Статті в журналах з теми "Amino acids in animal nutrition; Sheep Feeding and feeds"

Inadequate poultry nutrition results in substandard growth rates as well as decreased egg production and weight. In order to express the genetic potential for which they were selected, meat- and egg-type birds must receive the correct amounts of nutrients and energy through properly formulated rations. This 4-page fact sheet examines the roles of water, carbohydrates, proteins and amino acids, lipids (fats and oils), vitamins, minerals, and feed additives in poultry growth and development. It also emphasizes the importance of providing suitable feeds to birds of different ages and discusses common feeding mistakes. Written by Michael A. Davis, published by the UF Department of Animal Sciences, and reviewed and revised August 2015. This fact sheet is a major revision of “Small Poultry Flock Nutrition,” written by B. L. Damron and D. R. Sloan, April 1998. (Photo credit: Smather's Archives)

Acetylation is a potential method for protecting dietary peptides from degradation by rumen micro-organisms. As a first step in determining the nutritive value of acetylated peptides, their disappearance in the small intestine of sheep and their ability to support growth in a rat bioassay were measured.15N-labelled peptides were prepared from lucerne which had been grown with15N-labelled (NH4)2SO4in the absence ofRhizobium. Peptides were prepared by enzymic hydrolysis of the extracted protein. Two peptide preparations were made using different proteinase mixtures. These mixtures contained peptides with an average molecular weight of 559 and 522 Da. They were treated with acetic anhydride, which resulted in 85 and 88% modification respectively, and their uptake from the small intestine was determined by injecting 1 g of untreated or acetylated peptides in a Cr-EDTA solution into the jejunum of two sheep fitted with jejunal catheters and ileal cannulas. Ileal digesta were collected and analysed for Cr and15N. The uptake of dialanine (Ala2) and N-acetyl-Ala2were compared in a similar way. The disappearance of15N from lucerne peptides was high (88 and 93% respectively) and this was not affected significantly by acetylation (86 and 87%). Corresponding values for Ala2and N-acetyl-Ala2were both 96%, as measured by HPLC. It was therefore concluded that acetylation did not affect the uptake of peptides from the small intestine in sheep. Two feeding trials were carried out with rats. The first trial was carried out with a protein-free diet to which was added 10% lactalbumin or 5% lactalbumin and then a mixture of methionine-free amino acids, either alone or supplemented with Met, Gly-Met or acetylated Gly-Met. The rats grew equally well on all sources of Met, but failed to grow significantly on the mixture of Met-free amino acids. In the second trial the diet contained casein as 5·9% of the basal diet. Additional casein, pancreatic casein hydrolysate (peptides) and acetylated pancreatic casein hydrolysate (acetylated peptides) were compared as sources of amino acids, at inclusion rates of 100 g/kg final diet. Feed intake was similar with casein and peptides treatments, but was depressed by 23% with acetylated peptides. Live weight gain was 15 and 75% lower with the peptides and acetylated peptides diets respectively. Addition of lysine, arginine or histidine did not restore feed intake or weight gain of rats receiving acetylated peptides, but feed intake was restored immediately when peptides replaced acetylated peptides. When intake was restricted to 9 g/d and acetylated casein hydrolysate replaced half of the protein in the diet, rats gained weight less rapidly (1·44 v: 1·09 g/d) and retained less N, such that only 0·36 of the acetylated peptide-N was calculated to remain available to the animal. This N retention compared with 0·70 for unmodified casein. Thus, the rat bioassay indicated that certain specific peptides may well be of high nutritive value following acetylation, but that there may be problems of inappetance and inefficient utilization with acetylated peptide mixtures.

