolia is possible through the implementation of joint projects in the mining and processing industries, modernization of infrastructure and development of tourism.
11
Li, Xiaona. "Priority vectors in China-Mongolia relations in the beginning of the XXI century." Международные отношения, no. 4 (April 2020): 11–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.7256/2454-0641.2020.4.34157.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
This article is dedicated to determination of priority vectors in China-Mongolia relations in the early XXI century. Special role is assigned to cooperation in the political, economic and humanitarian spheres. A number of criteria that allow speaking of the level of intergovernmental relations in each indicated sphere is reviewed. For assessing political cooperation, the author considered the conceptual approaches of the PRC and Mongolia towards bilateral diplomacy. In this context, analysis was conducted on Mongolia's Third Neighbor Policy and China’s Partnership Diplomacy Strategy. The article explores the interaction of China and Mongolia on the global, regional and bilateral levels. In economic regard, the assessment of cooperation of the two countries was carried out on the basis of mutual trade turnover and the volume of foreign direct investment. In the humanitarian context of bilateral cooperation, the author studied the intensity of mutual tourism flows, student and academic exchanges. The analysis was performed within the framework of neorealist paradigm, in the categories of systemic approach for viewing China-Mongolia relations as a unified system consisting of three subsystems. The author's special contribution consists in the attempt to assess bilateral cooperation between China and Mongolia in the early XXI century, with consideration of the impact of the ongoing transformations within the system of international relations on the regional level. The conclusion is made that despite a number of threats that stem from PRC’s proactive policy in Eurasia, as well as the objective dissonance in socioeconomic development of the two countries, the cooperation in the indicated areas in the early XXI century few has been developing steadily. In the twenty-first century. It had a positive impact upon China-Mongolia relations overall.
12
Rodionov, Vladimir. "Foreign Policy of President Kh. Battulga (2017-2020)." Mongolian Journal of International Affairs 21 (December 11, 2020): 91–100. http://dx.doi.org/10.5564/mjia.v21i0.1436.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Mongolia located between Russia and China has been the object of close attention not only for its geographic neighbors, but also for non-regional states called as “third neighbor”. That’s why Mongolian foreign policy has traditionally been an important part of its development strategy. One of the main roles in the process of determining Mongolia’s foreign policy strategy belongs to the President. Democratic Party candidate Kh. Battulga won at the Presidential elections in 2017. All his steps in the field of foreign policy can be divided into three main areas. Firstly, the President of Mongolia has established himself as a supporter of improving relations with Russia, primarily through intensifying trade and economic cooperation and active personal diplomacy towards the Russian side. Secondly, Kh. Battulga demonstrated diplomacy in the Chinese direction though he had difficult time to build cooperation with the southern neighbor of Mongolia due to his election campaign criticizing China. . . Thirdly, Kh. Battulga made some changes in the strategy of relations with the “third neighbor”. For example, he rejected an active participation in some global international events and stayed indifferent to the idea of “permanent neutrality” of Mongolia. Perhaps the most serious foreign policy initiative of the new President of Mongolia was the idea of joining the Shanghai Cooperation Organization as a permanent member. This idea has caused serious political discussions in the country, dividing the expert network into supporters and opponents of the President’s initiative. However, despite certain changes in Mongolia’s foreign policy under the President Battulga, it is difficult to state a radical turn in the foreign policy strategy. Due to political and legal reasons, as well as the external conditions of social and economic development of Mongolia, the President is not able to change the main foundations and principles of foreign policy of the state formed in the post-socialist period. Meanwhile it could be admitted that in Mongolia’s foreign policy the rationality based on the ideological solidarity (“commonwealth of democracies”) is gradually giving way to the rationality of a geographical contiguity and economic pragmatism.
13
Namzhilova, Viktoriya O. "Infrastructure landscape in the transborder region of Russia, Mongolia and China: Transformations and landmarks." Asia and Africa Today, no. 11 (2022): 13. http://dx.doi.org/10.31857/s032150750020155-2.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The article discusses ongoing and expected changes in the infrastructure landscape in the zone of the China - Mongolia - Russia economic corridor. Ensuring infrastructure connectivity is becoming a common task for the three countries in order to competitively integrate into the world’s logistics routes. The author analyzes the factors influencing the intensification of cross-border interactions, highlighting the general trend of growing demand on land transportation in Eurasia, as well as mining freight movement of raw material resources from Mongolia to China. The transit capabilities of the railway and road infrastructure are assessed, the features of cargo flow through border checkpoints are studied. Consistent implementation of Mongolia’s ambitious plans of railway construction changes the cross-border infrastructure, especially on the China’s border. It is noted that the construction of railways was forced by the Mongolian government with the spread of the COVID-19 pandemic: severe restrictions and border control measures on truck transport significantly affected the operating of border crossings and foreign economic relations of Mongolia as a whole. In order to expand the export of mineral raw materials, it is planned to open four railway border crossings on the Mongolian-Chinese border: Gashuunsukhait - Gantsmod, Shiveekhuren - Sehe, Bichigt - Zun-Khatavch, Khangi - Mandal. Establishing the effective functioning of the cross-border transport and logistics infrastructure is becoming a strategic priority of the Mongolian economic policy. For Russia, there is a need to develop foreign trade infrastructure in the border regions, especially in the new geopolitical realities.
14
Luzyanin, Sergey G. "Russia – Mongolia – China: Historical and Contemporary Transformations." Vostok. Afro-aziatskie obshchestva: istoriia i sovremennost, no. 5 (2021): 141. http://dx.doi.org/10.31857/s086919080016633-3.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The history of the expansion of “Russian Asia” in the 17th – 19th centuries is associated with the formation of a transboundary space that has absorbed migration flows and energy of Russian (Orthodox), Mongolian (Buddhist-nomadic) and Chinese (Taoist-Confucian) civilizations. The Russians were mentally and politically perceived by the Mongol elite as saviors. In the 19th– early 20th centuries Mongolia, turned into the Mongolian People’s Republic, which was under the formal suzerainty of China. International legal “inconsistencies” in the status of the MPR were eliminated by the decisions of the Yalta Conference of the Allies (February 1945), the Mongolian referendum followed by the recognition of its results by Chiang Kai-shek in 1946. The triangle “USSR – MPR – China” acquired a complete form with full international legal registration. The post-Soviet outlines were largely determined by the signing in 1993 of the Russian-Mongolian and in 1994 the Mongolian-Chinese Treaties of Friendship and Cooperation, the emergence of a “third neighbor”, the strengthening of China on trade and investment platforms. The signing in 2019 of the Russian-Mongolian Treaty on Friendly Relations and Comprehensive Strategic Partnership has politically strengthened the Russian-Mongolian vector, strengthening the overall strategic foundation of the triangle. The Mongolian sector, in terms of increasing China’s economic share and its influence in general, remains the “weak link” of the tripartite structure. The article analyzes the historical and modern realities of the interactions of the three states, the Russian and Chinese components, their political, financial and economic dimensions, the strengths and weaknesses of bilateral relations in the triangle.
15
Rossabi, Morris. "Mongolia in 2020." Asian Survey 61, no. 1 (January 2021): 43–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/as.2021.61.1.43.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Mongolia in 2020 recorded no COVID-19 deaths, despite its proximity to China, the original hotbed of the outbreak. Yet GDP and exports decreased and unemployment, poverty, crime, and domestic abuse rose, in large part due to the disease. Facing desertification, climate change, overgrazing, and mining damage to pastureland, herders who could not eke out a living continued to migrate to Ulaanbaatar, the capital city, and lived in tents, with no running water and poor sanitation. Elections for the Parliament were held, with the Mongolian People’s Party dominating, but corruption and accusations of money laundering prompted a lack of faith in the government. On the other hand, Mongolia maintained cordial relations with China and Russia, its neighbors, as well as with distant countries.
