Дисертації з теми "Bhutias"

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Ohio State University, 2003.
Title from first page of PDF file. Document formatted into pages; contains xvii, 200 p.; also includes graphics (some col.). Includes abstract and vita. Advisor: Douglas E. Crews, Dept. of Anthropology. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 175-186).

This study explores the effectiveness of the out-country training programs, undertaken by the Ministry of Education personnel in Bhutan, between the period 1999 and 2003. The particular emphasis is on the Transfer of Learning. The transfer literature shows that there are several factors affecting the transfer process (Baldwin & Ford, 1988; Cheng & Ho, 2001). They range from trainees� personal characteristics through training design to organisational support. The transfer process is also said to differ according to the types of organisations, types of training, and duration of training (Holton et al., 2003). While some factors can be influenced by the organisation, some may be beyond the control of the organisation. Therefore, transfer evaluation should focus on those parts of the transfer system that the organisation can influence (Noe, 2000). Baldwin and Ford�s (1988) theoretical framework was adapted to help answer the research questions. This framework is based on the concept that the transfer of learning is governed by several pre-conditions viz. pre-training motivation, training design and work environment factors. These three pre-conditions consist of several factors, and have been placed under three stages of the training process: pre-training, training and post-training. Through the perspectives of trainees and their supervisors, this research can look back into all the three stages of the transfer system and identify what parts of the transfer system need intervention (Holton et al., 2003). Both quantitative data and qualitative data have been used. Quantitative data were collected using a trainee survey questionnaire, and the qualitative data were gathered using trainee in-depth personal interview and supervisor structured interview. Quantitative data were analysed using descriptive normative figures, means, percentages, tables and graphs. The Software Product for Social Studies (SPSS) has been used to generate the descriptive figures, means and percentages. On the other hand, dominant themes of the qualitative data have been extracted and grouped in rank order. The training process was split into three main stages, pre-training, training and post-training, in order to assess the effectiveness of the whole training process through self-reported data. The questions were geared towards ascertaining the trainees� motivational level prior to training, quality of training and work environment factors that have affected the process of transfer. Overall, the trainees participated in their training with a good level of pre-training motivation. However, trainees� attitude towards their training changed once they experienced the training. For example, the level of perceived ability to transfer learning to workplaces by the trainees in the academic category reduced after they experienced the training. Perceived utility of the training differed between job utility and career utility. While trainees in all the categories foresaw job utility of their training to be positive, a few trainees in the technical category did not foresee career utility of their training. There are several direct and indirect factors that affected the transfer process. The direct factors include excessive workload, inadequate requisite materials and mismatch of jobs and skills after training. On the other hand, the indirect factors range from lack of clearly laid training objectives to lack of monitoring and evaluation after training. The lack of these main elements in HR system limited opportunities for trainees and their supervisors to ensure transfer of learning acquired from training. On the whole, the out-country training programs were effective. However, there is a great scope for optimising the benefits of out-country training programs and enhancing the rate of transfer. The Ministry of Education needs to streamline and strengthen its HRD system, particularly in terms of clearly identifying training objectives and pursuing monitoring and evaluation after the training.

The Kingdom of Bhutan is a small country sandwiched between the two large countries in Asia, in terms of size and population. To the north lies China and India to the south, east and west. This is a country which follows the development philosophy of “Gross National Happiness” in contrast to the conventional economic parlance called “Gross Domestic Product”. A reliable, affordable and sustainable supply of energy to its citizens is seen as one of the main inputs to a nation’s well being and growth. To this end, Bhutan strives to achieve 100% rural electrification by 2013. To meet the above target in time, Bhutan faces a unique challenge. To extend the grid to every nook and corner of the country is technically infeasible and economically prohibitive. Other options, like small and micro hydropower systems and solar home lighting systems, are widely used to accelerate rural electrification programmes. Through provision of such modern forms of energy services, the lives of rural people have generally improved. However, Bhutan faces a series of sustainability challenges to keep such systems operational in the long run. Many projects have failed over the years and, even today, such projects are difficult to sustain without the government’s subsidy. The main objective of this research is to diagnose the critical sustainability issues in the context of renewable energy projects and to understand their long term prognosis through an integrated approach. In order to achieve the higher goals of sustainability, it is essential to address the root cause of the problems, rather than prescribing end of the pipe technical fixes. In this study, four renewable energy projects are reviewed and evaluated using a lifecycle sustainability matrix framework. The following are some of the key findings revealed through this research: 1. In terms of overall sustainability, the scores of small/micro hydropower projects are better than the solar projects in Bhutan. 2. For all the four projects reviewed, the sustainability scores are high during the time of planning and design phase, but decrease as and when the projects progress into the implementation and Operation and Maintenance stages. 3. A very low tariff structure for grid connected households is seen to be the main dissuading factor for people to accept off-grid options. 4. The projects have failed to stimulate income generating activities. The key recommendations include the need to have a holistic project development approach in Bhutan, where the sustainability factors are consistently addressed and monitored throughout the project lifecycle. There is also disparity in terms of subsidy from the Government between those households connected to the grid and off-grid options. The Government needs to review its energy policies to strike a better balance. Further, provision of energy services do not necessarily guarantee automatic uptake of economic activities in rural areas. The Government needs to explore avenues to provide easy access to finance and markets for the people.

