Дисертації з теми "Autophagy, breast cancer, IKBKE"

Autophagy is one of the major responses to stress in eukaryotic cells and is implicated in several pathological conditions such as infections, neurodegenerative diseases and cancer. Interestingly, cancer cells take full advantage of autophagy both to support tumor growth in adverse microenvironments and to oppose damages induced by anti-neoplastic therapies. Importantly, different human oncogenes are able to modulate this survival mechanism to support the transformation process, ultimately leading to “autophagy addiction”. Still, oncogenic signaling events, impinging on the control of autophagy, are poorly characterized, limiting our possibilities to take advantage of these mechanisms for therapeutic purposes. Here, we screened a library of activated kinases for their ability to stimulate autophagy. By this approach, we identified novel potential regulators of the autophagic process and, among them, the IKBKE oncogene. Specifically, we demonstrate that this oncoprotein is able to stimulate autophagy when overexpressed, an event frequently found in breast tumors, and that its activity is strictly required for breast cancer cells to support the autophagic process. Interestingly, different oncogenic pathways typically involved in breast cancer, namely ERBB2 and PI3K-AKT-MTOR, also rely on IKBKE to control this process. Ultimately, we show that IKBKE-dependent autophagy is necessary for breast cancer cell proliferation, suggesting an important supporting role for this oncogene and autophagy in these tumors.

Aquest és el primer informe que demostra que l'autofàgia està mecànicament vinculat al manteniment de les cèl•lules tumorals que expressen alts nivells de CD44 i baixos nivells de CD24, que són típics de les cèl•lules mare del càncer de mama. Els nostres resultats actuals proporcionen una nova visió de com la divisió mitocondrial s'integra a la xarxa de la transcripció impulsada per factors de reprogramació, especifica de la pluripotència única de les cèl•lules mare. L'autofàgia pot controlar la refractarietat de novo de carcinomes de mama amb el gen HER2 amplificat per l'anticòs monoclonal trastuzumab (Herceptin). Per tant, el tractament de combinació amb trastuzumab i cloroquina, com a fàrmac anti-malàric i inhibidor de l’autofàgia, suprimeix radicalment el creixement del tumor en un xenoempelt de tumor completament refractari a trastuzumab en un model murí. L’addició de cloroquina amb els règims amb trastuzumab pot, per tant, millorar els resultats en les dones amb càncer de mama HER2. Aquesta és una àrea molt emocionant i molt prometedora de la investigació del càncer, com la modulació farmacològica de l'autofàgia sembla augmentar l'eficàcia dels règims contra el càncer disponibles en l'actualitat i s'obre el camí per al desenvolupament de noves estratègies terapèutiques combinatòries que s'espera que contribueixin a l'eradicació del càncer.
This is the first report demonstrating that autophagy is mechanistically linked to the maintenance of tumor cells expressing high levels of CD44 and low levels of CD24, which are typical of breast cancer stem cells. Our current findings provide new insight into how mitochondrial division is integrated into the reprogramming of the factors-driven transcriptional network that specifies the unique pluripotency of stem cells. Autophagy may control the de novo refractoriness of HER2 gene-amplified breast carcinomas to the monoclonal antibody trastuzumab (Herceptin). Accordingly, treatment with trastuzumab and chloroquine, as antimalarial drug and inhibitor of autophagy, radically suppresses tumor growth in a tumor xenograft completely refractory to trastuzumab in a mouse model. Adding chloroquine to trastuzumab-based regimens may therefore improve outcomes among women with autophagy-addicted HER2-positive breast cancer. This is a very exciting and highly promising area of cancer research, as pharmacologic modulation of autophagy appears to augment the efficacy of currently available anticancer regimens and opens the way to the development of new combinatorial therapeutic strategies that will hopefully contribute to cancer eradication.

In MCF-7 breast tumor cells, ionizing radiation promoted autophagy that was cytoprotective; pharmacological or genetic interference with autophagy induced by radiation resulted in growth suppression and/or cell killing (primarily by apoptosis). The hormonally active form of vitamin D, 1,25D3, also promoted autophagy in irradiated MCF-7 cells, sensitized the cells to radiation and suppressed the proliferative recovery that occurs after radiation alone. 1,25D3 also enhanced radiosensitivity and promoted autophagy in MCF7 cells that overexpress Her-2/neu as well as in p53 mutant Hs578t breast tumor cells. In contrast, 1,25D3 failed to alter radiosensitivity or promote autophagy in the BT474 breast tumor cell line with low-level expression of the vitamin D receptor. Enhancement of MCF-7 cell sensitivity to radiation by 1,25D3 was not attenuated by either a pharmacological or genetic block to autophagy; this was due largely to the promotion of apoptosis via the suppression of protective autophagy that occurs in response to radiation alone. Moreover, pharmacological blockade of autophagy did not sensitize noncancerous MCF10a cells to radiation; conversely, 4T1 mouse mammary tumors were highly sensitive to pharmacological inhibition of autophagy, suggesting selective radiosensitization against cancer cell lines. The current studies are consistent with the premise that while autophagy mediates a cytoprotective function in irradiated breast tumor cells, promotion of autophagy can also confer radiosensitivity by vitamin D (1,25D3). In addition, this work highlights the technical challenge of establishing the potential cytotoxic function of autophagy in an experimental system where the cytoprotective function may be concurrently expressed.

During severe hypoxia (<0.01% oxygen) the protein folding machinery becomes dysfunctional, resulting in the accumulation of unfolded proteins with consequent endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and activation of the unfolded protein response (UPR) and autophagy, a process involved in the physiological turnover of cytoplasmic components. The link between the UPR and autophagy is not clearly defined. The aim of this thesis is to investigate the role of the induction of UPR under severe hypoxia in tumour survival and resistance to therapy. The results of this research suggest that the activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4), a component of the PKR-like ER kinase (PERK) pathway, fundamental in the UPR, is required for the ER-stress induced upregulation of autophagy. Mechanisms other than hypoxia for UPR induction were investigated, using the proteasome inhibitor bortezomib (BZ). BZ treatment increased ATF4 protein levels in MCF7 cells, even transfected with short-interference RNA (siRNA) against the classical UPR activator PERK, suggesting that the proteasomal stabilization is likely the main mechanism for ATF4 protein accumulation. The induction of autophagy by BZ is dependent upon the upregulation of the microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3B (LC3B), an autophagy marker, by ATF4 and acts as a survival mechanism. Hypoxia, UPR and autophagy markers (such as Pimonidazole, carbonic anhydrases IX (CAIX), C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP) and LC3B) were evaluated by immunohistochemical approach in spheroids, xenografts models and breast cancer samples. CHOP immunohistochemical staining was performed in breast cancer sections from a series of patients. CHOP was expressed in cells surrounding necrotic areas. No correlation were found with clinical outcome and further studies are needed.

Autophagy is a catabolic process of self-digestion that occurs at basal levels in all cells, degrading old and damaged components such as proteins and organelles. Autophagy is upregulated in response to cellular stress, including the types imposed on cancer cells, and its role in these circumstances is often to facilitate cell survival. However, the molecular mechanisms regulating autophagy in response to cellular stress are still not well understood. Other components of the cell that are regulated in response to cellular stress are small non-coding portions of RNA termed microRNAs (miRNAs) that act to control protein levels in the cell by degrading mRNA targets or repressing their translation. The overall objective of this research was to identify candidate miRNA regulators of autophagy. My hypothesis was that miRNAs that regulate autophagy will demonstrate differential expression in response to cell stresses that induce autophagy. To test this hypothesis, I conducted miRNA expression profiling by Illumina sequencing in untreated BT-474 breast cancer cells and in BT-474 cells treated with a high dose of tamoxifen, a known inducer of autophagy. 113 distinct miRNAs were found to be significantly differentially expressed (p<0.05 and >1.5 fold) between the tamoxifen treated sample and control, and the differential expression of a subset of these miRNAs was validated using QRT-PCR. Using the online miRNA resource, TargetScan, 27 of the differentially expressed miRNAs were found to have potential autophagy-related targets, and of these, seven were selected to undergo further expression analysis in two additional breast cancer cell-lines using an additional autophagy inducing treatment, nutrient deprivation. Four of the selected miRNAs demonstrated similar patterns of differential expression in all three breast cancer cell-lines under the two different autophagy-inducing conditions. These four miRNAs consistently showed decreased expression when autophagy was induced, and have the potential to be direct regulators of the autophagy pathway upon cell stress induction in breast cancer cells. Understanding the mechanisms underlying the regulation of stress-induced autophagy may provide insight into the role autophagy plays in breast cancer and reveal potential targets to alter the process for clinical benefit.