16
BRIDGES, BRIAN. "‘An Ambiguous Area’: Mongolia in Soviet-Japanese relations in the mid-1930s." Modern Asian Studies 54, no. 3 (August 6, 2019): 730–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0026749x1800015x.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
AbstractThe Mongolian People's Republic (MPR) became the focus of intense competition between the Soviet Union and Japan in the 1930s, when it was more commonly known as Outer Mongolia. The Soviet Union viewed the MPR as an ideological and strategic ally, and was determined to defend that state against the increasingly adventurist actions of the Japanese military based in northern China. Japanese ambitions to solve the so-called ‘Manmo’ (Manchuria-Mongolia) problem led the Soviets to initiate ever-closer links with the MPR, culminating in the 1936 pact of mutual assistance which was intended to constrain Japanese pressure. Using unpublished Japanese materials as well as Russian and Mongolian sources, this article demonstrates how the Soviet leadership increasingly viewed the MPR as strategically crucial to the defence of the Soviet Far East.
17
Namzhilova, Victoria. "The Importance of Border Checkpoints of Goods of Inner Mongolia for the Development of Cross-Border Relations of Peoples Republic of China." Russian and Chinese Studies 5, no. 3 (December 29, 2021): 179–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.17150/2587-7445.2021.5(3).179-184.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The article considers the system of operating border checkpoints of a large region in the north of China - the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region. The author emphasizes the growing importance of the Manchuria and Erlian land checkpoints, through which not only the whole variety of goods of Russian-Chinese and Chinese-Mongolian trade passes, but also international transit is provided. The remaining checkpoints, on the contrary, acquire a narrow specialization or have local significance for border territories. The development of border checkpoints, such as Sehe, Ganzmod and Mandal, is associated exclusively with the development of mineral deposits in the south of Mongolia and their subsequent export to China. In the context of a pandemic, the countries are forced to strengthen the barrier function of borders by tightening quarantine measures, which affects directly the operation of border checkpoints. The information provided on the border points of Inner Mongolia can become the basis for analyzing China’s opportunities to develop trade cooperation across the borders of Inner Mongolia.
18
Khereid Jamsran, Urangua, and Polyanskayа Oksana N. "Chinese Workers in the History of the Mongolian People’s Republic in the 1950s–1960s: Cooperation, Politics, Ideology." Humanitarian Vector 16, no. 6 (December 2021): 8–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.21209/1996-7853-2021-16-6-8-19.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The article is devoted to one of the historic periods of Mongolia of the 20th century, when the Mongolian People’s Republic built the foundations of a socialist society, and key modernization processes took place with the support of the Soviet Union. The economic component of Soviet-Mongolian relations was dominant at that time. However, the assistance from the People’s Republic of China played a definitely important role in the economic development and formation of modern Mongolian society. Labour constraint was one of the main difficulties in promoting industrial economy in Mongolia. The study of the Mongolian-Chinese economic cooperation is also relevant today, despite the influence of the “third force” in Mongolia’s foreign policy. Russian and Chinese directions are in priority. In this regard, it is important to refer to the experience accumulated by countries in the field of economic interaction, which determined the purpose of the publication ‒ to study one of the aspects of Mongolian-Chinese cooperation in the 1950s and early 1960s, namely, the employment of Chinese labour in Mongolia based on a rich source base, including both the published documents and documents from the National Archives of Mongolia, as well as historical works by Russian and Mongolian authors, and to consider such issues as the role of foreign labour, in particular, Chinese workforce in the industrialization of Mongolia, traffic of foreign workers into the Mongolian People’s Republic, and then their family members, the employment of Chinese workers, ideological and cultural events organized by party officials of the Chinese Communist Party. The research methodology is specified by the principles of scientific objectivity, historicism and historical determinism. The work uses both universal scientific methods and special methods of historical research determined by the formulated problem and includes problem-chronological method, comparative analysis method, and systemic method. The study revealed that the employment of workers from the PRC in Mongolia took place within the framework of the diplomatic relations established in 1949 and based on the agreements reached in 1956, 1958 and 1960 in respect of providing economic and technical assistance. It was emphasized that Chinese workers became an integral part of the changing Mongolian society for almost a decade, from 1955 to 1964. The Mongolian side fulfilling bilateral agreements on the working conditions of Chinese employees opened schools for Chinese children, created additional medical centers where Chinese doctors worked, and so on; all this introduced some adjustments to the everyday life of Mongolian society in the mid-20th century. Today, the process of rethinking, re-evaluating the path traversed by Mongolia throughout the 20th century continues, the external conditions of the Mongolian People’s Republic are being revised, so a detailed reference to its history can contribute to the formation of a more objective approach to this process.
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Aktamov, I. G. "Education as an Instrument of Russian “Soft Power” in Russian-Mongolian Relations at the End of XX - Beginning of XXI Centuries." Nauchnyy Dialog, no. 4 (April 30, 2020): 221–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.24224/2227-1295-2020-4-221-237.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The article is devoted to the analysis of the development of cooperation in the field of education between Russia and Mongolia in recent history. The transformation of bilateral ties in the educational sphere under the influence of various factors is discussed in the study. Attention is paid to the prerequisites for reducing the intensity of bilateral contacts, as well as the implementation of specific projects that, to one degree or another, stimulate the growth of academic mobility. It is shown that the historical processes of the late twentieth century in Mongolia had an impact on the cooling of relations between countries. It is noted that in the 2000s, Mongolian-Chinese relations, including in the humanitarian sphere were intensified. It is affirmed that China’s “soft power” in the form of various kinds of programs for young people is systemic and influences the formation of public consciousness in relation to the “southern neighbour”. The author considers it necessary to recognize that, for objective reasons, Russia is inferior to China in the field of humanitarian projects. At the same time, the benevolent attitude towards the Russians and to Russia as a whole on the part of the population of Mongolia, especially the older generation is noted. The relevance of the study is to identify trends, factors that determine the nature of the mutual influence of Russia and Mongolia in the field of education in the latest period of historical development. The nature of the interaction of Mongolia and the regions of Russia and their role in the development of bilateral relations are analyzed.
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Rodionov, Vladimir A. "«Мягкая сила» малых стран: опыт Монголии". Oriental studies 15, № 2 (15 липня 2022): 228–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.22162/2619-0990-2021-60-2-228-243.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Introduction. The experience of recent decades shows small countries — though characterized by relatively limited foreign policy capacity — can defend their interests through ‘soft power’. Being obviously inferior to greater powers in military, political and economic aspects, small countries seek to compensate for their vulnerability with softer methods of influence. Nowadays, Mongolia is a classic case of a small country under the influence of such great powers as Russia, China, and the United States to successfully employ soft power tools. Goals. The article aims to identify where and how Mongolia uses soft power in its foreign policy. Materials and methods. The study primarily explores Mongolia’s official documents dealing with its national security and foreign policy, international initiatives of Ulaanbaatar, statements of Mongolian executives on relations with foreign partners, media materials. The employed research methods include the comparative, narrative, and retrospective ones. Results. There are three most promising lines for soft power in contemporary Mongolia’s foreign policy. The first one is that the country presents itself as a successful young democracy in the heart of Asia capable of becoming a model for a number of other small countries in the region. The second one is the policy of de facto neutrality manifested in refusal to deploy nuclear weapons and foreign military bases in Mongolian territory, as well as the active participation in UN peacekeeping operations. Finally, the third soft power line (to be perceived as one) is Ulaanbaatar’s active promotion of its mediation role to resolve urgent problems localized in Northeast Asia. Maintaining friendly relations with virtually all Northeast Asian states, Mongolia seeks to become a platform for international negotiations similar to that of Switzerland. Conclusions. Thus, soft power for Ulaanbaatar is an important two-sided tool supposed, firstly, to accelerate international influence and, secondly, to ensure national security and sovereignty.