Natural products had been indispensably used by many cultures and traditions in folklore medicines for thousands of years. These traditional medicines cater to about 85% of the world population for their primary health care needs. Natural products have been intensively explored also for their bioactive pharmacophores by modern pharmaceutical companies. In fact they are the skeletal framework of about 60% of the modern drugs that are available today. Of these, about 80% of antibacterial drugs and 90% of antimalarial drugs are natural derivatives. One of the interesting secondary metabolite groups which provides these potent drug leads are the alkaloids. Owing to their broad range of bioactivities, bioprospecting for these natural products are undertaken in many countries. In this study, on the molecular basis of traditional medicine of Bhutan, particularly those with potential antimicrobial components, four alkaloid positive medicinal plants, i.e. Aconitum orochryseum Stapf, Corydalis gerdae Fedde, Rununculus brotherusi Freyn and an Australian naturalized plant Tribulus terrestris Linn, but also used in Bhutan, were selected for phytochemical analysis. Bhutanese traditional medicines use Aconitum orochryseum (whole parts) for the treatment of bilious fever or high fever related to bile disorders including cold and flu, fever of bile (liver), fever caused by malaria, snake bites and for treating blood infections. Corydalis gerdae (whole parts) is used for the treatment of malaria and infections. Ranunculus brotherusi (aerial parts) is used for treating wounds, pus, infections and as antipyretics. Tribulus terrestris (fruit) is used for the treatment of arthritis, kidney diseases and as a diuretic. Though Tribulus terrestris and Ranunculus brotherusi failed to give any alkaloids, a number of new as well as known alkaloids were isolated from Aconitum orochryseum and Corydalis gerdae. Three new hetisane type diterpenoid alkaloids named orochrine, 2-O-acetylorochrine, and lingshinaline, together with two known alkaloids atisinium chloride and virescenine and six other unidentified alkaloids, were isolated from Aconitum orochryseum. The structures of the new alkaloids were elucidated by ¹H-NMR, gCOSY, gNOESY, TOCSY, ¹³C-NMR, DEPT, gHSQC and gHMBC spectral data analysis. Atisinium chloride, a major alkaloid of the plant, was identified by single crystal X-ray crystallography. Four known protopine type and protoberberine type isoquinoline alkaloids (protopine, scoulerine, cheilanthifoline, and stylopine) along with one unidentified alkaloid were isolated from Corydalis gerdae. The protopine was the major alkaloid of this plant. The alkaloids were identified by MS and ¹H-NMR spectral data comparison. The antibacterial testing of crude methanol extracts, crude alkaloids and the major alkaloids (atisinium chloride, orochrine and protopine) of these two plants were found inactive against the bacterium Staphylococcus aureus (MIC = >125 μg/ml) and Vancomycin resistant Enterococcus faecium (MIC = >125 μg/ml). But the in vitro antimalarial assay of crude methanol extracts, crude alkaloids, atisinium chloride, protopine, and cheilanthifoline gave very significant activity against Plasmodium falciparum, TM4 and K1 strains. Crude methanol extract (AO-ME) of Aconitum orochryseum was not that active (IC₅₀ of >10 μg/ml for both the strains). Increased activity was observed for its crude alkaloid (AOCEA) with IC₅₀ values of 20.40 μg/ml against TM4 and 19.20 μg/ml against K1 strains. The activity was further increased for atisinium chloride with IC₅₀ values of 4.02 μM against TM4/8.2 and 3.59 μM against K1CB1 strains. The antimalarial activity was better for the extracts and alkaloids of Corydalis gerdae. Its crude methanol extract (CG-ME) had the IC₅₀ values of 1.00 μg/ml against TM4 strain and 2.56 μg/ml against K1 strain. The activity of crude alkaloid of this plant was far better with IC₅₀ values of 0.33 μg/ml against TM4 strain and 0.63 μg/ml against K1 strain. Protopine had IC₅₀ values of 4.25 μM against TM4/8.2 and 4.29 μM against K1CB1 strains. Cheilanthifoline had the IC₅₀ values of 3.76 μM against K1 and 2.78 μM against TM4 strains. These alkaloids have the potential to become candidates for antimalarial leads. Similar activities may be expected from other alkaloids including new ones isolated from these two plants. Therefore, the combination of these two plant extracts would make the best antimalarial herbal mixture for Bhutanese traditional medicines. The results proved that ethno-directed biorational approach, combined with an alkaloid focus, is an efficient strategy for drug lead discovery. The results also proved for the first time at the molecular level that Bhutanese traditional medicines have clinical efficacy. The medicinal plants of Bhutan thus have potential to provide important new drug leads. Bioprospecting them would benefit local people, pharmaceutical industries and the patients at large.

Natural products had been indispensably used by many cultures and traditions in folklore medicines for thousands of years. These traditional medicines cater to about 85% of the world population for their primary health care needs. Natural products have been intensively explored also for their bioactive pharmacophores by modern pharmaceutical companies. In fact they are the skeletal framework of about 60% of the modern drugs that are available today. Of these, about 80% of antibacterial drugs and 90% of antimalarial drugs are natural derivatives. One of the interesting secondary metabolite groups which provides these potent drug leads are the alkaloids. Owing to their broad range of bioactivities, bioprospecting for these natural products are undertaken in many countries. In this study, on the molecular basis of traditional medicine of Bhutan, particularly those with potential antimicrobial components, four alkaloid positive medicinal plants, i.e. Aconitum orochryseum Stapf, Corydalis gerdae Fedde, Rununculus brotherusi Freyn and an Australian naturalized plant Tribulus terrestris Linn, but also used in Bhutan, were selected for phytochemical analysis. Bhutanese traditional medicines use Aconitum orochryseum (whole parts) for the treatment of bilious fever or high fever related to bile disorders including cold and flu, fever of bile (liver), fever caused by malaria, snake bites and for treating blood infections. Corydalis gerdae (whole parts) is used for the treatment of malaria and infections. Ranunculus brotherusi (aerial parts) is used for treating wounds, pus, infections and as antipyretics. Tribulus terrestris (fruit) is used for the treatment of arthritis, kidney diseases and as a diuretic. Though Tribulus terrestris and Ranunculus brotherusi failed to give any alkaloids, a number of new as well as known alkaloids were isolated from Aconitum orochryseum and Corydalis gerdae. Three new hetisane type diterpenoid alkaloids named orochrine, 2-O-acetylorochrine, and lingshinaline, together with two known alkaloids atisinium chloride and virescenine and six other unidentified alkaloids, were isolated from Aconitum orochryseum. The structures of the new alkaloids were elucidated by (superscript 1)H-NMR, gCOSY, gNOESY, TOCSY, (superscript 13)C-NMR, DEPT, gHSQC and gHMBC spectral data analysis. Atisinium chloride, a major alkaloid of the plant, was identified by single crystal X-ray crystallography. Four known protopine type and protoberberine type isoquinoline alkaloids (protopine, scoulerine, cheilanthifoline, and stylopine) along with one unidentified alkaloid were isolated from Corydalis gerdae. The protopine was the major alkaloid of this plant. The alkaloids were identified by MS and (superscript 1)H-NMR spectral data comparison. The antibacterial testing of crude methanol extracts, crude alkaloids and the major alkaloids (atisinium chloride, orochrine and protopine) of these two plants were found inactive against the bacterium Staphylococcus aureus (MIC = greater than 125 ?g/ml) and Vancomycin resistant Enterococcus faecium (MIC = greater than 125 ?g/ml). But the in vitro antimalarial assay of crude methanol extracts, crude alkaloids, atisinium chloride, protopine, and cheilanthifoline gave very significant activity against Plasmodium falciparum, TM4 and K1 strains. Crude methanol extract (AO-ME) of Aconitum orochryseum was not that active (IC(subscript 50) of greater than10 ?g/ml for both the strains). Increased activity was observed for its crude alkaloid (AO-CEA) with IC(subscript 50) values of 20.40 ?g/ml against TM4 and 19.20 ?g/ml against K1 strains. The activity was further increased for atisinium chloride with IC(subscript 50) values of 4.02 ?M against TM4/8.2 and 3.59 ?M against K1CB1 strains. The antimalarial activity was better for the extracts and alkaloids of Corydalis gerdae. Its crude methanol extract (CG-ME) had the IC(subscript 50) values of 1.00 ?g/ml against TM4 strain and 2.56 ?g/ml against K1 strain. The activity of crude alkaloid of this plant was far better with IC(subscript 50) values of 0.33 ?g/ml against TM4 strain and 0.63 ?g/ml against K1 strain. Protopine had IC(subscript 50) values of 4.25 ?M against TM4/8.2 and 4.29 ?M against K1CB1 strains. Cheilanthifoline had the IC(subscript 50) values of 3.76 ?M against K1 and 2.78 ?M against TM4 strains. These alkaloids have the potential to become candidates for antimalarial leads. Similar activities may be expected from other alkaloids including new ones isolated from these two plants. Therefore, the combination of these two plant extracts would make the best antimalarial herbal mixture for Bhutanese traditional medicines. The results proved that ethno-directed biorational approach, combined with an alkaloid focus, is an efficient strategy for drug lead discovery. The results also proved for the first time at the molecular level that Bhutanese traditional medicines have clinical efficacy. The medicinal plants of Bhutan thus have potential to provide important new drug leads. Bioprospecting them would benefit local people, pharmaceutical industries and the patients at large. [Note: this abstract contained scientific formulae that would not come across on this form. Please see the 01Front files abstract for the full details.]