When breast tumor cells encounter stress due to cancer therapies, they may enter a dormant state, escaping from treatment-induced apoptosis. Dormant cells may eventually regain proliferative capabilities and cause recurrent metastatic disease, which is the leading cause of mortality in breast cancer patients. We sought to determine if a high dose of radiation therapy (RT) or combined chemo-immunotherapy, with and without the blockade of autophagy by chloroquine (CQ), could overcome treatment-induced tumor dormancy or relapse. We found that autophagy contributes in part to treatment-induced tumor dormancy. We also found that three therapeutic strategies were successful in inhibiting or preventing tumor relapse. These include: 18Gy/day RT, chemotherapy combined with the blockade of autophagy, and combined chemo-immunotherapy. Follow-up studies are needed to determine the feasibility of preventing tumor relapse by prolonging tumor dormancy versus eliminating dormant tumor cells.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD
Breast cancer is one of the most common cancers among women in South Africa and the second leading cause of cancer death after lung cancer. According to the American Cancer Society 2015, women have a 12% chance of developing invasive breast cancer and a 3% chance of dying from it. Despite the wide variety of breast cancers e.g. lobular carcinoma in situ (LCIS) and ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS), many share the same etiology and target tissue. Estrogen related carcinogenesis with regard to breast cancer typically results from the activation of distinct signalling pathways. These pathways are not mutually exclusive and are often constituted by receptor mediated stimulation of cell proliferation caused by specific transcriptional gene activation, reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation causing DNA damage and consequently mutations. The molecular pathways that cause drug resistance are not fully understood and the search continues to find novel targets for treatment. The effects of non-toxic triterpenes, oleanolic acid and ursolic acid and the role of autophagy and apoptosis as mechanisms to overcome drug resistance in breast cancer were studied in vitro in MCF-7 breast cancer cells and MCF10A breast cells. In this study the first aim was to establish the influence of OA and UA on cell growth and to see if opposing proliferation patterns could observed between the presumably ERɑ negative (ERɑ/ß -/+) MCF-10A and ERɑ positive (ERɑ/ß +/+) MCF-7 cells. This was followed by morphology studies to establish the possible presence of cytotoxicity and examination of molecular pathways contributing to the anti-cancerous properties of UA and OA and their validity as therapeutic agents. The MCF-7 breast cancer cell line and the immortalized normal mammary cell line, MCF-10A were treated with different concentrations of UA and OA for 6hrs, 12hrs, 24hrs, 48hrs, and 72hrs respectively. Cell morphology was studied in hematoxylin and eosin as well as Hoechst and acridine orange stained cells and viability was measured using crystal violet staining. Molecular techniques employed included the Tali® Apoptosis - and the cellROX assays, flow cytometry and western blotting. Morphological, viability and apoptotic studies have shown that at their lowest concentration, both UA and OA have anti-proliferative and apoptotic effects on MCF-7 and to a lesser extent on MCF-10A. Flow cytometric analysis of treated cells has demonstrated cell arrest in the S- and G2/M phase. The MCF-7 and MCF-10A cells growth inhibition effect may be due to increased autophagy and apoptosis as an alternative to decreased proliferation in MCF-7 cells. This possibility should be evaluated in further studies. The results showed that UA was more effective OA in decreasing cell numbers and it may be applied as treatment for breast cancer. Our observation has shown the treatment with OA and UA increased cell death in MCF-7 cells.The opposing proliferation patterns observed between the presumably ERɑ negative (ERɑ/ß -/+) MCF-10A and ERɑ positive (ERɑ/ß +/+) MCF-7 cells could possibly be ascribed to ERß forming homodimers that may facilitate proliferation, whereas ERɑ/ß heterodimers (expressed in 59% of breast cancers) are frequently associated with the ERɑ antagonising actions of ERß. The results indicate a trend towards biphasic and anti- proliferative effects of the reactants in breast cancer cells which may contribute towards the development of anti- cancer therapies. However, further work is must be done to identify the OA and UA mechanism(s) responsible for anticancer activity.
Libyan Embassy

Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2013.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Introduction: Among the cancers that afflict females world-wide, neoplastic disease of breast tissue is the most frequently diagnosed form and the leading cause of cancer-related death. Conventional treatment entails the use of doxorubicin, an anticancer agent belonging to the anthracycline family of chemotherapeutic drugs. Cancer cells are becoming increasingly resistant to doxorubicin therapy. The existence of hypoxic zones, which is a common feature of solid tumours, has been shown to promote the selection of therapy resistant clones in proliferating cancer cells. By modifying cellular homeostasis, neoplastic cells are capable of tolerating the hypoxic insult and thriving within the hostile microenvironment of the tumour. This adaptation is known as ‘the hypoxic response’ and is mediated through the action of the transcriptional regulator, HIF-1. Its expression in cancer tissue has been associated with a dismal prognosis as it promotes the degree of malignancy to an advanced stage. Hypothesis & Aims: We hypothesized that the targeting of HIF-1α would circumvent the ‘protective’ hypoxic response conferred upon breast cancer and improve the cytotoxicity of doxorubicin treatment. In this study, the first aim was to identify the hypoxic conditions at which the MCF-7 breast cancer cell line manifests a doxorubicin-resistant phenotype. This was followed by examination of the molecular pathways contributing to the hypoxic resistance by elucidating the potential relationship with the hypoxic regulator HIF-1α. Once the involvement of HIF-1α was established, the next aim was to evaluate whether the attenuation of HIF-1α would terminate the resistant phenotype and sensitize the neoplastic MCF-7 cells to doxorubicin treatment. Finally, the reproducibility of the in vitro experiment and efficacy of treatments within an animal model was evaluated. 2-Methoxyestradiol is a naturally occurring metabolite originating from 17β-estradiol. It has recently been exploited as an anticancer agent due to its anti-proliferative and anti-angiogenic properties. Among its various mechanisms of action, this compound has been shown to inhibit the expression of HIF-1α. It is for this reason that this study employed 2-methoxyestradiol in the adjuvant therapeutic treatment, along with doxorubicin. Methods: The in vitro experimental model employed the use of the breast adenocarcinoma estrogen receptor (ER-positive cell line, MCF-7. These neoplastic cells were propagated under standard culture conditions until reaching ~70-80% confluency, after which treatment commenced. The treatment regime comprised a 12 hour exposure to the doxorubicin (1 μM) chemotherapeutic agent, either alone or in combination with HIF-1α inhibitors, 2-methoxyestradiol (10 μM) or siRNA duplex (400 nM), with parallel incubations under normoxic (21%) and hypoxic (~0.1%) conditions. To serve as a positive control for HIF-1α expression, cells were treated with CoCl2 (100 μM). Molecular techniques employed included the Caspase-Glo® 3/7 Assay, western blotting, and the bioreductive MTT Assay. Mitochondrial integrity was assessed by live cell imaging/fluorescent microscopy. Cellular viability was monitored at all times. The experiment was then translated into a pre-clinical in vivo model where C57BL/6 mice bearing E0771 xenografts (4 week growth) were allocated into the following treatment groups: (1) control (2) doxorubicin (5 mg.kg-1), (3) 2-methoxyestradiol (45 mg.kg-1), and (4) the combination of the two previously mentioned groups. Body weight and the rate of tumour growth were monitored throughout the experiment. Results: Treatment with CoCl2 effectively stabilized HIF-1α under normoxic conditions. 2-Methoxyestradiol was capable of attenuating HIF-1α expression under both normoxia and hypoxia as compared with siRNA transfection, which was only effective under normoxia. HIF-1α stabilization was accompanied by an increase in autophagy along with the morphological transformation of mitochondria from an elongated network to shorter disc-like forms. On the other hand, HIF-1α attenuation caused an induction in the expression of the apoptotic markers, cleaved caspase 3 and cleaved PARP, as well as the restoration of the normoxic morphology. The exposure of MCF-7 cells to 1 μM doxorubicin for 12 hours produced a differential effect in the bioreductive MTT assay between normoxic and hypoxic conditions (42.97 ± 3.095% vs. normoxic dox, p<0.01), while stimulating the apoptotic and autophagic pathways. Compared to the control, a significant expression of phospho-AMPK became evident at 21% O2, while the levels remained stable at ~0.1% O2 after doxorubicin exposure. Furthermore, chemotherapeutic treatment caused the morphology of the mitochondria to appear dot-like. Although the combination of the two drugs removed the differential effect witnessed in the MTT assay, there was no significant change when compared to doxorubicin. Levels of apoptotic cell death decreased under both oxygen conditions. While HIF-1α and autophagy decreased under normoxia, they remained elevated under hypoxia. In the in vivo component of the study, the administration of doxorubicin and 2-methoxyestradiol, alone or in combination, did not affect the rate of tumour growth or induce systematic toxicity in any of the experimental mice. When drugs were administered separately, a decrease in apoptosis along with a concomitant increase in autophagy and p-AMPK expression became noticeable while neither treatment had any significant effect on the expression of HIF-1α. Adjuvant administration, however, was capable of attenuating HIF-1α along with autophagy. Discussion: By inducing (CoCl2) and inhibiting (2-methoxyestradiol; siRNA duplex) HIF-1α, it was established that the autophagic pathway in the in vitro experimental setting of this study was dependent on the expression of HIF-1α. The bioreductive MTT assay measures the metabolic state of a cell, which is an indirect indication of cellular viability. Based on this, hypoxia was shown to confer survival to neoplastic MCF-7 cells based on the differential effect witnessed after doxorubicin treatment. Apart from the induction of apoptosis and its associated mitochondrial fragmentation, the chemotherapeutic drug increased the activation of the metabolic sensor, AMPK, which upregulated autophagy during normoxia. While this autophagic process may assist in the killing mechanism, we speculate that the autophagy upregulated under hypoxia may be responsible for the survival effect and is most likely dependent on HIF-1α. In contrast to eliciting a synergistic cytotoxic effect, the combination of doxorubicin with 2-methoxyestradiol produced an antagonistic effect on cellular viability instead. We propose that under normoxia, the combined treatment may stimulate the MCF-7 neoplastic cells to enter a state of growth arrest, or senescence, since the results indicate that the decrease in HIF-1α-dependent autophagy did not significantly affect cellular viability. Under hypoxia, despite the incorporation of the pharmacological HIF-1α inhibitor (2-methoxyestradiol), the expression levels of HIF-1α remained unaffected. We speculate that this could be the result of a potentiated stabilization of HIF-1α caused by the build-up of ROS and TCA intermediates which may be the outcome of mitochondrial dysfunction inflicted upon adjuvant therapy under hypoxia. Furthermore, it is also likely that the slight mitogenic effect observed within the MTT assay may be caused by the conversion of 2-methoxyestradiol to a chemically-reactive estrogen derivative, possibly by the action of doxorubicin, and the fact that an ER-positive cancer cell line was employed in this study. With regards to the in vivo experimental model, we speculated that the failure of the molecular changes to manipulate the growth of the tumour could have been the result of an ineffective time- and/or dose regime. Conclusion: We therefore reject our hypothesis based on the fact that an antagonistic rather than synergistic effect was witnessed when the tumorigenic MCF-7 cell line was treated with adjuvant therapy. The results warrant the need for extensive testing on the pharmacodynamics of 2-methoxyestradiol, and more informative techniques to compliment the study.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Inleiding: Borskanker is die mees algemeen gediagnoseerde kanker asook die hoof oorsaak van kanker-verwante sterftes in vrouens wêreldwyd. Konvensionele behandeling behels die toediening van doxorubicin, ‘n anti-kankermiddel wat aan die antrasiklien-familie van chemoterapeutiese middels behoort. Kankerselle begin egter toenemend weerstandbiedend raak teen doxorubicin behandeling. Daar is al bewys dat die voorkoms van hipoksiese sones, wat ‘n algemene eienskap van soliede tumore is, die seleksie vir weerstandbiedende klone van prolifererende kankerselle, veroorsaak. Neoplastiese selle kan hierdie hipoksiese toestande weerstaan en in hierdie ongunstige mikro-omgewing floreer deur sellulêre homeostase te modifiseer. Hierdie aanpassing staan bekend as die ‘hipoksiese respons’ en word bemiddel deur die aksies van die transkripsiefaktor reguleerder, HIF-1. Die verhoogde uitdrukking van HIF-1 in kankerweefsel word oor die algemeen geassosieer met ‘n swak prognose omdat dit die maligniteit vehoog. Hipotese en Doelwitte: Die hipotese van hierdie studie behels dus die volgende: Deur HIF-1α te inhibeer, sal die ‘beskermende’ hipoksiese respons wat in borskankerselle voorkom omseil kan word en sodoende die sitotoksisiteit van doxorubicin terapie verhoog. Die eerste doelwit van hierdie studie was dus om die hipoksiese kondisies te identifiseer waar MCF-7 selle ‘n doxorubicin-weerstandbiedende fenotipe vertoon. Daarna is die molekulêre paaie wat bydrae tot hierdie hipoksiese weerstand ondersoek asook hul moontlike verwantskap met die hipoksiese reguleerder, HIF-1α. Nadat die rol van HIF-1α bevestig is, was die volgende doelwit om te bepaal of die inhibisie van HIF-1α die weerstandbiedende fenotipe sal onderdruk en neoplastiese MCF-7 selle sal sensitiseer vir doxorubicin behandeling. Laastens is die herhaalbaarheid en effektiwiteit van behandeling in die in vitro eksperimente ook in ‘n diermodel getoets. 2-Methoxyestradiol is ‘n metaboliet van 17β-estradiol wat natuurlik in die liggaam voorkom. Dit is ook onlangs as ‘n anti-kanker middel geïdentifiseer as gevolg van die anti-verdelende en anti-angiogeniese eienskappe. Een van die eienskappe van 2-methoxyestradiol is dat dit ook die uitdrukking van HIF-1α kan onderdruk. Dit is dan ook vir hierdie rede dat 2-methoxyestradiol in hierdie studie as bykomende terapie saam met doxorubicin gebruik is. Metodes: Die in vitro eksperimentele model behels die gebruik van ‘n borsadenokarsinoom, estrogeenreseptor (ER)- positiewe sellyn, MCF-7. Hierdie neoplastiese selle is onder standaard weefselkultuur omstandighede gekweek totdat konfluensie van ~70-80% bereik is, waarna behandeling begin het. Die behandelingsprosedure behels ‘n 12 uur blootstelling aan doxorubicin (1 µM) chemoterapeutiese middel alleen of in kombinasie met die HIF-1α inhibitore, 2-methoxyestradiol (10 µM) of siRNA duplex (400 nM) in normoksiese (21% O2) en hipoksiese (~0.1% O2) toestande. Die selle is ook met CoCl2 behandel wat gedien het as ‘n positiewe kontrole vir HIF-1α uitdrukking. Molekulêre tegnieke wat tydens hierdie studie gebruik is, sluit die “Caspase-Glo® 3/7” bepaling in, asook die westelike kladtegniek en die MTT bepaling. Mitochondriale integriteit is bepaal deur middel van lewende sel afbeeldings/fluoresensie mikroskopie. Sellewensvatbaarheid is ten alle tye gemonitor. Hierdie eksperment is verder ook in ‘n pre-kliniese in vivo model uitgevoer waar C57BL/6 muise met E0771 xenografte (4 weke groei) geïnduseer is en in die volgende behandelingsgroepe verdeel is: (1) kontrole; (2) doxorubicin (5 mg.kg-1); (3) 2-methoxyestradiol (45 mg.kg-1); en (4) die kombinasie van laasgenoemde twee groepe. Die liggaamsgewig en die tempo van tumorgroei is tydens die hele eksperiment gemonitor. Resultate: CoCl2 behandeling het HIF-1α effektief gestabiliseer tydens normoksiese omstandighede. 2-Methoxyestradiol het HIF-1α uitdrukking tydens normoksiese en hipoksiese toestande onderdruk wanneer dit vergelyk is met siRNA transfeksie wat slegs tydens normoksiese toestande effektief was. HIF-1α stabilisering het gepaardgegaan met ‘n toename in autofagie asook morfologiese veranderinge in die mitochondria vanaf ‘n verlengde netwerk tot korter skyfagtige vorme. Aan die ander kant het HIF-1α onderdrukking ‘n toename in die apoptotiese merkers, nl kliewing in caspase-3 and PARP veroorsaak wat gepaard gegaan het met die herstel van die tubulêre mitochondriale netwerk. Die blootstelling van die MCF-7 selle aan 1 µM doxorubicin vir 12 ure het ‘n differensiële effek in die bioreduktiewe MTT bepaling tot gevolg gehad tussen normoksiese en hipoksiese toestande (42.97 ± 3.095%, p<0.1), terwyl die apoptotiese- en autofagiese paaie in beide toestande gestimuleer is. ‘n Insiggewende toename in fosfo-AMPK uitdrukking was sigbaar tydens normoksiese toestande van 21% O2, terwyl dit onveranderd gebly het tydens hipoksiese toestande van 0.1% ~O2 na doxorubicin behandeling. Die morfologie van die mitochondria het ‘n ‘kollerige’ voorkoms tydens doxorubicin behandeling gehad. Alhoewel die behandeling van die selle met beide middels gelyktydig, die differensiële effek soos weerspieël in die MTT bepaling ophef, is daar geen insiggewende verandering wanneer met doxorubicin behandeling vergelyk word nie. Apoptotiese seldood verminder met gelyktydige behandeling van biede middels tydens normoksiese en hipoksiese toestande. HIF1-α en autofagie het afgeneem tydens normoksiese toestande, maar bly vehoog tydens hipoksie. In die in vivo model, het die toediening van doxorubicin en 2-methoxyestradiol alleen en in kombinasie nie tumorgroei geaffekteer nie en ook nie sistemiese toksisiteit in enige van die eksperimentele muise tot gevolg gehad nie. Die afsonderlike toediening van die middels het ‘n afname in apoptose in ‘n toename in autofagie en p-AMPK uitdrukking tot gevolg gehad, terwyl afsonderlike toediening van die middels nie ‘n effek op HIF-1α uitdrukking gehad het nie. Die gelyktydige toediening van biede middels het egter ‘n onderdrukking van HIF1-α teweeggebring. Bespreking: Deur HIF-1α te induseer (CoCl2) en te inhibeer (2-methoxyestradiol en siRNA) in hierdie in vitro eksperimentele omstandighede, bevestig hierdie resultate dat autofagie afhanklik is van die uitdrukking van HIF-1α. Die bioreduktiewe MTT bepaling meet die metaboliese staat van die sel wat indirek sellewensvatbaarheid bepaal. Gebasseer op hierdie bepaling is bewys dat hipoksie ‘n weerstandbiedende fenotipe veroorsaak teen doxorubicin behandeling in neoplastiese MCF-7 selle. Doxorubicin veroorsaak ‘n toename in apoptose met geassosieerde mitochondriale fragmentering asook ‘n aktivering van die metaboliese sensor, AMPK, wat autofagie stimuleer in normoksiese omstandighede. Alhoewel ‘n toename in autofagie seldood kan stimuleer, spekuleer ons dat ‘n toename in autofagie tydens hipoksie verantwoordelik kan wees vir seloorlewing wat heel moontlik ook afhanklik van HIF-1α is. In kontras met die verwagting dat die kombinasie behandeling ‘n sinergistiese sitotoksiese effek sou teweegbring, dui ons resultate dat daar ‘n antagonistiese effek op sellewensvatbaarheid was. Ons stel voor dat die gekombineerde behandeling tydens normoksiese toestande MCF-7 neoplastiese selle stimuleer om in ‘n toestand van groeistaking in te gaan aangesien die resultate daarop dui dat ‘n afname in HIF-1α afhanklike autofagie nie sellulêre lewensvatbaarheid beïnvloed het nie. Tydens hipoksie, ten spyte van die bykomdende behandeling met die HIF-1α inhibitor (2-methoxyestradiol), het die vlakke van HIF-1α onveranderd gebly. Ons spekuleer dat dat dit die gevolg kan wees van die stabilisering van HIF-1α as gevolg van ‘n toename in ROS en TCA intermediate wat die gevolg van mitochondriale wanfunksie kan wees tydens bykomende terapie onder hipoksiese toestande. Dit is ook moontlik dat die mitogeniese effek wat waargeneem is met die MTT bepaling die gevolg kan wees van die omsetting van 2-methoxyestradiol na ‘n chemiese-reaktiewe estrogeen derivaat; moontlik as gevolg van die aksie van doxorubicin en die feit dat die sellyn wat in hierdie studie gebruik is, ‘n ER-positiewe kankersellyn is. Met verwysing na die in vivo eksperimentele model, spekuleer ons dat die molekulêre veranderinge wat nie in die tumorgroei weerspieël word nie, die resultaat van oneffektiewe tyds- en dosis behandelingswyses is, of foutiewe toediening van die middel kan wees. Gevolgtrekking: Ons verwerp dus ons hipotese gebaseer op die feit dat bykomende (adjuvante) behandeling eerder ‘n antogonistiese effek as ‘n sinergistiese effek op seldood in MCF-7 selle het. Hierdie resultate regverdig die nodigheid van intensiewe toetsing op die farmakodinamika van 2-methoxyestradiol asook die gebruik van meer informatiewe tegnieke om hierdie studie te komplimenteer.
CANSA and Marie Stander