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Demberel, K. "POTENTIAL POSSIBILITIES OF KHALKHIN-GOL REGION IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF INTERNATIONAL TOURISM." Transbaikal State University Journal 27, no. 1 (2021): 43–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.21209/2227-9245-2021-27-1-43-51.
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The relevance is primarily due to the fact that the development of trans-border territories is becoming an important tool for successful regional cooperation between Mongolia and its neighbouring countries. In these circumstances, it is necessary to study and understand the functions and mechanisms of cross-border cooperation, which will reveal the difficulties that exist there today. Within the framework of trilateral cooperation, including in the field of economic relations, our states attention to the development of border areas naturally increases. The object of the study is the cross-border tourism cooperation between Mongolia, the Russian Federation, and the People’s Republic of China. The article is devoted to the analysis of mongolian-russian-chinese relations at the present time. The subject is about the ways, forms and mechanisms of regional tourism cooperation between the three countries, as well as the factors that hinder this process. The purpose and objectives of the article is to analyze the main directions of cross-border cooperation between Mongolia, Russia and China in the trade, economic and tourism sector on the example of the border areas of our countries; to show what opportunities we have that we are losing and the challenges that border regions to interact in a more effective and mutually beneficial. There have been used general scientific empirical and theoretical research methods. The usage of a comparative-functional, systematic approach, modeling and a logical method encourages to identify the essential and substantive elements of the regional cooperation of the Mongolia, Russian Federation and China. The Chinese side is more business like about this problem, the Mongolian side is only in the study stage, and the Russian side has not yet shown any initiative. Research shows that Chinese tourists are interested in visiting the Mongolian steppe and to Russia. This research shows that Chinese tourists are interested in exploring/seeing Russia and Mongolian steppe. Therefore, Khalkhgol somon is a region that can develop cross-border tourism within the framework of the “One Region-One Road” project of the People’s Republic of China. This study shows that there is an opportunity to turn this region into a cross-border tourism region involving certain entities from the three countries
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Bezrukov, L., and A. Fartyshev. "Features of Mongolian Foreign Trade: Risks for Russia." World Economy and International Relations 66, no. 3 (2022): 101–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.20542/0131-2227-2022-66-3-101-109.
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The dynamics of Mongolia’s foreign trade over the past three decades and its leading role in the country’s economic growth are revealed. In the context of a narrow specialization in the mining industry, the growth of the Mongolian economy is strongly dependent on the export of mineral raw materials, which overwhelmingly dominate in the structure of total exports. The overwhelming majority of these cargoes go to China, whose share in Mongolia’s foreign trade turnover is growing steadily since the early 1990s, while the same one of Russia is falling. The role of Siberia and the Far East in cooperation with Mongolia sharply decreased. It has been established that the values of Mongolian exports of fluorspar, molybdenum and copper ores and concentrates exceed Russian ones, and Mongolian export of zinc and tungsten ores and concentrates, iron ore and coal are not so significantly inferior. Comparison of the prospects for increasing exports of Mongolia’s key foreign trade goods – coal and copper concentrate – with the corresponding capabilities of the eastern regions of Russia indicates an aggravation in the near future of competition between Mongolian and Russian mineral commodities for foreign markets, primarily for the Chinese. Considering this, Russia loses to Mongolia due to a much longer and, accordingly, costly output of mineral raw materials to foreign markets. Measures are proposed to reduce the risks of competition between Mongolian and Russian mineral commodities on foreign markets and to intensify their trade and economic cooperation, that includes the following: the restoration of traditional foreign trade relations, the creation of international transport corridors and the construction of new railway lines, an increase in the depth of processing of mineral raw materials, the implementation of joint large-scale projects.
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Mavidkhaan Baasandulam. "“ECONOMIC BELT OF THE SILK ROAD”: NEW OPPORTUNITIES AND PROSPECTS FOR MONGOLIA." International Journal of Innovative Technologies in Economy, no. 6(26) (November 30, 2019): 26–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.31435/rsglobal_ijite/30112019/6797.
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Earth is continents, seas, the developing countries, the developed countries, the centers and the borders is the One Belt-One Road initiative. On the other hand, the Sea “Silk Road” is called the “Economic Belt of the Silk Road” as a way of “New Belt and Road” for China's new long-term development strategy. "Silk Road" refers to the ancient land-based commercial trade route that originated in ancient China and connected to Asia, Africa and Europe.In order to benefit from the “Economic Belt of the Silk Road” initiative, China has partnered with other Asian countries and created two important financial development institutions, the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank and the Silk Road Fund.The main objective of the initiative is to create an Eurasian trade economic integration space and cross-border transport corridors, that is, to strengthen the links between government policies and national development strategies along the route, promote international cooperation, and promote the development of joint ventures. For this purpose, the following tasks have been set: 1. Development of regional economic integration method; 2. Create an integrated transportation design for Asian transportation, connect communication networks, and develop pipeline systems; 3. Switch back to investment and trade barriers and create a good investment environment; 4.Strengthen national currency; 5.Deepening cooperation in the humanitarian field; 6.Expanding China's exports and domestic power growth will be concentrated in the western provinces (steel, lead, photovoltaic equipment, wind turbines).The “One Belt and One Road” is a new starting point for China-global relations and human development. Utilize the geographical advantages of Mongolia, China and Russia to increase cross-border trade between Mongolia, Russia and China, creating opportunities for logistics and transportation. China is one of the Mongolia's largest sources of foreign direct investment and is seen as a huge market for Mongolia to provide services and products.Mongolia hopes to unite its “Steppe Road” initiative with China’s “One Belt and One Road” initiative. The goal of the “Steppe Road” initiative aims to expand the Mongolian economy through cross-border transportation, strengthen the road line connecting Russia and China, transform and extend the current railway line in Mongolia, and build oil and gas between Russia and China. The pipeline improves the infrastructure of Mongolia. Mongolia and other Asian countries are actively participating in the “One Belt and One Road” initiative implemented in China to reduce risks and threats and gain new opportunities and advantages in regional cooperation.
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Rossabi, Morris. "Mongolia in 2019." Asian Survey 60, no. 1 (January 2020): 41–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/as.2020.60.1.41.
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In 2019, Mongolia sought to recover from a scandal over corruption that reached the highest levels of government. An ineffective Anti-Corruption Agency, as well as poverty and environmental degradation, plagued the economy. In contrast, Mongolia bolstered economic and diplomatic relations with Russia, China, Japan, and the West.
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Boldyreva, O. N., and Wang Xia. "ANALYSIS OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE CHINESE EMPEROR KANGXI AND THE DZUNGAR KHAN GALDAN DURING THE DZUNGAR-CHINESE WAR OF 1690-1697." Bulletin of Udmurt University. Series History and Philology 29, no. 4 (August 25, 2019): 650–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.35634/2412-9534-2019-29-4-650-655.
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The study of the history of the Dzungar khanate is of particular interest to world and national Orientalism. Problems of formation, activity and decline of this state in the XVII-XVIII centuries were studied at different times by Orientalists from Russia, China, Mongolia, Kazakhstan and other countries. And now the history of the Dzungar khanate is an important aspect of Oriental studies, especially in studies on the history of Central Asia. The relevance of the article is due to the extreme interest in Oriental studies in modern science, namely in Central Asia. For centuries, the Kalmyk khanate had relations with China, Dzungaria, Kazakh zhuzes. The khanate established friendly relations with some states, and with others, despite the zeal to find a mutually beneficial solution, contact could not be established. Almost all of this was influenced not by the Kalmyk khanate itself, but by the relations of other states together, for example, China and Dzungaria. The subject of study in this article is the Dzungar-Chinese relations at the end of the XVII century. These relations are described in the book of the Chinese author of Mongolian origin Altan-Ochir “A brief history of Oirat-Mongols”. The authors of the article tried to reconstruct the picture of the events of that time with the help of translation and make short conclusions.