This research examined pre-service and beginning teachers' understandings of inclusive education, confidence and preparation for teaching in inclusive classrooms. The study was a descriptive case study with twelve pre-service and twenty beginning teachers in six inclusive schools. Research findings inform five recommendations: enhanced training and development of the teachers, enhanced policy and practice including with community, improved teaching and learning materials, better articulation of duties and responsibilities of all teachers, and transforming class size. This study will make a significant contribution to research on inclusive education in South West Asian countries, as well as to the achievement of inclusive education policy ideals in Bhutan.

The published work submitted for consideration for the degree of Ph.D. (by Research Publication) consists of two parts of the Flora of Bhutan, describing the monocotyledons (some 942 species) with the exception of Orchidaceae. Together with these are ten precursor papers relating to these parts of the Flora: the papers include descriptions of new species, nomenclatural discussion (including typifications) and phytogeographic information. The critical review gives the historical background for the whole Flora project, together with the methods used in my own contribution and some of my more interesting findings. An enumeration of new taxa described, and new combinations made, is given in an appendix.

This study aims to assess the wind resource of Bhutan using new wind data collected from 20 m high stations spread across the country. It attempts to compare with the results of a study conducted by National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) USA in 2008. The data used by NREL were mostly upper air data and some surface data taken at just 5 m above the ground. Wind resource assessment is crucial because at present hydropower is the one and only source of electricity in Bhutan. Wind energy will add energy diversity and will enhance energy security. This study also provides an overview of the collected wind data, the average speed profile, wind direction, power prediction and general recommendations for more accurate data collection at five different locations in Bhutan. The analysis is performed to check the consistency of the collected data and the missing parameters using simulation tool “Windographer”. This analysis doesn’t reveal any prediction of generic wind power as the duration of collected data is just one year with many missing data; impending sensible conclusion is too premature. Incomplete data, lack of experiences and expertise are some of the limitations. Further detail analysis is essential to accurately determine the power prediction and wind turbine sitings across the country addressing the economics of wind power generation in view of the rugged mountainous terrain, the difficulty of transportation, mounting of crane and hoist and other accessories. It is also required to conduct detail local community consultation to identify suitable locations for installing wind data measuring instruments.

The study investigated digital transformation and its impact on Bhutan Post and Community Centres (CCs). The study revealed that Bhutan has recognised ICT as the cornerstone of the digital era and has gradually opened up itself to globalisation by carefully balancing modernisation with traditions. Digitally transforming a business can allow it to capitalise on new opportunities to avoid disruption, accelerate business activities, lower costs, and bring about positive change in processes, people, and competency models. In Bhutan, digital transformation and establishment of CCs have proved to be extremely useful in enhancing happiness and well-being.

Phrumsengla National Park (PNP), located in central Bhutan, is an important protected area due to its biodiversity and as a source of natural resources for local communities. The focus of this research was to study the effectiveness of PNP management under the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources - World Commission on Protected Areas’ framework. Document analysis and semi-structured interviews provided the data. The interviews were conducted with staff from different levels of government, and community members. An in-depth interview was conducted with officials from Wildlife Conservation Division, Policy and Planning Division and park officials. A total of twelve community respondents representing all four districts and seven geogs (block of communities) living inside and in buffer areas were interviewed. It was found that the management of the PNP was geared to achieve its mandates of biodiversity conservation, and also to benefit the rural population dependent on PNP’s natural resources. Park officials count the recent tiger survey and physical boundary demarcation as recent achievement. The communities saw the management of the PNP as protecting trees for their sustainable utilisation, and for most of them, PNP’s Integrated Conservation and Development Program was identified as benefiting rural communities. On the other hand, the management plan (2008-2013) was not fully implemented due to lack of resources and technical skills. Multiple challenges and issues were identified that affected overall management effectiveness: the national highway, construction of new roads, poaching, illegal timber harvesting, human-wildlife conflict and conflict of interests between the PNP management and local communities. It was also found that the failure of management plan implementation was due to absence of support and monitoring from central agencies. The research findings led to recommendations being made to address the issues identified.

The utilization of the vast hydropower potential the Himalayas possess is growing in the Kingdom of Bhutan. Export of electricity to India is now the largest contributor to the economic well being of the country and an ambitious plan of harnessing over 10000 MW of hydropower by the year 2020 is being carried out. The large scale hydropower development in Bhutan started in the 1980s with construction of the Chhukha hydroelectric plant with capacity of 336 MW. The next milestone was the commission of the 1020 MW Tala hydroelectric plant in 2006 and 2007. The two plants are in close proximity to one another, near the Main Central Thrust of the Himalayan fault system. Here the powerhouse excavations of both power plants will be modelled and analysed, regarding stability and accuracy of rock mass quality parameters, with focus on Tala hydroelectric plant. The powerhouse complex at Tala, which consists of two large caverns, has experienced failure both during construction and while operating. During the excavation of the crown portion of the powerhouse large rockfall occurred in the roof and during the rest of the excavation and after commission rockbolts have been failing. No records are of failure in the Chhukha powerhouse cavern after construction, but during excavation fatal rockfall occurred. The Main Central Thrust provides high horizontal stresses, especially at Tala, in overall poor rock conditions. The initial modelling is done in Examine3D, a 3D BEM elastic modelling software. The model of Tala powerhouse complex is then compared to models from Examine2D and Phase2, elastic 2D BEM and plastic 2D FEM models respectively. The powerhouse of Chhukha is also modelled in Examine3D, and circumstances compared to Tala. Additionally, the model of Tala is matched with actual measured values of convergence, but maximum convergence measured in the powerhouse cavern was 0,374 m. That was done by iterating the Young’s modulus in the Phase2 until a value that represented the actual convergence was found. Elastic models with same Young’s modulus value were then created in the other codes and compared.The challenges of underground excavation in the tectonically active Himalayas is portrayed here, as the high uncertainty in estimates of quality of the rock mass encountered can lead to flawed design. The methodology used here is reviewed and proven to be beneficial as visualization of the problem is far greater in the 3D space.

This exploratory study examines the modernisation of the education system in Bhutan. It focuses on three key dimensions of the modernisation process. The first dimension concerns the debates and discussions surrounding the question of modernisation. As is to be expected, there are strongly held views that modernisation is a ‘good’ thing for Bhutan; however, conversely, there exist equipotent views that traditional culture may erode in the quest for modernisation. The study seeks to tease out these contestations through the examination of available text, including oral texts such as radio discussions, written policy documents, newspaper articles, and conversations. The second key dimension of this study examines the translation of decisions from the aforementioned debate – it is significant that modernisation policies have already been shaped though the debate is ongoing – into the delivery of education. Thus, the study focuses both on curriculum policy as well as pedagogic strategies. Finally, the third key dimension focuses on the role of the teacher as a mediator. Here, the inquiry focuses on how teachers manage the tensions. The primary purpose of this research is to contribute to our understanding of changes in Bhutan’s education policy and curriculum (1990-2010), which charge the education sector with supporting the continuity of tradition and mediating the tension between tradition and modernisation. There is a growing body of literature that examines Bhutanese discourses on tradition, culture, and modernisation of Bhutan’s education sector (see Phuntsho, 2000; Roder, 2012; Ueda, 2003; Wangyal, 2001; Whitecross, 2002). However, despite the comprehensive education reforms currently underway which position teachers at the centre of a number of initiatives (VanBalkom & Sherman, 2010), a gap exists in available studies that bring the voices of teachers to the fore. Given that teachers occupy a central role in the education system and that the implementation of curriculum innovations succeed ‘only when the teachers concerned are committed to them and especially, when they understand as well as accept, their underlying principles,’ (Kelly, 2009:15) this study is an exploration of interplay between policy and practice and considers teachers as the focal point. This research was conducted in 2010 and 2011 in the Thimphu and Paro dzongkhags. It included semi-structured interviews with 9 prominent policy makers and politicians, 11 education leaders, and 51 middle secondary school teachers, 7 of which were observed. More specifically, this study tells the stories of individuals who were involved in the modernisation of the national system of education from its inception in the 1960s and uncovers the experiences of a younger generation of educators. Overall, the findings of this study reveal that in Bhutan, traditional and modern epistemologies are strong currents that converge and intermingle. However, at particular points of intersection, they flow in two competing directions. Education stakeholders are thus positioned at a critical juncture where different knowledge ‘flows’ (Appadurai, 1996) converge and diverge, generating fracture lines and, at times, hindering the possibility of balance. The participants in this study revealed a range of complex and contradictory voices as many attempted to reconcile the evident tensions.