It has been established that the level of blood parameters in the body of sheep is not always stable and often depends on the breed, sex, their physiological state, the level of productivity, feeding and housing conditions. Among the factors that determine the optimal sheep nutritional level, not the last place is occupied by their provision with a sufficient amount of essential amino acids, especially lysine, methionine, cystine, and vitamins, given their physiological importance for the animal body. The overwhelming amount of them is able to be synthesized in the sheep rumen with the help of microorganisms of the gastrointestinal tract, however, some of them are irreplaceable, that is, those whose balance must be replenished through feed rations. The article describes the use of the vitamin-amino acid complex "Аlphabet for Animals" in sheep, containing a complex of fat-and water-soluble vitamins, as well as amino acids, which contribute to the normalization of metabolism in the body of small ruminants, increase its resistance, have a positive effect on productivity, safety and reproductive animals functions. During the research, the effect of this feed additive on hemocytopoiesis and the exchange of essential micronutrients in ewes were studied. After a double use of the additive, an increase in the processes of erythrocytopoiesis was established, as evidenced by an increase in the number of blood erythrocytes by 21.2% and the hemoglobin content by 11.2%, stabilization of the size and degree of saturation of erythrocytes with hemoglobin, as evidenced by a decrease in MCH and MCV indices. There were no significant changes in the content of essential micronutrients in the blood serum of sheep under the influence of the "Alphabet for Animals", and a slight increase of zinc content in the blood was noted in sheep after the second injection of the drug. At the same time, in the blood of experimental animals group a significant increase the iron content on average up to 129.5±7.33 μg/100 ml (p<0.05) was established, and the number of animals with a low amount of blood iron was only 12.5 %. The number of leukocytes in the sheep blood of both groups was within the normal range and during the second and third blood tests did not change significantly. Key words: sheep, feeding, feed additives, amino acids, vitamins, hemocytopoiesis, essential micronutrients.

This review summarized for the first time the nutritional benefits of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis in animal feed. the agronomic characteristics for the hyperproduction of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis were reported, as well as the chemical composition of the forage meal (leaves + petioles + stems), with emphasis on crude protein, amino acids, minerals, neutral detergent fiber, acid detergent fiber, lignin detergent acid, secondary metabolites, and metabolizable energy for ruminants and non-ruminants. Additionally, their medicinal properties such as antimicrobial, antifungal, antiparasitic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antidiarrheal, and antipyretic properties were detailed. Its use as a source of protein in ruminant feeding is attractive and can be combined with grasses. In rabbits, fresh forage in high concentrations in the diets reduces the feed palatability, which causes a decrease in animal response, although it depends on the forage quality. In addition, limits for Hibiscus rosa-sinensis forage were recommended in diets or feeding systems for poultry, pigs, rabbits, goats, and sheep.

Twenty castrated male sheep were selected from a commercial flock, 10 with high estimated breeding values (EBVs) (F+) and 10 with low EBVs for wool production (F–). Five of each EBV treatment were offered feed at 0.8M [0.8 times their metabolisable energy (ME) requirement for maintenance] and the other 5 were offered feed at 1.8M for 6 weeks. On the midside area of skin, the F+ group had a greater rate of clean wool growth (g/100cm2.day) and daily growth in fibre length (mm/day) than the F– group at both feeding levels (P<0.05). Fibre diameter (FD) was finer for F+ than F– sheep at both feeding levels (P<0.001). As the feeding level increased, FD increased (P<0.001), but the ratio of fibre length growth to mean FD remained constant. The secondary follicle density in F+ sheep decreased with an increase in the feeding level (P<0.01), whereas the secondary follicle density of F– sheep remained unchanged (P>0.05). The ratio of secondary to primary follicles (S/P) was 21% higher (P<0.01) in skin from F+ sheep than in skin from F– sheep, but this difference was not related to the feeding level. Skin thickness at the midside was thinner (P<0.05) when sheep were underfed, but F+ sheep had a thicker (P<0.05) skin than F– sheep. The trephine (diameter: 1.5 cm; area: 1.766 cm2)-sampled skin weight was heavier for F+ than for F– (0.339 v. 0.294 g, P<0.05) but did not differ (P>0.05) with the level of intake. The weight of the dermis layer was greater in F+ than F– sheep (0.231 v. 0.190 g per trephine, P<0.05) and F+ sheep also tended to be more responsive to feeding level than F– sheep (interaction: P = 0.06). True protein content per 100 g wet skin did not differ between F+ and F– sheep or between feeding levels, whereas the protein content per 100 cm2 skin was significantly (P<0.05) higher in F+ sheep. The concentration of collagen in skin protein (g/100 g) was lower in F+ sheep than F– sheep at both feeding levels (P<0.05). Of the amino acids evaluated, significant differences occurred between F+ and F– sheep for the methionine (Met) concentration in plasma (P<0.05) and in the free amino acid pool in the skin (P = 0.06). The distribution ratio of skin Met concentration to plasma Met concentration was significantly lower in the F+ sheep than F– sheep (0.77 v.1.18 kg skin/ L plasma). Results presented here indicate that skin characteristics such as skin thickness, follicle density, S/P ratio, skin weight, dermis weight, true protein or collagen content were a consequence of genetics and nutritional variation in wool growth rate, fibre length and fibre diameter. Selection for high EBVs for wool growth has resulted in animals which grow more wool at the 2 levels of feed intake provided, supported by their higher S/P ratios, higher skin and protein masses, more responsive dermides and higher efficiency of Met usage in skin tissue.