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Khishigt, N., L. V. Kuras, and B. D. Tsybenov. "Autonomous Mongolia and Revolutionary Russia: On the Policy of Soviet Russia Towards Mongolia in 1917–1920 (To the 100th Anniversary of the Mongolian Revolution of 1921)." Bulletin of Irkutsk State University. Series History 37 (2021): 76–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.26516/2222-9124.2021.37.76.
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The article is devoted to the evolution of the policy of the Soviet Russia on the issue of Mongolia. The period under study begins with the attempts of Soviet Russia to establish relations with Mongolia in 1917–1918. The authors analyzed in detail the revolutionary aspect of Russian politics in Mongolia. In particular, the article studied the activities of the Section of Eastern Peoples of the Siberian Bureau of the RCP (b) and its structural unit – the Mongol- Tibetan department in 1919–1920. The Communist International in 1919–1920 gave preference to the development of the revolutionary movement in China and therefore the People's Revolutionary Party of Mongolia had to establish a close connection with the political trend in China. Thus, the documents of the Communist International emphasized the motive of the unity of interests of the working masses of China and Mongolia. The activity of the Mongol- Tibetan department was directed only to Mongolia, Tibet was not considered as the nearest object of the world socialist revolution.
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Waters, Hedwig Amelia. "‘Doing It for Life’ — On the Moral Evaluation of Chinese Trade in Eastern Mongolia." Oriental Studies 13, no. 4 (December 25, 2020): 1012–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.22162/2619-0990-2020-50-4-1012-1017.
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The study focuses on the informal resource trade between Mongolians living in the far eastern region of Mongolia on the border with China and Chinese citizens (Inner Mongolians and Han Chinese). The cross-border relations between these nations are understandably maintained because of the economic opportunities they provide to citizens on both sides of the border. The article is based on the results of fieldwork held in 2015–2017 in eastern Mongolia. Although all the Mongolians living on the border are involved in informal resource trade with Chinese citizens, they feel apprehension about the morality of these relationships. The moral evaluation and justification that the local Mongolians use to explain these economic interactions is built upon the important distinction between trade ‘for subsistence’ and trade ‘for profit’ where trade ‘for subsistence’ is considered largely moral, whereas trade ‘for profit’ is denigrated as ‘selfish’ behavior.
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Grayvoronskiy, Vladimir V. "Монголоведение в Институте востоковедения РАН: современное состояние и перспективы". Oriental Studies 13, № 4 (25 грудня 2020): 927–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.22162/2619-0990-2020-50-4-927-940.
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Introduction. The paper briefly reviews the current state and prospects of Mongolian studies at the Institute of Oriental Studies (RAS) that celebrated its 200th anniversary in 2018. The Institute maintains and strengthens its positions as a leading national and global research center for Oriental studies. Goals. The study attempts at summarizing the Institute’s 2010–2020 experiences in developing Mongolian studies as a traditional branch of Russia’s Oriental studies, characterizing the present state and development prospects with due regard of actual achievements, challenges, and problems. Materials and Methods. The work analyzes scholarly publications authored by associates of the Mongolian Studies Unit (Department of Korean and Mongolian Studies) and other departments of the Institute in 2010–2020, including operating archives ― through the use of historical, chronological, descriptive, analytical and other methods. Results. The study shows that despite a number of objective and subjective difficulties, associates of the Institute keep developing Mongolian studies exploring some topical and understudied issues of ancient, medieval, modern, and contemporary Mongolia; providing comprehensive insights into present-day political, socioeconomic, and cultural frameworks of Mongolia proper and Russia-Mongolia relations. Still, the Institute ― and specifically the Mongolian Studies Unit ― experiences a critical shortage of qualified young Mongolists, and if the problem remains unsolved respective research perspectives should encourage no optimism. The number of highly experienced Mongolists and Orientalists that conduct research activities on a range of Mongolia-related issues (history, historiography, source studies, discoveries and publications of new sources, written monuments and archives, philology, etc.) affiliated thereto is small enough. The former publish their scholarly works and actively cooperate with colleagues from similar scientific and educational organizations of Moscow, St. Petersburg, Irkutsk, Ulan-Ude, Elista, Kyzyl, Vladivostok and other Russian cities; establish relations with foreign humanities research centers of Mongolia, China, Japan, the United States, Great Britain, Germany, France, etc. Chronologically, the review covers the period between 2010 and 2020, and characterizes key changes in staff composition; shows fundamental research trends; summarizes outcomes of scholarly, organizational and publishing activities; mentions main joint and individual monographs authored (published) by associates of the Department of Korean and Mongolian Studies in 2010–2020. The paper specifies basic development problems faced by Mongolian studies in the context of Oriental studies as such, provides conclusions and prognoses for further evolution of this research line at the Institute of Oriental Studies (RAS).
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Lezhenina, Tatiana V. "CURRENT TRENDS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF ECONOMIC COOPERATION BETWEEN RUSSIA AND MONGOLIA." SCIENTIFIC REVIEW. SERIES 1. ECONOMICS AND LAW, no. 1 (2021): 83–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.26653/2076-4650-2021-1-08.
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In the post-Soviet era, after a period of stagnation of the 90s, Russia and Mongolia began to actively cooperate, using and updating the economic potential created during the years of cooperation between Mongolia and the USSR. Goal. Explore modern conditions for the transition from stagnation in relations between Russia and Mongolia to cooperation. Tasks. Assess the readiness of the two countries to resume wide-ranging communications on mutually beneficial conditions. Methodology. The use of methods of scientific knowledge, the experience of economic relations of large and small countries in conditions of instability of the world economy, new threats and challenges in the XXI century. Results. It is proved that on the basis of mutually beneficial economic cooperation and coordination of domestic and foreign policies, Russia and Mongolia have created guarantees to maintain peace and promote integration in the Asia-Pacific region. Findings. Using the example of studying bilateral relations between Russia and Mongolia together with tripartite ones in the new Russia-Mongolia-China format, the possibility of reducing the dominance of China's role in Mongolia, reducing American influence and pressure on the leadership of Mongolia in order to weaken the Russian and Chinese presence is proved.
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Shah, Imtiyaz Ahmad, and Neelofar Rashid. "Economic Analysis of Bilateral Trade: A Case Study of India-Mongolia." Shanlax International Journal of Economics 7, no. 3 (June 2, 2019): 1–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.34293/economics.v7i3.408.
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India has enormous potential for bilateral relations with Mongolia (strategically important East Asian country) that shares its borders with China and Russia. The two countries also agreed to explore the possibility of launching direct air connectivity between New Delhi and Ulaanbataar of Mongolia. Mongolia initiated the construction of its first strategically important oil refinery, financed by India in the province of Dornogovi, in the south. The volume of trade between India and Mongolia has also grown at a faster pace in recent years. However, compared to its limited potential, the current economic commitment is limited to the mineral trade only. The paper analyses the structural dimensions of India’s bilateral trade with Mongolia, India’s trade balance with Mongolia, as well as providing new areas of India’s trade with Mongolia.
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Bumochir, Dulam, Byambabaatar Ichinkhorloo, and Ariell Ahearn. "Herd Agency." Inner Asia 22, no. 2 (November 4, 2020): 183–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/22105018-12340146.