Breast cancer is the most commonly observed cancer type in women and is the second leading cause of cancer death in women. Radiation can be used to debulk tumors prior to surgery as well as to treat patients after surgery and/or chemotherapy. Previous studies from our laboratory have shown that the anti –malarial drug chloroquine sensitizes breast cancer cell lines to radiation by suppression of autophagy which is a conservative catabolic process that can be cytoprotective. The scientific literature has demonstrated that many tumor cell systems undergo cytoprotective autophagy and that pharmacological or genetic inhibition of autophagy leads to other modes of cell death such as apoptosis. Acridine orange staining was used for determination of acidic vacuole formation, an indication of autophagy and DAPI/TUNEL staining was used to identify apoptotic cells. Our studies in Hs578t breast tumor cells show the lack of sensitization by chloroquine upon autophagy inhibition with minimal apoptosis when cells are treated with 5 × 2Gy radiation. The extent of apoptosis was not increased upon autophagy inhibition by Chloroquine as determined by DAPI/TUNEL assays and quantified by Flow Cytometry using AnnexinV/PI. The potential role of senescence in the effects of radiation in the Hs578t cells was determined with the use of β-Galactosidase dye staining for senescence. It appears from these studies that autophagy need not to be cytoprotective in all breast cancer cell lines. Additional studies are in progress to effort to identify the factors that might distinguish between cytoprotective and non-cytoprotective autophagy.

Abstract Although great strides have been made over the decades in development and optimization of anti-cancer therapies, even highly effective drugs often fail to completely eliminate tumors. Residual tumor cells can enter into a state of dormancy for prolonged periods of time but eventually are able to regain proliferative capacity and reemerge as chemotherapy-resistant disease. Because recurrent disease is a leading contributor to patient’s mortality, it is paramount to identify strategies for effectively destroying residual tumor cells. Cytotoxic drugs and ionizing radiation are used as standard therapies in a variety of cancers. These modalities induce apoptosis, autophagy and senescence. Senescence is a state of prolonged growth arrest, which cells are able to eventually escape regaining proliferative capacity. Autophagy is generally considered to be a protective mechanism; however, it can take non-protective or even cytotoxic form in response to anti-cancer treatments. Furthermore, chemotherapy or radiation induced autophagy was shown to be a contributor to the immune response against tumor cells. Using a model of Triple Negative Breast Cancer, we were able to show increased immunosurveillance of tumor cells after enhanced autophagy was achieved by combining epigenetic remodeling with chemotherapy. Alternatively, we were able to achieved effective clearance of tumor cells induced into senescence by chemotherapy or radiation by the senolytic drug ABT-263 (Navitoclax). In summary, autophagy and senescence alone or in concert, can be induced by conventional anti-tumor modalities. Those processes can be modulated independently to achieve clearance of residual tumor cells following anti-cancer therapies.

Breast cancer is the most commonly occurring cancer in women, with incidence rates approaching 1.38 million cases per year worldwide. Over the last few decades, there have been numerous attempts to develop, synthesise and advance into the clinic novel and selective breast cancer therapies. Research work has shown that bisnaphthalimidopropyl diaminodicyclohexylmethane (BNIPDaCHM) exerts potent in vitro anti-cancer activities and strong DNA binding properties. The aim of this thesis was to synthetise novel bisnaphthalimidopropyl derivatives (BNIPs) and investigate their subsequent modes of action within two human metastatic breast cancer cell lines, MDA-MB-231 and SKBR-3. A series of novel BNIPs, bisnaphthalimidopropyl-piperidylpropane (BNIPPiProp), bisnaphthalimidopropyl- ethylenedipiperidine (BNIPPiEth) and (trans(trans))-4,4’-methylenebis-cyclohexylamine (trans,trans-BNIPDaCHM) were synthesised, characterised and studied in comparison to BNIPDaCHM for their DNA binding and anti-cancer activities against MDA-MB-231 and SKBR-3 cells. Thermal denaturation studies have shown that BNIPs can intercalate and stabilize the double helix of Calf Thymus, each BNIP can competitively displace EtBr from DNA in a dose dependent manner and by UV binding studies, high affinity was found for the three novel BNIPs. After 24 hours treatment, all novel BNIPs, exhibited strong cytotoxicity with IC50 values ranging from 1.4 μM to 3.3 μM in MDA-MB-231 cells and 0.2 - 0.7 μM in SKBR-3 cells, confirming the importance of bisnaphthalimidopropyl functionality. BNIPs were also found to increase intracellular ROS levels after 8 hours treatment and induce a significant increase in DNA strand breaks compared to endogenous levels, after 24 hour treatment in both cell lines. After cell synchronisation, cell cycle distribution was studied, revealing that trans,trans-BNIPDaCHM induces sub-G1 cell population arrest in MDA-MB-231 and SKBR-3 cells, after 24 hours treatment. In addition, BNIPs induced apoptotic phosphatidylserine exposure, after 0.5 hours treatment, inhibited Caspase-3 activity and increased autophagy, after 24 hour treatment in MDA-MB-231 and SKBR-3 cells. Moreover, BNIPs inhibited histone deacetylases (HDAC) activity after 24 hours treatment in MDA-MB-231 and SKBR-3 cells and BNIPDaCHM was identified as a potential SIRT2 inhibitor, in SKBR-3 cells. According to Proteome Profiler Arrays, BNIPDaCHM and BNIPPiEth altered the expression of cell stress-related proteins in a cell dependent manner and bioinformatic analysis revealed two novel, putative pathways for BNIP-induced oxidative stress-mediated cell death in MDA-MB-231 and SKBR-3 cells. The above findings indicate that BNIPs represent promising candidates for future breast cancer studies and cancer treatment.

BECN1 is a haploinsufficient tumor suppressor gene that is monoallelically deleted or epigenetically silenced in many human cancers. In breast cancer, 40% of tumors exhibit monoallelic deletion of Beclin 1. Additionally, low Beclin 1 mRNA expression is observed in aggressive breast cancer subtypes and reduced expression is an independent predictor of overall patient survival. The role of Beclin 1 in cancer has almost exclusively been attributed to its function in autophagy. However, our lab demonstrated an alternative role for Beclin 1 in the regulation of growth factor receptor signaling that could contribute to cancer. The goal of my thesis project was to investigate the molecular basis by which Beclin 1 regulates breast tumor growth and progression in vivo. Using in vivo models, I discovered that Beclin 1 promotes endosomal recruitment of hepatocyte growth factor tyrosine kinase substrate (HRS), which is necessary for sorting receptors to intraluminal vesicles for signal silencing and degradation. Beclin 1-dependent recruitment of HRS results in the autophagy-independent regulation of endocytic trafficking and degradation of the epidermal growth factor (EGFR) and transferrin (TFR1) receptors. When Beclin 1 expression is low, endosomal HRS recruitment is reduced and receptor function is sustained to drive tumor proliferation. An autophagy-independent role for Beclin 1 in regulating tumor metabolism was also observed. Collectively, my results demonstrate a novel role for Beclin 1 in impeding tumor growth by coordinating the regulation of growth promoting receptors. These data provide an explanation for how low levels of Beclin 1 facilitate tumor proliferation and contribute to poor cancer outcomes, independently of autophagy.

Macroautophagy (autophagy) is a lysosomal process for degrading cytoplasmic proteins and organelles for maintenance of homeostasis as well as for bioenergetic and biosynthetic needs. During nutrient deprivation and chemotherapy, both tumour-related stresses, autophagy is upregulated. The molecules and pathways involved in the regulation of autophagy in response to these stresses are still not well understood. Several recent studies have uncovered links between components of autophagy and apoptosis. As there is increasing evidence indicating that many anti-cancer therapeutics affect both autophagy and apoptosis, it is critical to identify the relationships between these pathways to develop more rational therapies. A previous study identified several Drosophila melanogaster genes with autophagy-regulating functions. One of these genes was dBruce, a member of the inhibitor of apoptosis (IAP) gene family, which was found to negatively regulate autophagy in Drosophila cells in vitro and in vivo. The mammalian homologue of dBruce, Apollon, is overexpressed in several cancers, and Apollon knockdown has been shown to sensitize some cancer cells to chemotherapy. These findings led to the suggestion that Apollon may be a promising target for cancer therapy. As autophagy has been shown to play a role in cancer development and treatment, a link between Apollon and autophagy may have clinical implications. My hypothesis in this study was that Apollon, the human homologue of dBruce, is a negative regulator of autophagy in human breast cancer cells. I tested this hypothesis using three different breast cancer cell lines, SKBR3, BT474 and MCF-7, to determine whether Apollon knockdown had an effect on autophagy under fed or starved conditions. After Apollon knockdown, MCF-7 and SKBR3 cells showed a significant increase in GFP-LC3 and/or MDC puncta under both fed and starved conditions. Further analysis in MCF-7 cells confirmed that Apollon knockdown led to an induction of the complete autophagy process as determined by two autophagy flux assays. These results show that reducing Apollon expression induces autophagy and thus Apollon is a negative regulator of autophagy in human breast cancer cell lines. Further studies will be required to determine whether Apollon knockdown-induced autophagy would be beneficial for cancer therapy.