Crustal melting and granitic intrusions are characteristics of many continental collision zones. The processes, sources and timing of melt generation in collision zones are critical to understanding crustal and tectonic evolution. In the Himalaya, multiple Oligocene-Miocene leucogranite bodies intrude the Greater Himalayan Series (GHS), a lithotectonic package of high-grade metamorphosed sediments. This package is underthrust by a chemically distinct metasedimentary package, the Lesser Himalayan Series (LHS). Multiple elemental and isotopic techniques provide insight into leucogranite source and petrogenesis in central Bhutan (eastern Himalaya). Whole-rock major and trace elemental abundances confirm that all studied leucogranites are the product of muscovite breakdown between 640 and 760°C. Sr-Nd signatures suggest that most samples were sourced from the GHS; however several samples yield signatures more comparable with those from the LHS, an observation that currently appears unique to Bhutan. O, U-Pb, Hf isotopes in zircon confirm previous whole-rock findings that melting in the eastern Himalaya took place over 20 Myr, from 31 to 11 Ma. Increasingly radiogenic Nd and Hf isotope signatures are observed in younger leucogranites, which suggest a deeper source, and potentially more contribution from melting LHS. Importantly, O-Hf isotopic signatures indicate that there is no mantle input into eastern Himalayan melting, a finding important for heat budget calculations and for crustal growth models in orogenic belts. Stable Rb and Sr isotopic analyses from both whole-rock leucogranites and mineral separates establish, for the first time, that mass-dependent isotopic fractionation occurs during the formation of highly evolved crustal melts. Consistent Sr fractionation of up to 2.51‰ is observed between plagioclase, K-feldspar and micas. These observations have implications for the application of stable isotopes as petrogenetic indicators and for Rb-Sr geochronology. Together, the findings of this study provide new insights into both Himalayan and global tectonic evolution and the geochemical nature of melt generation.

This thesis examines the implementation of the policy for English-medium education in government-run schools in Bhutan, a small multilingual developing country in the eastern Himalayas. It identifies factors influencing its effective implementation, plus policy and practice measures to improve learning outcomes for students. It takes as a theoretic framework an approach known as ‘content and language integrated learning’ (CLIL). This involves integration of language and subject teaching. The study addresses the following research question: How can implementation of Bhutan’s policy of English-medium education be enhanced? Data to address these questions were gathered through a literature review, key informant interviews, focus group discussions and classroom observations. The study also draws on personal experience. The findings reveal that implementation of Bhutan’s policy of English-medium government-run education could be significantly enhanced. Students are not attaining control over English at desired levels of schooling; classroom practices favour didactic teaching-learning approaches; teachers’ tend to teach toward terminal examinations and adhere to traditional teacher and student roles; and subject teachers do not consistently support students’ English language development. The study also found that many stakeholders, including policy-makers, teachers, curriculum developers and teacher trainers lack awareness of the concept of language-related disadvantage in education and approaches for more effective second language-medium teaching and learning. This includes a lack of language-sensitive classroom practices in both language and subject classes. These findings highlight the need for teachers to make different methodological choices inside classrooms. To do this, teachers should become skilled and confident in the use of classroom practices which support students’ English language learning. Key stakeholders, particularly policy-makers, teachers and teacher educators, must understand and accept the need for further policy and practice measures to support language-sensitive teaching-learning approaches for English-medium education in Bhutan. The implications of these findings for policy, practice and future research are further elucidated.

Bhutan is an emerging country with transitioning economy with a vision to become an ICT knowledge-based information society. Many government organizations, businesses and individuals are adopting the Internet for day to day operations and activities. With increasing dependency on information systems, networks, and the Internet; securing and protecting Bhutan’s cyberspace from malicious attackers and cyber criminals is a serious concern. Few scholarly studies related to cybersecurity have been conducted in developing countries. No scholarly and empirical research has been conducted in Bhutan to understand how the government is addressing and managing cybersecurity. This has resulted in a critical knowledge gap that must be addressed urgently through empirical research to guide government policy makers, security professionals and practitioners to develop and implement cybersecurity program. This thesis investigates the development and implementation of cybersecurity policies and practices in government organizations in Bhutan. A sequential mixed methods research design was employed to collect primary data on cybersecurity risks, effectiveness of cybersecurity policies and practices, and perceptions of cybersecurity in government organizations. The research also used secondary data sources such as government reports, print and social media, to validate the results of the research study. The findings suggest that government organizations in Bhutan are vulnerable to cybersecurity risks, such as malware and hacking, and that they lack adequate knowledge and awareness of cybersecurity, cybersecurity policies and procedures, technical controls, and incident response capabilities. Furthermore, the evidence suggests that the use of pirated software and expired security products in many government organizations is rampant and offsets the effectiveness of technical measures. Based on the research findings and analysis, a government cybersecurity framework is proposed, highlighting the key areas necessary for improving cybersecurity in government organizations. It is hoped that the outcomes and findings of this research will benefit other ICT emerging countries.

The supervision process in a teaching practicum setting is integral to effective teacher preparation in any teacher education programme. Although teaching practicum is considered crucial for effective teacher preparation in Bhutan, evidence gathered from the literature show that not many studies had been conducted to establish its efficacy. To address this gap, this doctoral study has adopted a qualitative study design, within the constructivist framework, to understand the views of student teachers (STs), mentors and supervising lecturers (SLs) on the efficacy of teaching practicum supervision in Bhutan. A need to explore the efficacy of supervision process from the vantage point of these three cohorts of participants were felt as they were primarily involved in the supervision process. Thus, interviews were conducted with twenty-five participants, consisting of 10 STs, 10 mentors and five SLs. In addition, document analysis was employed in this study to triangulate data collected through interviews. These documents provided an explicit picture of policies and guidelines surrounding teaching practicum supervision in Bhutan. Finally, a reflexive journal was maintained to record my previous experience as an SL in a practicum setting. My previous experience of supervising STs for three consecutive years had played a crucial role in understanding and relating my personal experience to the shared experience of my participants. It was useful in gaining an in depth understanding of our shared experiences and in providing rich description, achieving data triangulation and analysis from different perspectives. For the data analysis, thematic analysis was employed to analyse data gathered through the interview which were then compared to my previous personal experience recorded in my reflexive journal. The common themes drawn from the individual interviews, focus group interviews, and the reflexive journal were used to provide an effective data triangulation. The findings of this study reveal that teaching practicum experience helped STs grow in their self-confidence, improve knowledge of the subject matter and enhance their teaching skills, although they faced considerable workload pressure caused by multiplicity of responsibilities and extensive documentations required. Mentors and SLs appeared to have executed most of their practicum roles in spite of facing overwhelming workload pressure. These overwhelming workload experiences adversely impacted the wellbeing of the participants. Thus, this research provides implications for preservice teacher education and offers guidelines for improving supervision process with a view to improve wellbeing of the STs, mentors and SLs. The study recommends stakeholders to minimise the workload burden, re-examine roles and responsibilities for practicum assessment, and provide professional learning for mentors. The study further suggests a need to ensure that resourcing is equitable and aligned with practicum requirements so that more attention is paid to the establishment of these facilities to improve practicum experience and wellbeing of the participants.