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Abstract In this article, we draw upon ethnographic fieldwork conducted in Mongolia and China to develop understandings of herd–herder (mal–malchin) relations further. We focus primarily on horse-herding practices and related divisions of labour, and the three concepts of herd intuition (zön), serenity (taa) and fortune (buyan, khishig, zaya), to present additional interpretations of human–animal relations in Mongolia. Through this exploration, we develop the concept of herd agency and examine how it relates to specific horse-herding knowledge and techniques, as well as the cosmological significance of human–animal relations. All three concepts reveal the importance of cosmological agents with herd–herder relations. We conclude by emphasising the changing nature and politics of human–animal relations in these regions.
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Lepa, Tatyana. "Mutual Interests and Issues in Implementation of Russias Cooperation with China and Mongolia." Bulletin of Baikal State University 29, no. 1 (April 4, 2019): 80–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.17150/2500-2759.2019.29(1).80-87.
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The issue of mutual interests of Russia, China and Mongolia in working partnerships and projects is not accidental and determined by modern foreign economic and foreign policy situation as well as national preferences of these countries. The People's Republic of China, the driving force of the project of the Economic belt of the Silk Road, remains the main partner of the Russian Federation in many international projects. Mongolia is the main visionary for the development of the «Steppe Road» project. The article explores the history behind the relations between those three neighboring countries in various public spheres, including political, economic, scientific, cultural, and environmental. The author examines the issues of further development of Russia, China and Mongolia relations in a complex environment of globalization of world economy. The article analyzes the statistical data on the economic status of these countries in world ranking system. The author puts forward possible ways to solve problems in implementation of cooperation among three countries in a present-day global politico-economical climate of the imposed sanctions, trade wars and investment restrictions. The author argues that to advance mutual interests the emphasis should be placed on joint global projects and creation of free trade zones in bordering regions of these countries.
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Zagrebin, Aleksei Ye. "Mongolia In Finno-Ugric Academic And Political Discourse (1840s – 1910s)." Vostok. Afro-aziatskie obshchestva: istoriia i sovremennost, no. 6 (2022): 243. http://dx.doi.org/10.31857/s086919080023386-1.
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Mongolia, as one of the geographical and semantic centerpieces of Central Asia, has remained in focus of Finno-Ugric, Altaic and Turkic studies for several generations. Expeditions and academic publications in the 1840s-1910s were given special attention due to growing political tension in a strategically important region, where the interests of the "Great Powers", Japan and China, converged. The search for Oriental rarities and negotiations with the leaders and religious figures of Mongolia, Tibet and Xinjiang took place against the backdrop of tense social situation in a multiethnic and multiconfessional land. Mongolia, the Mongolian language and ethnoculture have gained prominence in the scholarly discourse of Finno-Ugric studies. By looking into Mongolian materials, Finnish and Hungarian researchers have tried either to confirm or to disprove the linguistic and ethnogenetic closeness of their own ethnicities to the Central Asian cultures of the past. M.A. Castrén and A. Csoma de Kőrös had paved the first roads of research to the East, after which the expeditions of J.R. Aspelin, H. Vámbéry, A.O. Heikel, K.G. Mannerheim, G.J. Ramstedt and J.G. Granö followed. A leading role in the organization of field research in Southern Siberia, Altai and Mongolia was played by the Finnish-Ugric Society, established in 1883, and its longstanding Chairman, Professor O. Donner. Studying the oral poetry, literary and monumental heritage of Mongolia, scholars have directly or indirectly touched upon the issues of ethnic identity and self-representation of contemporary Finno-Ugric peoples. In this case, the scholarly dialogue was combined with discussions on domestic politics and international affairs at the same expedition tent.
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Terbish, Chuluun-Erdene. "China's New Foreign Policy since 18th Party Congress and Mongolia-China Relations." Journal of International Studies 44, no. 113 (December 30, 2021): 57–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.5564/jis.v44i113.1780.
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Since the 18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China (CPC), the CPC has entered a new stage of innovation in diplomatic theory and practice, forming Xi Jinping Thought on Diplomacy, which will continue to guide China's major-country diplomacy in the new era. The new diplomatic strategy of the new Chinese government led by Xi Jinping has three features. First, it hopes to actively build a new model of major-country relations. Second, it hopes to build a “destiny community of neighboring countries” diplomacy. Third, to look forward to building a new type of international relations in which win-win cooperation is the top priority of their foreign policy. In this article, I will introduce the new foreign policy adopted by China since the 18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China and the neighborhood diplomacy featuring amity, sincerity, mutual benefit and inclusiveness. In addition, it also describes the diplomatic relations between Mongolia and China from 2012 to 2021 and important events within the scope of cooperation between the two countries, especially the friendly stories of mutual support and assistance between China and Mongolia after the outbreak of COVID-19. ХКН-ын XVIII их хурлаас хойших Хятад улсын гадаад бодлогын шинэ үзэл санаа ба Монгол, Хятадын харилцаа Хураангуй: 2012 онд ХКН-ын XVIII их хурал хуралдаж, Ши Жиньпин засгийн эрх барьснаар Хятад улсад гадаад харилцааны шинэ үзэл санаа бүрэлдэн тогтож, тус улс цаашид өөрийн онцлог бүхий их гүрний гадаад бодлого баримтлах болно гэдгээ зарласан билээ. Ши Жиньпин-ээр төвлөсөн Хятадын төрийн удирдлагын гадаад бодлогын шинэ стратеги нэгд, их гүрний шинэ маягийн харилцааг бий болгохыг эрмэлзэж буй. Хоёрт, Хятад улс хөрш улс орнууд хоорондын гадаад харилцаанд өндөр ач холбогдол өгч буй. Гуравт, хамтран ажиллах, хамтдаа хожих хамтын ажиллагааг гол болгосон олон улсын шинэ маягийн харилцааг байгуулахыг эрмэлзэж буй зэрэг онцлогтой байна. Энэхүү өгүүлэлд ХКН-ын XVIII их хурлаас хойших Хятад улсын гадаад бодлогын шинэ үзэл санаа, тэр дундаа хөрш зэргэлдээ улс орнуудад хандан хэрэгжүүлж буй “Ойр дотно, чин сэтгэлийн, харилцан ашигтай, уужуу хүртээмжтэй байх” ба “Хүн төрөлхтний хувь заяаны цогц нэгдэл” хэмээх гадаад бодлогын ойлголтын талаар танилцуулж, 2012-2021 онд Монгол, Хятад хоёр улсын гадаад харилцаа, хамтын ажиллагааны хүрээнд болсон үйл явдал, тэр дундаа аюулт цар тахлын эсрэг хамтдаа тэмцсэн хийгээд хоёр талын харилцан бие биедээ тусалж дэмжиж ирсэн түүхүүдийг өгүүлнэ. Түлхүүр үгс: Хятад улсын гадаад бодлого, Ши Жиньпин, XVIII их хурал, хувь заяаны цогц нэгдэл, Монгол, Хятадын харилцаа
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NIKIFOROV , SVYATOSLAV. "ANALYSIS OF THE FORMATION OF THE SUBSYSTEM OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN NORTHEAST ASIA FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF THE CIVILIZATIONAL APPROACH PART 2." Sociopolitical Sciences 12, no. 5 (October 30, 2022): 91–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.33693/2223-0092-2022-12-5-91-95.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The purpose and objectives. The purpose of the article is to analyze the formation of the subsystem of international relations in Northeast Asia from the point of view of the civilizational approach, and the role of such countries as China, Japan, Mongolia and Korea in this process. Methodological approach. The methodology of L.N. Gumilev is the main one in the work, as well as the systematic approach developed in Oriental political science by A.D. Voskresensky, general scientific methods of cognition and the comparative historical method are also used. Results and conclusions. The article offers an examination of the ideology and model of conducting foreign policy of individual countries of Northeast Asia, primarily China, Japan, Mongolia and Korea, from the point of view of a civilizational approach in the context of the formation of a new order and a new subsystem of international relations in Northeast Asia. Originality and value. The study is valuable in view of its relevance and originality of the work, which focuses on obtaining new knowledge about the ideology and model of conducting foreign policy of individual countries of Northeast Asia, primarily China, Japan, Mongolia and Korea, the study of contradictions between ethnic and non-ethnic systems of these states, determining their role in the emergence of a new, the change of the Mongol-Chinese-centric order, and a new stage in the history of international relations in Northeast Asia.