Endocrine resistance is a significant clinical problem in the treatment of estrogen (E2) receptor positive breast cancers. There are two ER subtypes, ERα and ERβ, which promote and inhibit breast cancer cell proliferation respectively. While ER positive breast cancers typically express a high ratio of ERα to ERβ, the acquisition of antiestrogen resistance in vitro and in vivo is associated with increased relative expression of the ERβ. On some gene enhancers ERβ has been shown to function in opposition to the ERα in the presence of E2. Here we demonstrate that exposure to two different ERβ agonists results in decreased cell viability, and produced a marked reduction in G2/M phase in antiestrogen resistant breast cancer cell line in conjunction with altered cyclin D1, and cyclin E expression relative to E2. ERβ agonists also strongly downregulated Bcl-2 expression and recruited both ERs to the Bcl-2 and pS2 E2-response elements resulting in a reduction in mRNA transcripts from both of these genes. Bcl-2 reduction correlated with increased lipidation of LC3-I to LC3-II, indicative of increased autophagic flux. Although ERβ agonist treatment alone did not induce apoptosis, remarkably, the coaddition of ERβ agonist and the autophagy inhibitor, chloroquine, resulted in robust cell death. Lastly, in vivo studies demonstrate that preferential-ERβ agonists are not estrogenic in the uterus or mammary gland. Together, these observations suggest that combined therapies including an ERβ agonist and an autophagy inhibitor may provide the basis for a safe, novel approach to the treatment of antiestrogen-resistant breast cancers.

Radiation therapy is a widely used tool in cancer therapy and is frequently offered as the first line of treatment for cancers of the breast. While radiotherapy is often initially effective in killing tumor cells or suppressing their growth, there are factors that confer tumor cell resistance to irradiation. Development of resistance may lead to disease recurrence despite the use of surgery, chemotherapy and radiation therapy. A primary goal of the studies in Dr. Gewirtz’s laboratory is to develop strategies to overcome resistance to radiation (and chemotherapy) in breast cancer, with the ultimate goal of preventing or attenuating disease recurrence. One of these approaches involves combining the active form of vitamin D, 1,25-di hydroxy vitamin D3 or its analogs with radiotherapy. Our proposed studies were designed to build upon and extend previous work from this laboratory focused on determining the nature of cell death when vitamin D3 is combined with ionizing radiation in breast tumor cells. Studies were extended to the wild type p53, estrogen receptor positive, ZR-75-1 breast cancer cell line. We were able to validate that vitamin D3 does in fact, sensitize ZR-75-1 breast cancer cells to radiation therapy and substantiate that autophagy is the mode of sensitization by vitamin D3. Interestingly, our experimental system demonstrated that autophagy can actually have dual roles. Specifically, inhibition of autophagy both enhanced sensitivity to radiation and attenuated radiation sensitization by 1,25D3. Moreover, this experimental model proved to be a useful tool in trying to distinguish the factors involved in cytoprotective and cytotoxic autophagy, as we were able to demonstrate a potential role of 5' adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase in the sensitization of breast tumor cells to radiation by vitamin D3 as well as cytotoxic autophagy.

Les récepteurs membranaires sont des acteurs majeurs des interactions entre la cellule et son environnement. Ils peuvent être à l'origine des signaux de survie, de différentiation, de migration ou bien de mort cellulaire. Les travaux de ce manuscrit ont été faits sur une famille de récepteurs nommés "récepteurs à dépendance". Ils sont caractérisés par leur fonctionnement dans la cellule plutôt que par leur structure: en présence de leurs ligands ces récepteurs induisent un signal de survie et en l'absence de ces mêmes ligands ils induisent un signal actif de mort cellulaire. Deux nouveaux récepteurs à dépendance ont été étudiés: Notch3 et Kremen1 dans le contexte du contrôle de l'homéostasie et plus particulièrement dans le contrôle de la tumorigenèse du cancer du sein. Nous montrons que le récepteur à dépendance Notch3 est perdu dans le cancer du sein, dû à un gain significatif de méthylation, entre le tissu normal et le tissu tumoral dans les patients. Notch3 a également un rôle pro-apoptotique dans les cellules endothéliales dans le cancer du poumon. Des études effectuées sur des cohortes de cancer nous ont permis de voir que le ligand Dickkopf1 (Dkk1), qui lie le récepteur Kremen1, est sur-exprimé dans plusieurs cancers tandis que le récepteur il est perdu dans les cancers. Rétablir l'expression de Kremen1 ou invalider Dkk1 dans la lignée de cancer du sein de type basal MDA-MB 231 conduit à une forte mort cellulaire de type autophagique. En ce qui concerne les enjeux thérapeutiques de ces travaux, nous avons pu sélectionner plusieurs anticorps dirigés contre le domaine extracellulaire de Kremen1, qui induisent la mort des cellules cancéreuses
Membrane receptors are major actors of the interaction between a cell and its environment. They are able to trigger different types of signals such as survival, differentiation, migration or cell death. The work presented in this manuscript has been done on a particular family of receptors called dependence receptors. They are characterized by their function rather than by their structure. In the presence of their ligand they induce a survival signal whereas in the absence of the ligand they induce an active signal of cell death. Two new dependence receptors have been studied: Notch3 and Kremen1, in the context of homeostasis control, and more particularly in the control of breast cancer tumorigenesis. We show that Notch3 dependence receptor is lost in breast cancer, because of a significant gain of methylation observed between the normal tissu and the tumoral tissue within the same patient. Notch3 plays also a pro-apoptotic role in endothelial cells of lung cancer. Experiences carried on cancer cohorts have allowed us to notice that the Dickkopf (Dkk1) ligand, which links the Kremen1 receptor, is over-expressed in several cancers whereas the receptor is lost in different cancers. Restoring Kremen1 expression or disabling Dkk1 in breast cancer basal type MDA-MB 231 cells, leads to large autophagic cell death. Concerning therapeutic approaches, we selected several antibodies against Kremen1 extra-cellular domain, which induce the death of cancer cells

Acquired cellular resistance to traditional chemotherapeutics is a common obstacle in the treatment of most cancer cell types. This resistance occurs as a result of changes in the underlying molecular mechanisms of disease progression. The development of novel chemotherapeutic approaches designed to enhance the efficacy of protypical anti-cancer drugs is important in order to overcome this issue. Such approaches will aid in understanding the biomolecular phenomena responsible for drug resistance and disease progression. Combining signaling pathway inhibitors has become an effective strategy for enhancing tumor cell death by targeting multiple pathways known to regulate cell survival. Pemetrexed, an FDA-approved anti-folate drug, targets thymidylate synthase (TS) and a secondary folate-dependent enzyme, 5’ aminoimidazole-carboximide ribonucleotide formyltransferase (AICART); both important for DNA synthesis. Studies performed by our collaborator demonstrated that TS inhibition causes intracellular accumulation of ZMP+ and activation of AMPK which is known to induce autophagy in mammalian cells. Previous studies from our lab and others showed that sorafenib, a multi-kinase inhibitor of Raf-1 and class III receptor tyrosine kinases, was able to induce a cytotoxic form of autophagy in a variety of tumor cell types. Combination treatment using pemetrexed and sorafenib in these cancer cells resulted in an enhancement of autophagy and cell lethality beyond that of individual drugs alone. Inhibition of autophagy suppressed the toxic interactions of these drugs in all cell types examined. Pemetrexed/sorafenib cotherapy also proved to be an effective treatment for triple negative breast cancer cells having advanced to a stage of estrogen independence. Fulvestrant-resistant MCF7 cells were more sensitive to the drug combination than parental, estrogen-dependent MCF7 cells. Breast cancer cells cotreated with pemetrexed and sorafenib exhibited enhanced MEK/ERK signaling, Src activation that was dependent on platelet-derived growth factor β (PDGFRβ) downregulation, elevated protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) activity, and increased de novo ceramide synthesis. Studies using a mouse model of experimentally-induced breast cancer validated drug combination effectiveness through inhibition of tumor growth, while no deleterious effects on normal tissues were observed. The data presented demonstrates that pemetrexed/sorafenib cotreatment augments chemosensitivity in both in vitro and in vivo systems. Based upon these findings, a Phase I clinical trial involving pemetrexed and sorafenib in breast cancer patients with solid, recurrent tumors was begun in 2011. In conclusion, this work strongly supports a promising therapeutic utility for the pemetrexed/sorafenib combination in treatment of various cancer cell types.