Differing parental considerations for girls and boys in households are perceived as one of the primary causes of the gender gap in school enrolment and educational attainment in developing countries, particularly in the countries in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. While there are a number of studies on the gender gap focusing on education and health provision in the countries in South Asia, little is known about Bhutan. This thesis aims to explore the gender gap in the intra-household allocation of resources on schooling and health provision for children in Bhutan. This thesis investigates whether boys are shown preference by their parents in terms of educational opportunities, including enrolment and spending on schooling as well as health. To conduct examination, this study makes use of household data from the Bhutan Living Standard Survey of 2007. Using cross-sectional as well as household fixed and random effect approaches, this study attempts to analyse the gender gap in allocation of resources across households as well as within households. The analysis includes characteristics of children and households such as gender and age of children, family wealth, education and gender of household head, number of dependents and the area of residence. The findings reveal a significant gender gap in schooling of children aged six to sixteen in Bhutan. However, no robust evidence of a gender gap has been found in the allocation of health expenditure on children aged less than sixteen. Policy recommendations to alleviate the gender bias in educational opportunities of females are proposed.

Bhutan, a small developing country, is recognised for its pro-environmental and unique development philosophy called Gross National Happiness (GNH). Over the years Bhutan has continually increased the area coverage under protected area (PA) system and probably it is the first country in the world that has achieved a 50% protection target. Going beyond the year 2020, there is a growing call to protect at the least 30% of the World’s terrestrial areas by 2030 with the ultimate goal to protect 50% by year 2050 - a goal commonly termed “Nature Needs Half’ (NNH). However, PAs globally and in Bhutan have been designated to protect terrestrial ecosystems and biodiversity. Although freshwater ecosystems and biodiversity are most threatened, there are very few freshwater specific protected areas while they are included within existing PAs by coincidence. The overall objective of this thesis is to assess the potential of existing terrestrialfocussed protected areas of Bhutan in conserving freshwater ecosystems and biodiversity within the context of nature needs half target and protected area dynamism. To achieve this, I have combined a systematic archival literature review with species distribution modelling and systematic conservation planning techniques to address four main issues: (1) the lack of a country level PA dynamism study and possible link between it and GNH, (2) lack of adequate freshwater species distribution data in Bhutan, (3) the need to assess potential of existing PA system for freshwater protection in the context of NNH, and (4) the need for systematic freshwater conservation planning in the context of NNH and PA dynamism. To address the first issue, I conducted systematic archival literature review on PA dynamism in Bhutan for almost the entire modern conservation history of Bhutan (1966- 2016). PA dynamism can be either of gain or loss events; the latter is termed protected area downgrading, downsizing and degazettement (PADDD). The conservation planning was the main proximate cause for PA degazettement and downsizing. On the other hand, an increase in infrastructure with hydropower development as the specific cause was the proximate cause for proposed PADDD. Overall PA dynamism reflected Bhutan’s commitment to environmental conservation guided by its GNH philosophy. I recorded differences in the number of PADDD events, PADDD types and PAs affected between the current study and those previously recorded for Bhutan from a regional level study. This demonstrated the need for country specific systematic archival literature search to better detect PADDD. To fill in freshwater species data gaps I curated georeferenced occurrence data of fish and odonata from the available literatures till 2017 and also through personal communications. While building SDMs for 10 fish and 28 odonates I compared the performance of four sequential model selection approaches against an expert (EXP) approach in selecting ecologically plausible species models. The sequential approaches using omission rate followed by test AUC (ORTEST) performed better over the sequential approaches that used omission rate followed by difference between training AUC and test AUC, and test AUC (AUCDIFF). ORTEST approaches could be used as a good first line model screening approach to reduce time taken by the EXP approach. This thesis contextualized freshwater biodiversity and ecosystems conservation against NNH by categorizing levels of species habitat, river length and lake surface area percentage protection into four progressive targets based on Aichi target 11 and NNH target. Despite covering 50% of Bhutan’s total land area, many freshwater ecosystems and taxa were inadequately represented within the existing PA system of Bhutan. These gaps could be easily filled employing Marxan, a common systematic conservation planning tool. Even when considering hydropower developments, we found solutions that increased the species coverage significantly. That said, high percentages of selected areas are already protected by the existing PA system. This suggests Bhutan may not need to change drastically the existing PA system if PAs are redesigned to better represent both freshwater species and forest types. This thesis provides the first real world example of inadequacy in protecting freshwater ecosystems and biodiversity by terrestrial-focused PAs even when total area of PA system meets the NNH target. The findings also demonstrate a clear need for freshwater conservation planning. The collated species occurrence data and ecologically plausible SDMs chosen here could be a starting point for freshwater conservation planning in Bhutan. The thesis also showed clear need to conduct country level systematic archival literature review to better detect PADDD. This thesis also linked PA dynamism study with freshwater systematic conservation planning and probably this could be way forward to design robust PA systems.
Thesis (PhD Doctorate)
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
School of Environment and Sc
Science, Environment, Engineering and Technology
Full Text

Rapid development in Information technology are creating learning and teaching more interactive and efficient through innovative technology. The potential use of Internet and computer technology in the education has been widely recognized globally. Bhutan although with its limited ICT (Information and communication Technology) infrastructure shares the same view and wishes to yield the benefits of the technology into their education curriculum.

The aim of the project is to demonstrate the capability of web technology in developing web portal with low-end technology to teach school children the basic skills of mapping and GIS. The basic skills on map reading and application of simple query related to GIS forms the core component of this application which will help children learn map reading.

The application is created with low-end technology and is simple and easy to use. The project is not a complete portal and will not cover all aspect of mapping but will supplement the conventional classroom curriculum and can be developed into a full cross-curriculum portal with further contribution.

Thesis (S.M.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences, 2007.
Includes bibliographical references (leaves [34]-38).
New reconnaissance data for a poorly characterized area in the western Bhutan Himalaya show distinction between the 40Ar/39Ar cooling age distributions of detrital minerals in the two river catchments of the Punatsang chu and the Wang chu. Muscovites from five samples of Wang chu river sands yield ages (corresponding roughly to the time of bedrock cooling through a temperature of ca.350°C) between 9.37± 0.08 Ma and 13.98 ± 0.08 Ma. The majority of ages are less than 13 Ma, and the data for all samples have a unimodal distribution with an average age of ca. 11.4 ± 1.5 Ma. In contrast, muscovites from 14 Punatsang chu samples yield ages with nearly the same total range but with a distinctively multi-modal distribution. Two modes predominate in the Punatsang chu data: one at ca. 11.4 Ma, which is statistically indistinguishable from the single mode of the Wang chu data, and one at ca. 14.5 Ma. The full explanation for this distribution must await further bedrock and detrital dating studies, but one hypothesis is that the out-of-sequence Kakhtang thrust fault system - which is thought to transect the upper reaches of the river catchments - has juxtaposed two bedrock terrains with different cooling histories.
(cont.) A second possibility is that the younger mode of cooling ages is related to uplift of the footwall of the Chomolhari fault system, which includes the major bounding structures of the Yadong-Gulu rift northwest of the catchments. Exactly why the older mode of ages is not found in the Wang chu dataset is unclear. If the first of the above hypotheses is correct, the lack of an older mode in the Wang chu dataset may mean that the muscovites in the Wang chu fluvial sediments were derived exclusively from the Kakhtang thrust system hanging wall. If the second hypothesis is correct, the muscovites may have been derived exclusively from the Chomolhari fault system footwall. However, since we do not know the actual distribution of muscovites in the Wang chu catchment and we do not know that modern erosion is uniform in the catchment, it is also possible that the older mode is simply missing as an artifact not-uniform sampling. Again, more studies are needed to evaluate these alternative explanations.
by Peldon Tshering.
S.M.