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Conte, Thomas J. "The effects of China's grassland contract policy on Mongolian herders' attitudes towards grassland management in northeastern Inner Mongolia." Journal of Political Ecology 22, no. 1 (December 1, 2015): 79. http://dx.doi.org/10.2458/v22i1.21079.
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China's Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region is experiencing high levels of grassland degradation partially as a result of government policies to sedentarize nomadic pastoralists and privatize collective grasslands. Previous research suggests that these policies have reduced Mongolian pastoralists' ability to effectively manage grasslands and cope with negative climatic events. Herders in New Barag Right Banner (n = 50) representing both sedentary and mobile livestock management strategies were asked to respond to a scaled survey regarding their attitudes towards the effectiveness of their current grassland management strategies and their perceptions regarding the future of pastoralism in Inner Mongolia. Inter-rater reliability and MannWhitney U Tests were utilized to compare the attitudes towards grassland management and the future viability of livestock production and to test whether or not sedentary and mobile herders share the same attitudes towards these facets of their pastoral way of life. There is both high intra and inter-group agreement on the survey variables across settlement categories, indicating that sedentary and mobile herders share the same attitudinal orientations regardless of their settlement patterns. The implications of these results for future grassland policy and sustainable livestock production are also discussed.Keywords: pastoralism, China, Inner Mongolia, grassland policy, privatization, marketization
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Zhabaeva, Larisa B. "Российско-монгольское сотрудничество в военной сфере (1930-е годы)". Монголоведение (Монгол судлал) 12, № 2 (25 серпня 2020): 223–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.22162/2500-1523-2020-2-223-231.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Goals. The article investigates Russian-Mongolian military cooperation in the 1930s. Methods and Materials. The work examines collected documents and materials housed by the Russian State Archive of Socio-Political History. Results and Conclusions. The early 1930s were characterized by the aggravation of the international situation in the Far East: Japan attacked China and occupied a considerable territory. Japan’s external policy was turning more and more towards expansionism, giving rise to sentiments to seize mainland territories which meant а direct threat to Mongolia and Soviet regions. So, the period witnessed a series of regular top-level meetings between the Soviet and Mongolian governments. The Kremlin negotiations of November 1934 proved essential enough for the further development of Soviet-Mongolian military and political cooperation. The Kremlin, thus, took the strategic lead and got actively involved in Mongolian affairs. Records of the Soviet-Mongolian negotiations of November 27 underline the vital need for Mongolia to have strong national armed forces, and report the expediency of signing non-aggression and mutual respect treaties was being discussed. The Protocol of mutual assistance between the USSR and the MPR of 12 March 1936 set a new global trend for intergovernmental cooperation and strategic partnership in the context of increasing international tensions. Active joint military actions against imperialist Japan in 1939 at Khalkhin Gol, efficient coordination of foreign policy steps thus became an important stabilizing factor in the region, being a bright page in the history of relations between the countries.
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Bazarov, Boris V., Ekaterina V. Sundueva, Chingis Ts Tsyrenov, and Evgenii V. Nolev. "‘Treasures of the Golden Chest Brought to Light…’: Revisiting the Sources and Purport of the ‘Truthful Record of the Qing Dynasty’." Herald of an archivist, no. 1 (2018): 11–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.28995/2073-0101-2018-1-11-23.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The article analyzes a corpus of sources that formed the basis of the most notable record of the Qing Empire, the ‘Truthful Record of the Qing Dynasty’ (Qingshilu). The analysis is based on a careful study of Russian, Chinese and Mongolian scholarship. A historical treatise ‘Truthful Record of the Mongols under the Qing Dynasty’ based on the Qingshilu and written in the Old Mongolian script was published in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of the People’s Republic of China in 2013. A team of researchers from the Institute of Mongolian, Buddhist and Tibetan Studies of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences (RAN) has been working on its translation, source studies and historical analysis, as its materials supplement the available data on the purport and sources of the Qingshilu. Review of its sources allows a better assessment of the veracity of the historical data of the ‘Truthful Record of the Qing Dynasty’ and a deeper understanding of its rich historical material on the Manchu dynasty ruling China, as well as Inner Asia during the Qing period. The article reviews the sources of the Qingshilu as listed in the ‘Truthful Record of the Mongols under the Qing Dynasty.’ Information on the Man Wen Lao Dang (‘The Old Archive of the Manchu Language’) is amassed and analyzed. The Man Wen Lao Dang was one of the sources used in compiling of early chronicles of the deeds of the first Manchu rulers into the ‘Truthful Record.’ The official historiographical and record-keeping tradition was then emerging in China under the Manchu dynasty. The authors assess the purport of the ‘Truthful Record of the Qing Dynasty’ throughout the spectrum of historical and political functions of the treatise. Analyzing of the sources of the ‘Truthful Record of the Qing Dynasty,’ including official documents untainted by compilers’ interpretation, and studying the import of the text in the political life allows to contend great value and veracity of the Qingshilu. The authors see new possibilities for studying international relations in the history of Inner Asia.
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Samoylov, N. A. "Ivan Korostovetz — Russian Diplomat and Expert on China." Modern History of Russia 12, no. 3 (2022): 596–609. http://dx.doi.org/10.21638/11701/spbu24.2022.304.
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Ivan Yakovlevich Korostovetz (1862–1933) was one of the most prominent Russian diplomats of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. He played an extremely important role in the developing Russian-Chinese relations and a no less significant part in the development of Russian-Mongolian ties. Not a sinologist by education, and at the start not speaking Chinese, Korostovetz could understand the specifics of China so deeply and delve into the peculiarities of Chinese realities that he became one of the best experts on China at that time. Korostovetz actively popularized his knowledge on China among the Russian public by writing books and articles about the country. At the turn of the 20th century, Korostovetz became one of the most capable diplomats in the Russian Empire and contributed to an active Russian policy in China and Outer Mongolia. Having a deep understanding of the Russian geopolitical interests in the Far East, he was able to clearly formulate the main goals of Russia’s policy in this region at the time when the Xinhai revolution broke out in China. Unfortunately, after 1917, Korostovetz failed to find a place for himself in the diplomatic field, and so he became the author of many published and unpublished works on the history of diplomacy and international relations in the Far East. The purpose of this article is to give an overview of Korostovetz’ activities in various diplomatic positions in China and evaluate his role in the development of Russian-Chinese relations, as well as analyze his articles and books about China and show the depth in which he understood political development, history and culture of this country.
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Reeves, Jeffrey. "A Search for Causality." European Journal of East Asian Studies 13, no. 1 (2014): 93–116. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15700615-01301007.
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This article examines China’s non-traditional security (NTS) relations with its neighbouring states through the lens of state weakness. Building on existing Chinese language literature on the NTS situation in China, the article demonstrates how weak institutions, political illegitimacy and poor state–society relations in six of China’s periphery states—Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nepal, Myanmar, and Mongolia—negatively impact China’s domestic NTS environment.