L'objectif de ces travaux de thèse était d'étudier l'implication de l'autophagie dans le cancer via l'analyse de deux protéines QSOX1 et GABARAPL1. La protéine QSOX1 possède deux isoformes majoritaires QSOX1-S et QSOX1-L et est impliquée dans le repliement correct des protéines par la création de ponts disulfures. Des études de notre laboratoire ont également mis en évidence que QSOX1-S est impliquée dans laprotection contre les stress et le cancer. En effet, l'expression de QSOX1-S est induite suite à un stress oxydant ou un stress du réticulum endoplasmique et protège les cellules contre la mort induite par ces stress. De plus, QSOX1-S réduit les phénotypes des cellules de cancer du sein in vitro et la croissance tumorale in vivo. Néanmoins, le rôle de QSOX1 dans le cancer est complexe et diffère selon les types de cancer, principalement à cause de l'existence de ces différents transcrits. Etant donné le rôle de QSOX1-S dans les stress et le cancer, deux mécanismes étroitement liés à l'autophagie, nous avons étudié le rôle de QSOX1-S dans l'autophagie. Nos résultats ont permis de mettre en évidence que l'expression de QSOX1-S augmente suite à l'induction de l'autophagie et permet le maintien de l'homéostasie cellulaire.Nous avons également démontré que QSOX1-S inhibe le flux autophagique en inhibant la fusion autophagosome/lysosome et pourrait réduire l'invasion des cellules de cancer du sein par sa fonction dans l'autophagie. La protéine GABARAPL1 appartient à la famille ATG8 et sous-famille GABARAP dont les membres sont impliqués dans l'autophagie. Il a été mis en évidence au sein de notre laboratoire que GABARAPL1 est associée aux autophagosomes lors de l'autophagie. Les membres de la famille GABARAP interviendraient lors des étapes tardives de l'autophagie. Un rôle de la protéine GABARAPL1 dans la dégradation du glycogène par autophagie, appelée glycophagie, a également été mis en évidence, suggérant une fonction de cette protéine dans le métabolisme. De plus, GABARAPL1 inhibe les phénotypes des cellules de cancer du sein in vitro et la croissance tumorale in vivo, suggérant un rôle de suppresseur de tumeur de cette protéine. Au vu du rôle de GABARAPL1 dans le cancer et l'autophagie, nous avons poursuivi et approfondi le rôle de cette protéine dans l'autophagie et étudié l'implication de l'autophagiedans les fonctions de GABARAPL1 liées aux cellules cancéreuses. Nous avons mis en évidence que GABARAPL1 agit au niveau des étapes précoces et tardives de l'autophagie de manière dépendante ou indépendante de sa liaison aux autophagosomes. De façon intéressante, nosrésultats montrent que la fonction de suppresseur de tumeur de GABARAPL1 semble indépendante de sa liaison aux autophagosomes. Nos résultats ont également mis en évidence que GABARAPL1 joue un rôle important dans la régulation du métabolisme cellulaire et dansla régulation de l'homéostasie mitochondriale via l'autophagie qui pourrait expliquer son rôle dans le cancer. L'ensemble de ces travaux ont permis de mieux caractériser et d'identifier des liens entre autophagie, stress cellulaire, métabolisme et cancer
The aim of my thesis was to study the role of QSOX1 and GABARAPL1 (GL1) in autophagy and cancer. QSOX1 protein has been shown to be involved in the regulation of protein folding and is associated with protection against cellular stress and cancer. Given the function of QSOX1 in stress and cancer, two processes which have been previously linked to autophagy, we have studied the role of QSOX1 in autophagy. We showed that QSOX1 protein can maintain cellular homeostasis during amino acids starvation. Our results also indicated that QSOX1 inhibits autophagy through the inhibition of autophagosome/lysosome fusion which could explain the role of QSOX1 on cell invasion. The GL1 protein, belonging to the ATG8 family and GABARAP subfamily, is associated with autophagosomes during autophagy and have a tumor suppressor role. Given the function of GL1 in cancer and autophagy, we aimed to characterize the role of GL1 in autophagy and determine whether GL1 conjugation to autophagosomes is necessary for its tumor suppressive functions. Our results demonstrated that GL1 presents different regulatory functions during early and later stages of autophagy. Sorne of these functions seem to be independent of its conjugation to autophagosomes. Interestingly, GLl tumor suppressive function appeared independent of its conjugation to autophagosomes. Our results also demonstrated that GL1 play an important role in the regulation of metabolism and mitochondrial homeostasis through autophagy, function which could explain its role in cancer. Together, this work allowed us to establish a link between autophagy, cellular stress, metabolism and cancer

L’autophagie est un mécanisme cellulaire complexe, nécessitant plus de 40 protéines ATGs (AuTophaGy related), impliqué dans le maintien de l’homéostasie cellulaire. Sa dérégulation a été décrite comme une cause possible de la tumorigénèse. Nos travaux ont montré dans une cohorte de 80 patientes atteintes de cancer du sein, que l’expression du gène codant la protéine ATG9A, jouant un rôle dans les étapes précoces de l’autophagie, est plus importante dans les tissus cancéreux des patientes de type triple négatif. Afin d’étudier le rôle d’ATG9A dans la lignée de cancer du sein triple négatif MDA-MB-436, nous avons développé deux modèles d’extinction du gène ATG9A à l’aide de sh-ARN ou de la technique CRISPR-Cas9. Ces modèles d’extinction présentent un blocage de l’autophagie via une diminution de la dégradation des autophagosomes. Nous avons également montré une inhibition des phénotypes cancéreux in vitro et in vivo des cellules sh-ATG9A comparé aux cellules contrôles. Cependant, nous n’avons observé aucune différence de phénotypes cancéreux entre le modèle CRISPR-Cas9, contrairement au modèle sh-RNA, nous avons émis l’hypothèse que l’ARNm d’ATG9A pourrait jouer un rôle dans la maintenance des phénotypes cancéreux via l’expression d’une isoforme de la protéine ATG9A, exprimée après mutation de la séquence d’ATG9A par le système CRISPR-Cas9 ou via son interaction avec des ARN non codants régulateurs. Si cette hypothèse est confirmée, cet ARNm pourrait devenir une cible thérapeutique dans les cancers du sein triple négatif pour lesquels aucune thérapie ciblée n’existe actuellement
Autophagy is an intracellular process which contributes to the maintenance of cell homeostasis. The deregulation of this complex process, which requires more than 40 ATG proteins, has been shown to be involved in tumor development. In our laboratory, we analyzed a cohort of 80 breast cancers and demonstrated that ATG9A gene expression is increased in triple negative breast cancer samples compared to adjacent healthy tissues. We then studied the role of ATG9A in the triple negative breast cancer cell line MDA-MB-436 using two extinction models created with the sh-RNA or the CRISPR-Cas9 technology. Our two extinction models presented a blockade of autophagy, due to a decrease of autophagosome degradation. We also observed a decrease of in vitro and in vivo cancer phenotypes, such as proliferation, invasion or in vivo tumor growth, of sh-ATG9A cells compared to control cells. However, we did not observe any difference of cancer phenotypes between the CRISPR-CAS9 cells and the control ones. Since we still detected the presence of the ATG9A mRNA in the CRISPR models but not in the sh-RNA models, we hypothesized that this mRNA might play a role in the maintenance of breast cancer phenotypes in these cells, either by the expression of a truncated isoform of the ATG9A protein from the mutated ATG9A mRNA obtained after the action of the CRISPR-Cas9 system, or its interaction with non-coding mRNAs. If proven, this could establish ATG9A mRNA as a potential therapeutic target in triple negative breast cancers for which no targeted therapy is currently available

The use of chemotherapy in the treatment of cancer has stimulated the demand for better chemotherapeutic agents that are more potent at destroying tumor cell populations and more selective for the specific tumor versus normal host tissues. This project is directed at discovering new anti-tumor agents that are effective against breast cancer based on structures derived from marine organisms, specifically brominated pyrroles. We utilized an in vitro breast cancer model to study the effects of pyrroles on tumor proliferation and survival, as well as growth arrest and cell death. Our findings indicate that the substituted pyrrole JG-03-14 induces time dependent cell death in breast tumor cells where the cell death involves apoptosis and autophagy. Residual growth arrest in p53 wild type cells is characteristic of senescence. JG-03-14 also demonstrated substantial anti-proliferative effects in multi-drug resistant cells. These findings indicate JG-03-14 would potentially be developed for the treatment of breast cancer.

Beclin 1 is a haplo-insufficient tumor suppressor that is decreased in many human tumors. The function of Beclin 1 in cancer has been attributed primarily to its role in the degradative process of autophagy. However, the role of autophagy itself in tumorigenesis is context-dependent and can be both preventive and promoting. Due to its dual function in cancer a better understanding of this process is necessary to develop potential novel cancer therapies. To gain insight into the role of autophagy in breast carcinoma, I analyzed the autophagydependency of different subtypes of breast cancer. My results implicate that triple-negative breast carcinoma cells are more dependent on autophagy than luminal breast carcinoma cells. Chemical inhibition of autophagy decreased the tumorigenicity of triple-negative breast carcinoma cells with regard to proliferation and anchorage-independent growth. However, RNAi-mediated suppression of two autophagy genes, ATG5 and Beclin 1, revealed different outcomes. While suppression of ATG5 decreased glycolysis, Beclin 1 depletion did not affect the glycolytic rates. These results suggest autophagy-independent pro-tumorigenic effects of loss of Beclin 1 in cancer. Beclin 1 is a core component of the Vps34/Class III PI3K (PI3KC3) and Vps15/p150 complex that regulates multiple membrane trafficking events. I describe a novel mechanism of action for Beclin 1 in breast cancer involving its control of growth factor receptor signaling. I identify a specific stage of early endosome maturation that is regulated by Beclin 1, the transition of APPL1- containing phosphatidyIinositol 3-phosphate-negative (PI3P-) endosomes to PI3P+ endosomes. Beclin 1 regulates PI3P production in response to growth factor stimulation to control the residency time of growth factor receptors in the PI3P-/APPL+ signaling competent compartment. As a result, suppression of BECN1 sustains growth factor stimulated AKT and ERK activation resulting in increased breast carcinoma cell invasion. In human breast tumors, Beclin 1 expression is inversely correlated with AKT and ERK phosphorylation. Taken together my data identify a novel role for Beclin 1 in regulating growth factor signaling and reveal a mechanism by which loss of Beclin 1 expression would enhance breast cancer progression independent of its impact on autophagy.