Thesis (M.C.P.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Urban Studies and Planning, 2002.
Includes bibliographical references (p. 147-149).
This research examines practices that achieve an urban fabric unique to its cultural heritage by promoting innovation in local building industries while embracing notions of urban livability. Prevailing urban livability theorists argue that built form is a physical manifestation of the expression of culture and agree that cultural heritage is important to a community's sustainability and identity. The central hypothesis is that "Quality" in the built environment in Bhutan is accomplished only by employing traditional building practices. "Quality", as defined here, is achieved when two factors are satisfied: 1) the construction is equal to or above established standards and, 2) the construction practice possesses the distinct characteristics of the culture. This hypothesis is tested through five case studies of current buildings in urban centers and through various discussions with design professionals, construction practitioners, government officials and others in Thimphu, Bhutan. The Royal Government of Bhutan is at the forefront of cultural heritage initiatives and has been celebrated for its progressive Gross National Happiness (GNH) development vision, a document that articulates the criteria for defining the distinct characteristics of the Bhutanese culture. However, the government has been challenged to implement this vision while facing the rapid development of its nascent urban centers. As part of the conclusion, the thesis proposes the establishment of a research institute, The Housing Research Institute of Bhutan, for the study of responsible building practices in support of GNH. The mission would be to inform design, development and construction processes formulated from the collection and dissemination of information, promotion of knowledge exchange, and support of research on materials, regulation, management and design through building demonstration projects. The institute will act as a conduit for the convergence of information and priorities between industry, contractors, government agencies and the public.
Alexis Anne Bennett.
M.C.P.

People’s participation in their own development is at the core of Communication forDevelopment. This study explores the potential and barriers for youth civic engagementespecially among the urban youth in Bhutan, a newly democratised country in theEastern Himalayas. Youth Initiative (YI), a project begun in the fall of 2013 by a groupof local youth and mentored by a local civil society organisation, the Bhutan Centre forMedia and Democracy, was chosen as the case study.The study analyses how and in which arenas youth enact their citizenship inBhutan; how young people themselves see their opportunities to participate indemocratic processes, analysing social, cultural and political factors influencing theirparticipation; whether their civic participation is critical or conforming to the existingsocial structures; how could Facebook foster democratic culture and youth civicengagement; and what is the link between youth civic engagement and social capital.Data were collected through three (3) focus group discussions with youth andnine (9) qualitative interviews with founders or steering committee members of the YI.The 19 young participants of the focus group discussions were between 17 to 28 yearsold, two of the groups consisting of YI representatives and one of unemployed youth.The interview data together with relevant textual sources were analysed through theconceptual framework of participatory democracy and social capital. Three distinctthemes could be identified through the qualitative thematic analysis: 1. Youth agency inthe public sphere; 2. Inequality and corruption; and 3. Cultural change. Particularlyinformal cultural barriers, such as respecting authorities and the lack of democraticculture to have an equal, critical dialogue in the public sphere were seen as mainobstacles for youth civic engagement in Bhutan.The findings indicate that youth civic engagement is a crucial component instrengthening social capital, particularly mutual trust across different groups andgenerations of people. The study argues that it is possible to create a space for intergenerational dialogue that encompasses and respects the diverse, but overlappingspheres of youth agency, democratic communication and social harmony.