In the system of high-grade nutrition of pigs, the completeness of compound feeds with metabolizable energy and essential amino acids is of paramount importance. Breeding of modern breeds and lines of pigs with high meat productivity makes it necessary to study the peculiarities of providing these nutrients for the animals. It is known that different breeds of pigs, particularly those with different productivity trends, use dietary protein in different ways. Study of features of nitrogen use by pigs of bred in the republic breeds and lines in compound feeds with different completeness of essential amino acids, in particular, lysine and its ratio with metabolizable energy, is relevant for development of standards for their amino acid nutrition in order to maximize their genetic potential of high meat productivity. The paper presents experimental materials on study of the dynamics of nitrogen deposition in body of animals, its release into environment, as well as peculiarities of deposition and use of it for the synthesis of muscle tissue in body of pigs at fattening of three genotypes - Duroc breed, Large white and Belarusian meat breeds. It has been determined that limiting factors of protein synthesis in pigs with adequate level of metabolizable energy are the intake of the required amount of available amino acids with the feed and the genetically determined rate of its deposition. Feed nitrogen was used better by pigs of the Belarusian meat breed and Duroc in comparison with pigs of Large white breed. The most efficient use of feed nitrogen was shown by gilts fed with compound feed with 0.71 g of available lysine per 1 MJ of metabolizable energy. The data obtained during the research on feed nitrogen used by animals of meat genotypes reveal the mechanism of interaction of energy and amino acid nutrition, which is of great importance for development of pig feeding standards considering the breed and trend of productivity. Acknowledgments. The research has been carried out within the framework of the State Program of applied research “Animal Breeding and Veterinary Medicine”.

The article is devoted to preventive measures to eliminate the problem of dysmicroelementosis in order to increase the productivity of young sheep. The article presents the results of studies of the influence of feeding rations on the growth and development of young sheep of the Edilbaev breed, on the level of their meat productivity and the qualitative characteristics of biologically fortified lamb. Feed additives based on Yoddar-Zn and DAFS-25 were added to the main ration of lambs at the age of four months, once a day, being added into a fodder mixture with concentrates. For the experiment the herd of lambs was divided to four groups of 25 heads each.The changes in live weight at the age of four, five, six and seven months were analyzed, and it was found that at the age of seven months, the absolute average weight gain in the experimental groups varied from 3.45 kg to 4.49 kg, in the control group it was 3.1 kg, while the largest live weight gain was recorded in group III which received both feed additives based on Yoddar-Zn and DAFS-25.There were no significant differences in the parameters of body measurements, with the exception of group III, where the chest circumference increased by 7.2%, and the height of a lamb at the withers increased in average by 8.1%. It was found that group III had the highest meat density coefficient, equal to 3.9, and the cross-sectional area of m. Longissimus dorsi was equal to 13.61 cm2. It was noted that the amount of free amino acids of the lamb group III is 18.8% higher than the meat of the control group. The lamb obtained from the animals of the experimental groups showed a higher protein content and less fat. The ratio of water to protein in all samples was slightly higher than 3.7, which corresponds to the Federa number for meat raw materials. Enriching the rations of the Edilbaevskoy sheep with feed additives Yoddar-Zn and DAFS-25 promotes the stimulation of growth and development of animals, increases the productivity and nutritional value of lamb.