Le développement tumoral tel qu'il est récemment modélisé selon le concept des cellules souches cancéreuses (CSC) est un modèle statique dans lequel les CSC seraient les seules responsables de l'émergence, de la résistance aux traitements ainsi que de la récurrence tumorale. Cependant, la biologie du cancer est bien plus complexe et la plasticité des CSC suggère l'existence d'une conversion bidirectionnelle entre les CSC et les non-CSC. Cette thèse vise à élucider les mécanismes par le biais desquels l'autophagie, un processus d'auto-digestion, régit le destin des CSC mammaires et apporte une meilleure compréhension au processus de plasticité. Nos résultats soulignent l'implication de l'autophagie dans le remodelage métabolique en augmentant la glycolyse aux dépens de la phosphorylation oxydative et ceci est accompagné par l'émergence des CSC. En effet, nous montrons que l'Oncostatine M (OSM), une cytokine pro-inflammatoire de la famille de l'IL-6, régule l'autophagie et l'expression de l'hexokinase II (HK II). Cette enzyme, la première de la voie du métabolisme du glucose, est décrite pour jouer un rôle clé dans l'effet "Warburg". Nous montrons que l'invalidation de l'expression de HK II et PI3K/AKT prévient l'induction de la population CSC. De manière originale, nos résultats mettent en évidence un nouveau rôle pour l'autophagie qui confère, par acétylation, une protection à l'HK II contre la dégradation par le protéasome, permettant ainsi de maintenir une glycolyse accrue nécessaire pour l'émergence et le maintien des CSC
Tumor development as recently modelized according to the concept of cancer stem cells (CSCs) is a static model in which CSCs are the only ones responsible for emergence, resistance to treatment and tumor recurrence. However, the cancer biology is complex and the plasticity of CSCs suggests the existence of a bidirectional conversion between CSCs and non-CSCs. This thesis aims to elucidate the mechanisms by which autophagy, a process of self-digestion, governs the fate of breast CSCs and provides a better understanding of the process of plasticity. Our results highlight the involvement of autophagy in metabolic remodeling by increasing glycolysis at the expense of oxidative phosphorylation and this is accompanied by the emergence of CSCs. Indeed, we show that Oncostatin M (OSM), a pro-inflammatory cytokine of the IL-6 family, regulates autophagy and the expression of hexokinase II (HK II). This enzyme, the first of the glucose metabolism pathway, is described to play a key role in the 'Warburg' effect. Here we report that inhibition of HK II and PI3K / AKT prevent the induction of CSC population. Notably, the results presented in this thesis attribute to autophagy a new role which confers, by acetylation, a protection to HK II against the degradation by the proteasome, making it possible to maintain an increased glycolysis required for the emergence and maintenance of CSCs

Le système immunitaire joue un rôle important dans le contrôle et l'éradication du cancer. Des acteurs majeurs de la réponse immune antitumorale sont les cellules tueuses naturelles (ou cellules NK) et les lymphocytes T cytotoxiques (ou CTL), capable de reconnaitre et détruire des cellules tumorales par l’exocytose de perforine et de granzymes contenus dans leur granule cytotoxique. Il a été montré au sein du laboratoire l’implication de la protéine suppresseur de tumeur p53 dans cette voie apoptotique. Or, plus de 50% des tumeurs humaines présentent des mutations inactivatrices de p53 ce qui favorise le développement tumoral. De ce fait, l’inactivation fréquente de p53 dans les tumeurs humaines pourrait leur permettre d’échapper à la destruction par les CTL et les cellules NK.Dans ce contexte, mes travaux de thèse ont montré que la réactivation pharmacologique de la fonction de p53 sauvage dans des cellules tumorales exprimant une p53 mutée augmente leur susceptibilité à la lyse induite par les cellules NK grâce à l’induction d’un processus d’autophagie. De plus, j’ai cherché à déterminer le lien entre les mutations de p53 et l’expression à la surface des cellules tumorales de PD-L1 qui empêche l’activation optimale des cellules cytotoxiques et conduit à leur épuisement. Mes travaux actuels suggèrent que l’expression de p53 mutantes induits une surexpression de PD-L1 à la surface des cellules cancéreuses. Les mécanismes expliquant ce phénomène sont en cours d’études
Immune system plays an important role in the control and destruction of cancer cells. The major effectors of antitumor immune response are Natural Killer (NK) cells and the cytotoxic T lymphocytes, which recognize et destroy tumor cells by exocytosis of perforin and granzymes contained in cytotoxic granules. It has been previously shown in the laboratory that the tumor suppressor p53 plays an important role in this apoptotic pathway. However more than 50% of human tumors have p53 inactivating mutations which favor tumor development. Consequently, frequent p53 inactivation in human tumor could enable them to escape from destruction by cytotoxic immune cells. In this context, my thesis work has shown that the pharmacological reactivation of wild type p53 function in cancer cells expressing a mutated p53 increased their susceptibility to NK cell-mediated apoptosis cells through the induction of an autophagic process. Moreover, I tried to determine the link between p53 mutations and the expression of the immune checkpoint ligand PD-L1 which prevent efficient activation of cytotoxic cells and promote immune cells exhaustion. My work suggests that the expression of p53 mutants promotes an the expression of PD-L1 at the cancer cell surface. The study of the underlying mechanisms is still in progress

碩士
長庚科技大學
健康產業科技研究所
106
Breast cancer is one of the most common cancers among women in the world,　Its incidence has also been increasing year by year. Therefore,　there is an urgent need to develop effective and safe anti-tumor drugs. Licochalcone A,　was isolated from the root of Glycyrrhiza glabra,　had multifunctional effects of biological and pharmacological activities,　including anti-bacterial,　anti-tumor,　and cell differentiation capabilities.　Therefore, in this study we investigated the cytotoxic effects of licochalcone A on breast cancer cells and its related mechanisms,　including apoptosis,　cell cycle,　the generation of oxidative stress,　DNA damage,　and autophagy in breast cancer cell MDA-MB-231. The result demonstrated that licochalcone A effectively suppressed cell proliferation,　cell cycle,　and reduced cell migration. Licochalcone A also modulated mitochondrial membrane potential,　and induced oxidative stress,　DNA damage. Licochalcone A activated Cleaved-caspase 3 and Cleaved-caspase 9,　and induced cytochrome c from the mitochondria into the cytoplasm. We also found that licochalcone A increase autophagy via activated LC3B expression. These results suggest that licochalcone A might increase the effect of apoptosis and autophagy on MDA-MB-231 cells. Therefore,　licochalcone A may be a promising target for development as a breast cancer agent.

碩士
國立陽明大學
藥理學研究所
98
Bone metastases are common phenomena during breast cancer progression. Under normal condition, bone remodeling is regulated by the balance between bone resorption via osteoclasts and bone formation by osteoblasts. When cancer cells migrate to bone tissue, the activity and proliferation of osteoclasts are up-regulated and thus result in an increase in bone resorption. Clinically, bisphosphonates (BPs) are usually used to treat patients with increased bone resorption. Several lines of evidence reveled that BPs could inhibit the mevalonate pathway of cholesterol synthesis and/or block the activity of the mitochondrial adenine nucleotide translocase (ANT), which lead to a decrease in bone resorption and an increase in apoptosis of osteoclasts. Recent evidence revealed that BPs also have direct anti-tumor effects. In this study, we investigated the potential mechanism for nitrogen-containing bisphosphonates (zoledronic acid) induced cell death in human breast cancer cell lines. Our results showed that zoledronic acid inhibited cell proliferation and induced cell death in dose- and time-dependent manners. The cytotoxic effects of zoledronic acid for highly metastatic and malignant breast cancer MDA-MB-231 cells as well as adriamycin-resistant MCF-7/ADR cells are more extensive than those for the adriamycin-sensitive MCF-7 cells. Treatment of zoledronic acid also reduced intracellular ATP content, oxygen consumption rate and mitochondrial membrane potential. In addition, zoledronic acid not only induces apoptosis but also activate autophagy. The levels of zoledronic acid-induced autophagy and apoptosis in MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7/ADR cells are higher than that in MCF-7 cells. Using an autophagy inhibitor 3-methyladenine and ATG7 siRNA we found that inhibition of zoledronic acid-induced autophagy increase the level of apoptosis. Therefore, these results suggest that zoledronic acid-induced autophagy has cytoprotective effect. Inactivation of autophagy might be as a new strategy to enhance zoledronic acid’s anti-cancer effect and treat zoledronic acid-resistant breasr cancer cells

碩士
慈濟大學
生命科學系碩士班
100
Breast cancer is a serious health care issue, with millions of people being diagnosed worldwide. It accounts for 22.9% of all cancers in women. The risk factors of breast cancer include a complex interplay of genetics, hormones, and diet. Technologies for breast cancer therapy have slowly advanced and the quality of life has improved accordingly. However, millions of patients still suffer from this disease and further improved treatments and health care are extremely essential. Previous studies has shown that Momordica charantia (MC), commonly known as bitter melon, significantly suppress cancer cell growth and induces cell apoptosis in various cancers. However, the effects of M. charantia leave extract (MCE) on breast cancer, especially for the most malignant p53-mutated triple-negative MDA-MB-231 breast cancer (TNBC), remain unclear. Interestingly, the induction of autophagic cell death was observed in MCE-treated MDA-MB-231 cells in this study. A down-regulation of p62- and p53-associated proteins occurred after treatment, and, moreover, the conversion of LC-3 and increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) without significant changes in caspase-associated proteins and intracellular responses were detected. Furthermore, a loss of mitochondria and its membrane potential in cells demonstrated that mitochondria were involved in MCE-regulated MDA-MB-231 cell death. On the other hand, MCE-induced LC3 conversion was significantly inhibited by 3-methlyadenine (3-MA), an inhibitor of PI3K-regulated autophagy. Additionally, the use of a NOD/SCID mouse xenograft model demonstrated that MCE completely suppressed tumor growth via the down-regulation of proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) expression without significant change in kidney and liver functions. These results suggest that M. charantia may warrant further investigation for potential clinical application in treating breast cancers.