Rabies, a fatal and neglected zoonotic disease, is reported mainly from the southern parts of Bhutan bordering India, but sporadic occurrences have been reported in other, previously free areas. Domestic dogs play a principal role in the transmission of rabies and no wildlife rabies cases have been reported so far in Bhutan. Although rabies has been endemic and causes substantial financial losses, no detailed studies have been conducted to understand the epidemiology of rabies in Bhutan. The overall objective of this research was to better understand the epidemiology of animal and human rabies and estimate the cost of various rabies intervention measures in humans and animals. This was the first epidemiologic research on rabies ever conducted in Bhutan. Rabies surveillance data (1996 to 2009) and field surveys were used for this epidemiologic research. The spatial and temporal distribution of animal rabies cases was examined by using a Geographic Information System and time series analysis approaches. The study showed that 59 of the 205 sub-districts in Bhutan reported animal rabies from 1996 to 2009 with increased incidences in the four districts in southern parts of Bhutan. Significant (P<0.05) clusters of cases were observed in south central and south west Bhutan. More cases were reported in cattle (n=447) and domestic dogs (n=317) and a significant cross correlation between the number of reported cases in dogs and other domestic animals was demonstrated, wherein the report of cases in dogs predicted cases in other domestic animals. Rabies cases were reported throughout the year with more reports during spring and summer months, likely to be associated with the breeding season of dogs. The annual patterns of cases were relatively stable until 2005, but increased in 2006 and 2008. This increased incidence was associated with re-emergence of rabies in eastern and south west Bhutan between 2005 and 2008, areas that had been previously free from rabies. This major rabies outbreak in eastern Bhutan resulted in one human and 256 domestic animal deaths while the outbreak in south west Bhutan resulted in 97 animal deaths; both outbreaks caused serious financial losses to society. During these outbreaks, large numbers of people (~2000) were directly or indirectly exposed to either suspected rabid animals or animal products derived from rabid animals and were given post-exposure prophylaxis. The outbreak in eastern Bhutan was believed to have been due to an incursion from across the border while local spread from the endemic areas or an incursion was hypothesized in the south-west Bhutan outbreak. The high densities and movements of stray dogs with inadequate control measures were responsible for the rapid spread and persistence of the infection for about two years (from May 2005 to November 2007) in eastern Bhutan. In contrast, the outbreak in south west Bhutan during 2008 was controlled within six months by culling of stray dogs, mass dog vaccination, and impounding of dogs. Anthropogenic factors − including human population characteristics and its movement, road network accessibility, and high dog density − played a major role in the spread of disease during both of these outbreaks. The assessment of risk factors for the occurrence of rabies at the sub-district level identified the socio-demographic and anthropogenic factors significantly associated with reporting of rabies in domestic animals in Bhutan. Sharing a common border with India was found to be the most important individual predictor of the overall distribution of rabies occurrence in Bhutan (odds ratio 10.43; 95% CI: 4.42–24.64; P<0.001). Of the 59 sub-districts that reported rabies in Bhutan, 43 (73%) shared a border with India. The trans-border movement or translocation of stray dogs and an inadequate control program may be responsible for the maintenance of rabies endemicity and transmission among the stray dog population in these border areas. Molecular and phylogenetic analyses further demonstrated that Bhutanese rabies virus isolates were found to be closely related to Indian rabies virus strain and belong to Arctic-like-1 viruses which are widely circulating in the Indian sub-continent. This study suggests that the rabies viruses spreading in southern parts of Bhutan have originated from a common ancestor. However, more sampling is needed from Bhutan-India border areas to understand the transmission dynamic of rabies virus in the region. In humans, rabies cases were found to be sporadic, mainly reported in the canine rabies endemic areas of southern Bhutan. A total of 15 human rabies deaths was reported between January 2006 and July 2011 (with 5 deaths reported in 2011 alone), equivalent to a cumulative incidence of 2.14 per 100000 population (annual incidence of 0.28 per 100000 people). Although the number of human rabies deaths was sporadic, there were increased number of dog bite incidents and post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) administration to the patients. In order to understand the use and distribution of rabies PEP in humans, PEP data for the period from 2005 to 2008 were retrieved from the hospital medical database and analysed. The study showed that PEP was provided to the patients free of charge by the medical hospitals in Bhutan, and followed the 5-dose Essen intramuscular regimen. A significant (P<0.001) difference in gender and age groups receiving PEP was observed: males received more PEP than females across all age groups. Children − particularly 5–9 years of age − received more PEP than other age groups, indicating children and males are more at risk of rabies exposure in Bhutan. PEP was provided throughout the year with a higher number of doses administered during the winter and spring months, and was given to both animal bite and non-bite exposures. The study also identified a lack of patient compliance to complete the course of PEP: some 40% (n = 3360) of the patients received an incomplete course of vaccine (less than the required course of 5-doses). However, the results suggest that patients with animal bite injury were less likely to receive an incomplete vaccine course than non-bite recipients. Secondly, patients presented to hospitals in rabies endemic or outbreak areas were less likely to receive an incomplete course than in rabies free interior Bhutan, thus reducing the chances of vaccination failures. The study also showed that the PEP was provided to patients that have low or no risk of rabies exposure. Therefore, a thorough assessment of each individual case based on the WHO guidelines would reduce unnecessary use of PEP, and therefore costs in Bhutan. The main reason for providing PEP was found to be due to dog bites. To better understand the dog bites incidents in humans, a hospital-based survey was conducted at the three hospitals in Western and Southern Bhutan (Thimphu, Phuentsholing and Gelephu) for a period of nine months. The study revealed that dog bites in human are common in the survey areas and showed significant (P<0.001) gender and age differences in bite incidents. Males were more at risk of dog bites than females, and the children aged 5–9 years were bitten more than other age groups, which substantiate our earlier findings of more use of PEP in males and children. The majority of victims were bitten by stray dogs, and the most common anatomical bite sites were on the legs. Using data on the anatomical location of dog bites in humans and a probability of dying from rabies, a decision tree model was constructed to estimate human deaths from rabies in two rabies endemic areas of southern Bhutan. Based on the official reported cases of rabies in two hospital areas (Gelephu and Phuentsholing) in southern Bhutan, the average number of human rabies death was 1.5 (95% CI: 0.75–3.00) per year, equivalent to an annual incidence of 3.14 (95% CI: 1.57–6.29) per 100,000 population. The decision tree model predicted 2.23 (95% CI: 1.20−3.59) human deaths from rabies per year, equivalent to an annual incidence of 4.67 (95% CI: 2.53–7.53) deaths per 100,000 populations. This indicated that no major underreporting of human rabies deaths has occurred, unlike in other rabies endemic countries, although some underreporting of dog bites is possible. In the absence of post-exposure prophylaxis, the model predicted 19.24 (95% CI: 13.69–25.14) deaths per year, equivalent to an annual incidence of 40.31 (95% CI: 28.70–52.68) per 100,000 population, suggesting post-exposure prophylaxis is important to prevent human rabies deaths. Since both dog bite incidents and the use of PEP were high in Bhutan, a cross-sectional study was conducted at Gelephu (south central Bhutan), an area endemic for rabies, to understand people’s level of knowledge and awareness about rabies. The study showed that a majority of the interviewed respondents had heard of rabies, and had a positive attitude towards the prevention and control of rabies. About 84 to 92% of the respondents also mentioned that they would report to the hospital for treatment if bitten by dogs and other animals, indicating good health seeking behaviours of the people. The respondents also had a positive attitude towards prevention and control of rabies in dogs by vaccination. However, these findings also indicated the existence of some knowledge gaps (knowledge about rabies and its transmission and importance of wound washing) which could be filled by creating awareness education programmes on: the danger of rabies and mode of transmission to humans and importance washing animal bite wound and visiting a hospital for post-exposure prophylaxis. Since rabies causes substantial financial losses to society, understanding the cost-benefit or cost-effectiveness of the intervention programme is important. Quantification of the financial cost of rabies intervention in Bhutan suggested that the average direct medical cost of human PEP (using rabies vaccine only) was approximately Bhutanese Ngultrum (Nu) 1615 (US$ 35.65) per 5-dose Essen regimen per patient. The cost would increase to Nu. 2497 (US$ 55.13) and Nu. 19633 (US$ 433.41) per patient, if one dose of either equine rabies immunoglobulin (ERIG) or human rabies immunoglobulin (HRIG) was administered, respectively. The societal cost (public plus private cost) per patient was estimated to be Nu. 2019 (US$ 45), Nu. 2901 (US$ 64), and Nu. 20037 (US$ 442) using vaccine alone, vaccine with ERIG and vaccine with HRIG, respectively. The average cost per dog vaccination was estimated to be Nu. 75 (US$ 1.66) and the cost per dog sterilization was estimated to be Nu. 288 (US$ 6.52). The total direct medical cost due to rabies (including surveillance and livestock loss cost, PEP in human and dog vaccination and sterilization) between 2001 and 2008 was estimated to be Nu. 48.54 million (US$ 1.07 million). The analysis also showed that mass dog vaccination would be more cost-effective than intensified post-exposure prophylaxis in human alone. The above findings suggest that an area bordering India in the south were at higher risk of reporting rabies than the interior of Bhutan. More resources for rabies control programs and surveillance should be targeted and focussed in the highly endemic ‘hot spot’ areas of southern Bhutan. Mass vaccination of dogs in the border areas in the south would create an immune buffer (cordon sanitaire) and prevent incursion of rabies into interior Bhutan. A One-Health approach for rabies control in Bhutan should be implemented towards elimination of rabies through creation of effective partnership focussing on coordinating research, operational activities and pooling of resources between public health and veterinary services. Elimination of rabies through mass dog vaccination would reduce the recurrent cost of intensified PEP in humans and will produce economic savings in the long run by preventing human and livestock deaths and by discontinuing the intensified use of PEP in humans and rabies control programmes. Public awareness education is necessary and should include: the risk of rabies exposure; importance of preventing dog bites and wound washing and visiting health centres following dog bites and exposure to suspected rabid animals. Epidemiological surveillance of rabies should be improved by the laboratory confirmation of all suspected cases, including human, and the data so generated should be shared between the public health and veterinary sectors and also relevant international organizations. International collaboration is necessary for technical and financial support for sustaining rabies control in Bhutan.

Women leadership is not heard or seen much, because we view the picture of leadership through patriarchal lenses. From the history of Bhutan, it can be perceived that the concept of a woman as a leader was unfamiliar until recent years. Rulers and top executives of the country were all male. However, in recent years the nation witnessed the emergence of the few women leaders. The paper examines current patterns of leadership in Bhutan in few key areas and organizations. The obstacles and challenges confronted by Bhutanese women are analyzed and found that there are social, political, cultural and religious barriers that impede women’s career advancement. The career expansion and acquiring leadership position of women is till a problem in Bhutan. The paper also uses case study of the first two national parliamentary elections of Bhutan to demonstrate the kind of women participation and range of challenges that hinders their participation.