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Gunchinsharav, B., and S. Velichkin. "The impact of the special military operation conducted in Ukraine on Russia's relations with East Asian countries." Diplomaticheskaja sluzhba (Diplomatic Service), no. 4 (August 11, 2022): 250–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.33920/vne-01-2204-01.
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The article considers the infl uence of the Special Military Operation in Ukrain on the relations of Russia with the countries of East Asia (China, Mongolia, Japan, Korean Republic and the DPRK). The uthors investigated the actions of these states in relation to Russia and their motives. It is stated that, having expressed concern and having called for the cessation of hostilities, the East Asian countries set emphasis in their assessments and calls diff erently from each other and took essentially opposite positions on the issue of joining the sanctions of the West against Russia. While Japan and the Korean Republic condemned Russia and became participants in these sanctions, China and Mongolia, taking carefully “neutral” position, found the opportunity to indicate that they take into account sanctions as part of the new realities of international life with the PRC unequivocally putting the blame for the complication of the international situation on the United States and the NATO acting as directed by it on, and the DPRK supported Russia’s actions and condemned the introduction of sanctions. It is concluded that China considers relations with Russia extremely important for achieving the national goals it set to be implemented in multipolar world order. In Japan, the ruling elite decided that supporting the US in preserving the unipolar world would enable it to drastically strengthen the country's position by weakening neighboring Russia and then China and to realize its ambitions. South Korea and North Korea are driven mainly by their interests of using the US confrontation with Russia and China in promoting their solutions to the problem of the split of the country. Mongolia proceeds from the advantages of maximum non-involvement in confl icts. At the same time, most East Asian countries showed pragmatism from the standpoint of national interests in applying selective approach to joining the economic sanctions introduced by the West against Russia. The authors believe that this not only adds to the picture of the overall failure of the attempt to crush Russia through sanctions, but also confi rms the gradual emergence of the prerequisites for the formation of a multipolar world order based on the growing aspiration of states, primarily “non-west” ones, to defend their sovereign rights, while finding mutually acceptable balance of their national interests.
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Osodoev, P. V. "FOREIGN ECONOMIC RELATIONS IN THE REGIONS OF THE ECONOMIC CORRIDOR CHINA – MONGOLIA – RUSSIA." Успехи современного естествознания (Advances in Current Natural Sciences), no. 1 2022 (2022): 30–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.17513/use.37766.
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Liu, Andong. "Research on the Impact of Cross-Border E-Commerce on Trade Between China and Mongolia." Financial Forum 11, no. 1 (April 5, 2022): 22. http://dx.doi.org/10.18282/ff.v11i1.2628.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
<p>The smooth implementation of the “belt and Road Initiative” has also promoted the development of multinational economy and trade, among which cross-border e-commerce, as an emerging means of transaction, is gradually developing into the preferred way of transaction for all countries. Mongolia is an important partner of China with close relations. The level of cross-border e-commerce and international trade cooperation between the two countries is still lagging that of other countries along the belt and road. Starting from the actual national conditions and economic and trade development foundation of the two countries, this chapter analyzes the impact of cross-border e-commerce development on China-Mongolia international trade cooperation, and provides countermeasures for promoting the development of bilateral cross-border e-commerce.</p>
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Wallenböck, Ute. "The Cultural and Educational Dimension of the “New Silk Road:” The Re-invention of Mongolness at the Sino-Tibetan Borderlands." Vienna Journal of East Asian Studies 11, no. 1 (December 1, 2019): 31–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/vjeas-2019-0002.
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Abstract In October 2013, Xí Jìnpíng presented not only an ambitious infrastructure project but a strategic initiative that promoted connections in many regards: the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). One intended strategic value of this initiative is the improvement of relations between China and its neigh-bours as well as the improvement of dialogue among different civilizations. Emphasis is placed on the importance of the shared historical cultural heritage of the involved ethnic groups, while the idea of a ‘harmonious society’ is promoted at the same time. The aim of this article is to shed light on how China expands its soft power through civilizational connections along the Sino-Mongolian-Russian Economic Corridor by referring to the Silk Road Academic Belt. This article is based on ethnographic field research in Hénán Mongol Autonomous County in the Sino-Tibetan borderlands of Qīnghǎi Province during an international conference titled “Historical and Cultural Links between Mongolia and Tibet,” held in July 2017.1
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Bu He. "Mongolian-Chinese Exchanges in History Studies during the Socialist Period: Mutual Understanding and Divergence (the 1950s)." Journal of International Studies 44, no. 112 (June 15, 2021): 108–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.5564/jis.v44i112.1698.
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This paper studies the attempts of the MPR and the PRC to promote historical exchanges in the 1950s based on their shared ideology of proletarian internationalism and historical materialism. Specifically, this research analyzes the initial historical exchanges between the two countries in the form of material exchange in the early 1950s, and further discusses about the cooperation between Soviet, Mongolian and Chinese scholars to compile a three-volume Mongolian history in the second half of the 1950s, which pushed the Mongolian-Chinese historical exchanges to a new level. Meanwhile, the research also takes into account the influence of Sino-Soviet relations and historical differences between Mongolia and China on their historical exchanges, especially the cooperation in compiling three-volume Mongolian history. Archival documents in Mongolian and Chinese languages preserved in Mongolia are used as the main research materials for this paper.
Социализмын үеийн Монгол, Хятадын түүх судлалын харилцаа: Ойлголцол ба зөрчил (1950-иад он)
Хураангуй: Энэхүү өгүүлэлд БНМАУ, БНХАУ-ын хооронд дипломат харилцаа тогтоосны дараах 10 орчим жилийн хугацаанд хоёр улс социалист орнуудын хувиар түүхэн материализмын онол хийгээд пролетарийн интернационализмын зарчмыг үзэл баримтлал болгосон ойлголцлын үндсэн дээр хамтран түүх судлалыг хөгжүүлэх гэсэн оролдлогын тухайд тусгайлан өгүүлэх болно. Чингэхдээ, 1950-иад оны эхэн хагаст материал солилцох байдлаар түүх судлалын харилцааг эхлүүлснийг тодруулан, улмаар 1950-иад оны хоёрдугаар хагаст “БНМАУ-ын түүхийн гурван боть”-ийг Монгол, Хятад, Зөвлөлтийн эрдэмтэд хамтран бичих төлөвлөгөөний хүрээнд Монгол-Хятадын түүх судлалын харилцаа эрчимжсэн ч тухайн цагийн олон улсын харилцааны нөхцөл байдал хийгээд хоёр талын түүхэн ойлголтын талаарх зарчмын зөрөө нь энэхүү харилцааг хөгжүүлэх явцад хэрхэн сорилт болж байсан, тэрхүү сорилтыг даван туулах гэсэн эрмэлзлэлийн тухайд архивын баримтуудад голлон тулгуурлаж, задлан шинжлэл хийсэн болно.
Түлхүүр үгс: БНМАУ, БНХАУ, түүх судлалын солилцоо, БНМАУ-ын түүхийн гурван боть, түүхэн материализм, социалист лагер
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Yan, Guo Dong, Jian Cheng Kang, Guo Dong Wang, and Xiao Jin Xie. "Analysis of Regional Differences in Environmental Awareness and Adaptability to Environmental Changes of Chinese Urban Residents." Advanced Materials Research 113-116 (June 2010): 1584–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.113-116.1584.