Abstract Maternal diet during gestation is important for proper fetal growth and development. There is evidence that poor maternal nutrition (restricted- and over-feeding) can alter growth of the fetus with long-term consequences on postnatal growth and adult maintenance. Additionally, maternal diet can program offspring for altered metabolism which leads to increased fat deposition and likely reduced efficiency of production later in life. Using livestock models, we and others have demonstrated insulin resistance, leptin resistance, and increased adiposity in response to poor maternal nutrition. These systemic changes are likely due to altered metabolic regulation at the tissue level. Using a sheep model, we have evidence that poor maternal nutrition also alters key metabolic profiles in muscle and liver, key metabolic tissues, in offspring. Specifically, in offspring of restricted-fed ewes, similar profiles of amino acid (e.g. branched-chain amino acids, histidine, methionine) and lipid (e.g. triglycerides) metabolites were altered in blood, liver, and muscle. In the muscle of offspring from restricted- and over-fed ewes, lipid and protein metabolic profiles diverged between the two treatment groups. This demonstrates different mechanisms contributing to altered metabolism of offspring from ewes restricted- and over-fed during gestation. The similar changes in metabolic profiles at both the systemic and local level suggest complex mechanisms involved in metabolic dysregulation of offspring from poorly fed mothers, which likely contribute to life-long metabolic dysregulation and reduced efficiency of growth and product quality.

Science and practice have proved that balanced nutrition involves the intake of the organic, mineral, and biologically active substances in the bird’s body in certain quantities and proportions due to their needs. Balanced poultry feeding is a guarantee of not only high productivity, but also the prevention of diseases that negatively affect the safety of livestock and product quality. Providing poultry with high-quality protein is especially important nowadays. Birds spend more essential amino acids per unit of body weight gain and, accordingly, more of them should be daily supplied to the body with feed. Plant proteins are the basis of grain feeds that contain all eleven essential amino acids required for protein synthesis in the body of chickens, ducks, geese, and turkeys. However, it was revealed that most of these amino acids are concentrated in grain in insufficient quantities and cannot fully satisfy the needs of highly productive poultry. As a result, it is necessary to additionally introduce high-protein supplements into the diet as a source of essential amino acids or use synthetic concentrates of lysine, methionine, threonine, and tryptophan. High-protein supplements are coming in two types – animal and plant-based. From the plant-based ones, soy products are considered the most valuable as a concentrated source of the first limiting amino acid - lysine, and sunflower meal is rich in methionine. And even so, plant-based protein feed is not able to create a complete balance of all essential amino acids. This can be done only if the animal-sourced protein is introduced into the poultry diet in the form of fish meal, meat and bone meal, meat meal, or yeast. Besides, scientific research has proven that yeast can be considered a wonderful natural source of B vitamins. The analysis of scientific research indicates that today there is a wide search and study of various feed supplements that could be a source of complete protein and have in its composition a complete complex of amino acids for birds. There are not enough such high-quality feed additives in Ukraine, and those coming from abroad are distinguished by high cost and are often falsified. Therefore, the use of yeast in poultry diets as long as their industrial production according to the technology based on the state standard is relevant for solving a number of modern poultry farming problems and is of great scientific and practical importance.

The broiler industry has experienced remarkable improvements in productivity owing to high priority placed on genetic programming, nutrition and management practices. Nutrition of the meat chicken is driven by the need to satisfy the constantly increasing genetic potential, resulting in the shortening of the rearing time required to get the bird to market weight. The concept of feeding broilers a more specialised pre-starter diet for the first 10–14 days of age is gaining interest, as this now accounts for more than 20% of the time for grow-out. Specialised diets may be formulated to be highly digestible or aim to provide specific nutrients at a higher level to meet nutritional requirements of the bird. The effectiveness of specifically formulated pre-starter or starter diets depends on potential carryover effect to increase the bird performance up to the market age. There is evidence that some nutrient requirements of birds, digestible amino acids in particular, in the first 10 days of life may be higher than the current industry recommendation. Among cereals, rice with its lower non-starch polysaccharide content may be a better cereal for pre-starter diets than are corn or wheat. Inclusion of fibrous ingredients in low-fibre diets of young broilers may also stimulate gut development and enhance nutrient utilisation, leading to improved bird performance. There are inconsistencies in responses to various feed additives tested specifically for pre-starter diets of broilers. Finally, with an increasing demand for removal of antibiotic growth promoters from all broiler feeds, focus on formulations to ensure sustainable growth at start will gain importance.