Teacher professional development is important to provide ongoing opportunities for teachers to enhance their teaching and learning practices. This study investigated ways in which peer mentoring may support the development of a professional learning community among beginning and experienced teachers in Bhutan. A social constructivist perspective framed the approach to peer mentoring which encouraged both beginning and experienced teachers to use evidence from classroom observations and engage in social interaction during the post-lesson discussions. The study used qualitative methodology to explore and understand the teachers’ authentic experiences of peer mentoring. The participants were four groups of three teachers (two beginning and one experienced) working in four different schools in Bhutan. Multiple data sources included pre-peer mentoring survey, semi-structured interviews with the teachers, observation notes maintained by the participants and researcher’s onsite observation notes. The findings confirmed that peer mentoring provided opportunities for teachers to collaborate, discuss and share new ideas with each other. In addition, observations and discussions helped teachers analyse and refine their teaching and learning practices. Initially some beginning teachers found it difficult to provide feedback to the experienced teacher in their group but over time the observation tool and collegial discussions enabled them to provide feedback. The peer mentoring enabled beginning teachers to be more confident in their practices and provided opportunity for experienced teachers to rethink their teaching and learning practices. The findings also highlighted inherent challenges related to managing classes for observations and time constraints for post-lesson discussions. For the groups that met regularly, mentoring as a school-based professional development provided opportunities to share knowledge, resources and improve collegial support. This offered possibilities for creating an effective learning environment that supported instructional development and helped in building a professional learning community.

The Ph.D. project looks at how formal and informal institutions shape governance in the tourism value chain in Bhutan. The implications for processes of economic inclusion and upgrading are explored, together with broader considerations on the industry's contribution to economic growth. The mechanisms identified are further explored and tested in two rural communities in central Bhutan, analysing the implications for rural livelihoods' diversification and specialisation. The findings of this thesis show that despite the presence of market-enhancing formal institutions, high transaction costs in the business environment are bridged through informal networks based on trust. These mechanisms have important implications for economic inclusion and upgrading in the tourism value chain and for the direct participation of rural communities. Close networks not only minimise transaction costs but also transact valuable information and resources providing competitive advantage. Yet, networks can support inclusion and in other cases exacerbate exclusion. Mechanisms of "go-betweenness" are identified, indicating the possibility to make tourism more inclusive through targeted government interventions and sectoral policies. Beyond the direct implications for the industry case study in Bhutan, the findings challenge and extend the concept of governance used in a GVCs/GCCs framework as well as broaden the scope of institutional analysis to understand processes and outcomes of economic participation.

Every child has the right to be protected from abuse, violence and exploitation. Children in Bhutan today have rights by law not to be subject to physical abuse, yet UNICEF statistics show that over 64% of children have been physically abused at least once in their lives. There are four types of child maltreatment, physical abuse, emotional abuse, sexual abuse and neglect. This study focuses on physical abuse. According to the Youth Development Fund of Bhutan there is a lack of knowledge to address child protection issues in the country. The aim was to investigate the radiographers experience and perceived responsibility when suspecting child abuse. A qualitative interview study with inductive approach was used to answer the study’s purpose. Five radiographers were interviewed at the national referral hospital in Thimphu. The result shows that there is a lack of knowledge about child abuse, but the radiographers are aware of their responsibility by law to report suspected cases of child abuse. The radiographers perceive that their responsibility lay in taking as good images as possible. The radiographers are doing their best with the resources available but that is not enough to protect the children against violence.
Varje barn har rätt att skyddas mot misshandel, våld och exploatering. Barn i Bhutan har idag rätt att inte utsättas för fysiskt våld men statistik från UNICEF visar att över 64% av barnen har utstått fysiskt våld minst en gång i livet. Det finns fyra typer av barnmisshandel, fysiskt våld, psykiskt våld, sexuella övergrepp och försummelse. Denna studie fokuserar på fysiskt våld. Enligt Bhutans ungdomsutvecklingsfond (YDF) finns brist på kunskap för att ta itu med barnsäkerhetsfrågor i landet. Syftet med studien är att undersöka radiografers erfarenheter och hur de uppfattat sitt ansvar vid misstänkta fall av barnmisshandel. En kvalitativ intervjustudie med en induktiv ansats användes för att besvara studiens syfte. Fem radiografer intervjuades på sjukhuset i Thimphu. Resultatet visar att kunskapen om barnmisshandel är bristfälliga men att radiograferna är väl medvetna om sin skyldighet enligt lag att rapportera misstänkta barnmisshandelsfall. Radiograferna uppfattar att deras ansvar ligger i att ta så bra bilder som möjligt. Radiograferna gör sitt bästa med de resurser som finns tillgängliga men det räcker inte för att skydda barnen från våld.

This research project examined the epidemiology of occupational exposures to hazardous chemicals and agents among healthcare workers in Australia and Bhutan. Data from three population-based cross-sectional studies conducted in 2011, 2014 and 2016 in Australia were analysed and a cross-sectional survey was conducted in 2019 in three hospitals in Bhutan. The results indicate that a substantial proportion of healthcare workers in both countries were occupationally exposed to hazardous chemicals with exposure to asthmagens being the most common.

This thesis is a study about women's participation in Bhutan's new democracy and exposes the patriarchy embedded in Bhutanese society which is reinforced through cultural practices and the legal framework. It reveals the public/private dichotomy, the low educational attainment of girls and the gendered division of labour which derails women's public life. It discloses a masculine driven party politics and the challenges of being a woman in the world of men. Nonetheless, the first trailblazing women parliamentarians demonstrated a principled, feminine, political leadership in a masculine environment. Semi-structured interviews, document review and participant observation methods were used to collect data.

Based on ethnographic research in Bhutan and among Bhutanese living in Nepal, this thesis examines the reach of law in everyday life in contemporary Bhutan. Drawing on inter-linked themes of social values drawn from Buddhist teachings and the importance of morality, power and legitimacy, I examine popular discourse of and about law. It contributes to current arguments in socio-legal studies and anthropology concerning the reach of law in contemporary societies and its significance in everyday life. Furthermore, my thesis represents the first ethnographic account of law and society in Bhutan. It makes a valuable contribution not only to our understanding of Bhutan, but also provides an ideal opportunity to examine everyday conceptions of law as the Bhutanese State promotes legal change that draw on non-indigenous models. The thesis considers the impact of the creation of a modem, independent judiciary and recent changes in legal education and the increasing amount of legislation and secondary regulations. However, the everyday construction of law, as well as the meanings and uses to which law are put, raises problems. Therefore, I turn to examine how ordinary people create and develop a sense of the law by focussing on the development of legal consciousness. To do this, I look less at the formal legal processes of the law than at the narratives about law from a number of Bhutanese. These narratives focus on the importance of community values and notions of morality and legitimacy, which simultaneously draw on a prevalent authoritative public discourse concerning social behaviour and individual re-interpretations and resistance within the broad framework of the discourse. I examine the interrelationship between these various features, which evoke, on an individual level, a sense of "legal consciousness" and I develop how this informs daily life. This interrelationship highlights the dynamism of the process and the fluidity of ideas and adaptability to changing needs and relationships of power. This approach allows for an examination of law situated within, rather than separate from, everyday life in order to analyse the fragmentary and often inconsistent use made by individuals of the legal orders and forums available to them.