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Regulating the modes of production and living of urban residents in China is an important measure to cope with environmental changes, and the primary premise is to greatly improve the environmental awareness of urban residents. At present, research on resident’s environmental awareness has been carried out in many cities in China. Nevertheless, little comparative research has been carried out among cities, and there is lack of research on mutual relation and cooperation inside natural regions and the intrinsic relation in adaptability to environment. Therefore, taken the papers collected in CNKI as the data source, the paper has selected the cities in the eastern, central and western region as the objects to in-depth analysis of the present situations and the intrinsic relations between the level of environmental awareness and the adaptability to environment of the urban residents in 3 regions so as to provide reference for the government to formulate relevant management policies. As shown in the research results, the residents in the eastern cities of China have the highest overall level of environmental awareness, followed by the western cities, while that of the central cities is the lowest. In addition, the overall levels in the 3 regions differ greatly from each other. There is certain correlation between the 3 aspects of environmental awareness and 6 factors of adaptability to environmental changes. For example, Lanzhou and Inner Mongolia have the relatively lower environmental awareness with a larger population, which causes the low overall level of their environmental awareness. The educational level and energy-saving and emission-reduction level of Inner Mongolia, Jiaozuo and Suqian are relatively lower with relatively better environmental conditions, leading to relatively lower level of environmental knowledge. Urumchi and Inner Mongolia have a relatively larger population and lower economic level, which cause lower environmental awareness. The public awareness and environmental situations of Jiaozuo and Suqian are relatively better, and therefore the environmental protection there is more desirable. The fact that Shanghai has the highest education is the main reason for the highest comprehensive capacity.
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Мунхтуул, А. "The Role of Urban Settlements in the Development of Russian-Mongol Cross-Border Trade in the Last Quarter of the 19th — Early 20th Centuries." Вестник Рязанского государственного университета имени С.А. Есенина, no. 1(70) (March 17, 2021): 47–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.37724/rsu.2021.70.1.005.
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В статье раскрывается специфика становления торгово-экономических отношений Российской империи с Монголией в период активизации русской политики на Дальнем Востоке. Актуальность данного исследования обусловлена недостаточной изученностью русско-монгольских отношений последней четверти XIX — начала XX века и отсутствием в отечественной науке необходимого опыта для объективной оценки характера двусторонних русско-монгольских торговых связей. На основе комплекса архивных, справочных и мемуарных источников автор выделяет основные приоритеты деловых контактов между западно-сибирскими городами Российской империи и административными центрами Монголии. Усиление общей деловой активности Российской империи в регионе, особенно после массового переселения сюда значительных трудовых резервов в начале XIX века, позволило существенно нарастить производственные мощности для экспорта в Монголию товаров широкого потребления. Рост городов, в свою очередь, сделал русский рынок привлекательным для сбыта основных товаров монгольского животноводства. Автор приходит к выводу, что именно это обстоятельство привело к формированию нового вектора монгольского экспорта: Россия, а не Китай становится главным потребителем мяса, шерсти, кож, мехов и пр. Укрепление связей способствовало превращению Бийска, Ирбита, Минусинска, Томска на территории России, а также Ховда на сопредельной территории в крупные торговые города, специализирующиеся именно на коммерческих операциях с Монголией. Появление в Улястае, и особенно в Ховде, крупных купеческих фирм из Бийска не только увеличило объемы и ассортимент экспортной продукции, но и привнесло в традиционный быт туземного населения элементы европейских общественных и трудовых отношений. The article treats the development of trade and economic relations between the Russian Empire and Mongolia during the period of the pervasion of the Russian political influence in the Far East. The relevance of the research is accounted for by the fact that Russo-Mongol relationships in the last quarter of the 19th century and the early 20thcentury are underinvestigated and the bilateral Russo-Mongol trade relations cannot be properly assessed. The author analyzes archival materials, reference sources and memoirs to investigate major practices of business cooperation between west-Siberian urban settlements of the Russian Empire and administrative centers of Mongolia. The increase of Russian economic influence in the region, mainly associated with substantial labor migration in the early 19th century, enabled the Russian Empire to enhance production capacity and ensure the expansion of commodity export to Mongolia. Due to the increasing number of Russian urban settlements, more and more Mongol livestock breeders were interested in getting into the Russian market. The author of the article maintains that the above-mentioned circumstance promoted a novel aspect of the Mongol export policy development: from then on Russia and not China was Mongolia’s greatest consumer of meat, wool, leather, fur, etc. The enhancement of Russo-Mongol trade cooperation fostered the transformation of such urban settlements as Biysk, Irbit, Minusinsk, and Tomsk in Russia and Khovd in Mongolia into cities. The establishment of Biysk trading affiliates in Ulyastay and Khovd facilitated trade cooperation and introduced European social and commercial benefits into Mongolian life.
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ZHU, Yuan Yi. "Suzerainty, Semi-Sovereignty, and International Legal Hierarchies on China's Borderlands." Asian Journal of International Law 10, no. 2 (July 2020): 293–320. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s204425132000020x.
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AbstractThe concept of semi-sovereignty, a now obsolete category of international entities possessing limited sovereignty, remains hazily understood. However, the historical examination of how semi-sovereignty was defined and practised during the long nineteenth century can provide insights on the interplay between authority and control within the hierarchies of international relations. This paper examines one specific type of semi-sovereignty—namely, suzerainty—which is often used to describe China's traditional authority in Tibet and Mongolia. By examining the events that led to the acceptance of suzerainty as the legal framing for the China-Tibet and China-Mongolia relationships, I argue that suzerainty was a deliberately vague concept that could be used to create liminal international legal spaces to the advantage of Western states, and to mediate between competing claims of political authority. Finally, I point to the importance of semi-sovereignty as an arena of legal contestation between the Western and non-Western members of the “Family of Nations”.
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Sternberg, Troy, Joanna Roque de Pinho, and Batbuyan Batjav. "Pastoral Khans: from Mongolian Steppe to African Savannah." Mongolian Journal of International Affairs 23 (October 22, 2022): 1–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.5564/mjia.v23i1.1566.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The developing field of Mongolian International Studies offers a diverse range of research topics. A review of recent articles reflects an emphasis on geo-politics, particularly evolving relations with its superpower neighbours. Whilst state-to-state engagement with China and Russia predominates, regional countries (Japan, Korea) and the US and Europe are examined within the ‘Third Neighbour’ policy. Trade and economics are also studied, from Oyu Tolgoi and mining to the role of the IMF and international agencies. Currently lacking is a focus on human-driven engagement that reflects Mongolian livelihoods, spirituality and community environments. Such social and cultural dynamics are essential to both pastoral and rural livelihoods and to understanding the nation. In 2020-2022 international academic endeavours enabled Mongolian herder representatives to participate in a global drylands exchange network with dryland residents in thirteen countries. The process provided an exceptional opportunity to present Mongolian perspectives to pastoralists and academics from Africa, the Middle East and Central Asia. This grounded Mongolian livelihoods and situated rural dynamics in a global context. Here we report key engagements and findings as Mongolian herders shared lives and practices in the context of this international pastoral/drylands project. Moving beyond the political/economic rubric, as this project did, delivers a more representative and complete comprehension of Mongolia to the global international studies community.
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Izotov, Dmitry. "The Small Economies of North-East Asia During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Mongolia and the DPRK." Regionalistica 8, no. 6 (2021): 85–100. http://dx.doi.org/10.14530/reg.2021.6.85.
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The purpose of the review is to determine the measures of Mongolia and the Korean People’s Democratic Republic government policy to support the economies in the face of containing COVID-19, as well as to identify the factors that determine the short- and medium-term prospects for their economic growth. It is shown that these two countries demonstrated a low level of COVID-19 spread, achieved by opposite measures of the policy. It has been established that Mongolia is implementing a large package of economic support measures, and the DPRK is taking measures of nationalization and indirect taxation of population income. It is determined that the main factor in the recovery of these economies is the expansion of trade relations with China