碩士
慈濟大學
生命科學系碩士班
100
Cellular senescence is an important tumor suppressive mechanism. It has been reported that autophagy is prerequisite for senescence. However, the roles of autophagy remain controversial as it appears to be tumor suppressive during cancer development but contributes to tumor survival during cancer progression. Our previous study showed that radiation in securin-depleted breast cancer cells promoted senescence and enhanced radiosensitivity. In this study, we investigated the role of autophagy in radiation-induced senescent securin-knockdown MDA-MB-231-2A cells and in unirradiated neighboring cells. We found that radiation induced autophagy through activation of Src/STAT3 pathways in irradiated MDA-MB-231-2A cells. Moreover, autophagy inhibition by 3-MA or bafilomycin A1 in irradiated MDA-MB-231-2A cells significantly decreased radiation-induced senescence and secretion of GM-CSF. Furthermore, the conditioned medium (CM) collected from radiation-induced senescent MDA-MB-231-2A cells induced invasion and migration of unirradiated cells through activation of GM-CSF/JAK2 pathways but inhibition of autophagy. In addition, we found that induction of autophagy by rapamycin in unirradiated cells reduced the cells’ invasion and migration induced by CM from radiation-induced senescent MDA-MB-231-2A cells. This study reveals for the first time that autophagy contributes to radiation-induced senescence in securin-depleted breast cancer cells. However, autophagy in unirradiated neighboring cells inhibited motility of the cells induced by CM from radiation-induced senescent cancer cells. Our results indicated that autophagy plays a different function in irradiated human breast cancer cells and unirradiated neighboring cells, which may provide a promising strategy to improve the treatment on breast cancer patients during radiotherapy.

Utilization of potential synergistic interactions among different bioactive agents is a promising approach to inhibit complex diseases such as cancer. Nobiletin (NBT) and tangeretin (TAN) are major polymethoxyflavones (PMFs) found in citrus fruits. Herein, we studied NBT and TAN in combination with atorvastatin (ATST, Lipitor, a cholesterol-lowering drug) in MDAMB231 and MCF-7 human breast cancer cells. Both NBT/ATST and TAN/ATST combinations at low doses produced much stronger inhibitory effect on cancer cell viability in comparison to those produced by NBT, TAN, or ATST alone at much higher doses. Isobologram analysis confirmed that both NBT/ATST and TAN/ATST combinations produced strong synergy in inhibiting the growth of two breast cancer cell lines. Flow cytometry analysis showed that both NBT/ATST and TAN/ATST combinations caused significant cell cycle arrest at G0/G1 phase in MDAMB231 cells (ER+). Consistent with these results, PMFs and ATST combinations decreased expression levels of phospho Rb, cyclin D1, and CDK4. Further experiments showed that the combination treatment induced autophagy and late apoptosis in MDA-MB-231 cells. Meanwhile, co-treatment of PMFs and ATST induce G2/M phase in MCF-7 (ER+) cells.. The combination of PMFs and ATST also caused autophagy in MCF-7 cells, which was evidenced by activation of LC3B and P62. In conclusion, our result demonstrated strong synergy between two major citrus PMFs (NBT and TAN) and ATST in inhibiting human breast cancer cell growth.

Early events in BRCA1-associated tumorigenesis remain poorly understood. To understand the immediate consequences of BRCA1 loss of function, we modeled BRCA1 loss of function in vitro using normal primary human mammary epithelial cells (HMEC). We have found that in HMEC, loss of BRCA1 results in a novel type of senescence. Loss of BRCA1-induced senescence is not associated with DNA damage or p53 upregulation. We find that p53 protein levels are down regulated due to proteasome-mediated degradation. Although p53 levels are down regulated, we find that BRCA1 loss induced expression of a number of p53-dependent anti-oxidant genes. In particular we uncovered that SESN2, a p53 downstream target gene, inhibits loss of BRCA1 induced ROS and activates autophagy. In contrast to human fibroblasts, we found that loss of BRCA1 induced senescence is p53 independent, and can occur in the absence of ROS upregulation and autophagy induction.

碩士
國立東華大學
海洋生物科技研究所
102
Bioactivity-guided fractionationof the marine sponge Aaptos sp. extract led to the isolation of isoaaptamine, aaptamine and demethyloxyaaptamine.The cytotoxic activity of the isolated compounds was evaluated revealing that isoaaptamine was the most potent compound against breast cancer T47D cells (IC50: 6.7 μg/mL). In a dose dependent manner, isoaaptamine inhibited the growth of T47D cellsas indicated bythe short- (MTT) and long-term (colony formation) assays. The cytotoxic effect of isoaaptamine was mediated through apoptosis which was suggested by DNA ladder formation, caspase-7 activation, XIAP inhibition and PARP cleavage. Furthermore, TEM and flow cytometirc analysis usingacridine orange dye indicated that that isoaaptamine treatment could induce T47D cells autophagy. Immunoblot assays demonstrated that isoaaptamine treatment significantly activated autophagy markerproteins such asthe increase in Type II LC-3.In addition, isoaaptamine treatment enhanced the activation of DNA damage(γH2AX) and ER stress-related proteins (IRE1αand BiP). Moreover, the use of isoaaptamine resulted in a significant increase in the generation ofreactive oxygen species (ROS) as well as in the disruption of mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP). The pretreatmentof T47D cellswith an ROS scavenger, NAC, attenuated apoptosis- and MMP disruption-induced by isoaaptamine up to 90%.Taken together, these findings suggest that the anticancer effect of isoaaptamine is associated with the induction of apoptosis and autophagy through oxidative stress. Accordingly, our data indicatedthat isoaaptaminecould act as a potential lead for the development of marine derived anti-breast cancer agent.

Drug resistance in cancer cells is a frequent cause of breast cancer therapy failure. The aim of this thesis was to elucidate mechanisms of resistance to taxanes, that are used in therapy of various types of cancer, including breast cancer. We particularly assessed the role of autophagy and changes in βII- and βIII isotype gene expression in development of taxane resistance. As model of breast cancer we used human sensitive cell lines SK-BR-3, MCF-7 a T47-D and resistant sublines SK-BR-3-PAC/REZ a MCF-7- PAC/REZ which grow in paclitaxel concentration lethal for sensitive sublines. In cell lines SK-BR-3 and MCF-7, taxane application decreased the level of autophagy, however in cell line T47-D led to its activation. We detected no difference between basal levels of autophagy in sensitive subline SK-BR-3 compared to resistant subline SK-BR-3-PAC/REZ, but we observed increased basal level of autophagy in sensitive subline MCF-7 compared to the resistant subline. Increase or decrease level of autophagy did not affect taxane resistance, except activation of autophagy in resistant subline SK-BR-3-PAC/REZ, that further increased the resistance to paclitaxel. Taxane application in cell line T47-D increased the levels of βII- and βIII-tubuline expression, however we did not find any similar effect in other tested...

碩士
國立臺灣大學
生物化學暨分子生物學研究所
96
Part I Dabsyl chloride (dimethylaminoazobenzene sulfonyl chloride), a useful chromophoric labeling reagent for amino acids and amines, was developed in our laboratory in 1975. Although several methods have been developed to determine various types of amino acids, a quick and easy method of determining theanine, GABA and other amino acids has not been developed in one HPLC system. Here, we analyze the free amino acid contents of theanine and GABA in different teas (green tea, black tea, oolong tea, Pu-erh tea, GABA tea, and luobuma tea) with a dabsylation and reverse phase high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) system coupled with a detector at 425nm absorbance. In this system, our data suggests that different teas may be recognized by their various theanine contents. The high theanine content of high mountain tea was observed in both green tea and oolong tea. Furthermore, the raw (natural fermented) Pu-erh tea contained more theanine than ripe (wet fermented) Pu-erh tea. And the GABA contents in normal teas were significantly lower than that in Luobuma tea and GABA tea. Part II Solanum nigrum Linn belong to Solanaceae is a plant widely grows in south Asia and has been used in traditional folk medicine. It is believed to have many biology activities including antipyretic, diuretic, anti-cancer, and hepatoprotective effect. However, the exactally mechanism of such effects needed further research. In our lab, we used the water extract of Solanum nigrum Linn leaf (SN leaf) to compare the response of different cells, including liver cancer, breast cancer, and fibroblast. The results showed that AU565 bresat cancer cells were more sensitive to the extract. SN leaf induced autophagy but not apoptosis in AU565. The induced autophagy seemed not related to Akt or AMPK pathway, but the exactly mechanism was still unknown. Low dose (< 25 μg/ml) of SN leaf induced autophagy would not induce cell death because of the raising of p-Akt to inhibit autohpagy. Higher dose (> 100 μg/ml) of SN leaf could inhibit the level of p-Akt and cause the cell death. These confirmed that Akt is the key survival factor for AU565, and the using of SN leaf for the treatment of AU565 related cancers were needed further evaluation.