This study conducted the impacts of quality and safety on meat products of the Sunite sheep such as meat productions quality and yields, meat's physical and chemical characteristics, fat acids and amino acids, in conditions of animal welfare supplied and defferent nutritional status [9]. The main purpose of the research is to identify future measures to ensure that the human developments and foods health in the China, was there respect by humanitarian and ethical behavior and the basic conditions of animal welfare and to protect them from risks and dangers [7]. The Inner Mongolia should be promoting sustainable livestock farming, especially in developing ways to improve the efficiency of pastoral livestock, and ensuring the welfare of livestock to improve the quality and safety of livestock products. The methodology section summarizes the international methodology on how to assess animal welfare [2; 3]. The main results of this experiment are: 1) the growth of liveweight of the Sunite sheep increased as the age group was better, especially in the grazing group, 2) In connection studied between sheep feeding with the animal welfare and Sunite sheep meat productins value of n-3PUFA and n-6PUFA was higher than that depends of the sheep's age, 3) According to the slaughtering results, the yield of pure meat in animal welfare group was relatively higher than that of the insufficient group (P <0.05), 4) As the result of muscle fatty acids content of pasture sheep was less than the sheep 's nutrition group. In conclusion, the difference between sheep fat and its stress response is positively correlated. Сөнөд хонины махан ашиг шимийн чанарт тавлаг байдлын үзүүлэх нөлөө Хураангуй: Энэхүү судалгаагаар малын тавлаг байдлыг хангасан болон тэжээллэг маллагааны ялгаатай нөхцөлд Сөнөд хонины махан ашиг шимийн гарц чанар, махны физик, химийн үзүүлэлт, тосны ба амин хүчлийн бүрдэл зэрэг махан бүтээгдэхүүний чанар, аюулгүй байдалд үзүүлэх нөлөөллийг судлах асуудлыг хөндсөн юм [9]. БНХАУ-д хүний хөгжил, хүнсний эрүүл, аюулгүй байдлыг хамгаалахын тулд мал амьтныг хүмүүнлэг энэрэнгүй ёс зүйд нийцүүлэн эсэн мэнд, эрүүл амьдрах, түүнийг элдэв аюул эрсдлээс хамгаалахад шаардагдах ая тухтай тавлаг байдлын үндсэн нөхцлийг хангах асуудлыг хүлээн зөвшөөрүүлэх цаашид хэрэгжүүлэх арга хэмжээг тодруулахад судалгааны үндсэн зорилго оршиж байв[7]. ӨМӨЗО-ны мал аж ахуйг тогтвортой хөгжүүлэх, ялангуяа уламжлалт бэлчээрийн мал аж ахуйн үр ашгийг дээшлүүлэх арга замыг боловсруулах, малын гаралтай бүтээгдэхүүний чанар, аюулгүй байдлыг сайжруулахад малын тавлаг байдлыг хангах асуудал чухлаар тавигдаж байна[2; 3]. Арга зүйн хэсэгт малын тавлаг байдлыг хангах асуудлыг хэрхэн судлах талаар олон улсын хэмжээнд мөрдөж буй аргачлалыг дэлгэрэнгүй оруулав. Энэхүү туршилтын гол үр дүн нь 1) Сөнөд хонины биеийн жингийн өсөлт нас ахих тусам тавлаг байдлыг хангасан бүлэгт илүү ялангуяа бэлчээрийн бүлэгт хамгийн сайн байв. 2) Хонины тэжээллэгийг тавлаг байдлыг хангах асуудалтай холбон судлахдаа Сөнөд хонины махан ашиг шимийг n-3PUFA ба n-6PUFA тэжээлийн шинж чанарыг агуулсан үзүүлэлттэй харьцуулахад хонины насны ялгаа нь илүү нөлөөтэй байв. 3) Мал нядалгааны үр дүнгээс харахад тавлаг байдлыг хангасан бүлгийн хонины махны гарц, хангаагүй бүлгийнхээс харьцангуй өндөр байв(Р<0.05). 4) Булчингийн тосны хүчлийн шинжилгээний үр дүнгээс үзэхэд бэлчээрийн хонины махны тосны хүчлийн найрлага, байран тэжээлтэй хониныхоос илүү хөнгөн байв. Дүгнэж хэлэхэд, Сөнөд хонины махны өөх тос ба түүний стрессийн хариу үйлдлийн ялгаа нь эерэг хамааралтай болохыг баталгаажуулсан. Түлхүүр үг: бэлчээр ба байран тэжээл, махны физик, химийн үзүүлэлт, тосны ба амин хүчлийн бүрдэл

Recently, nanotechnology has been widely adopted in many fields. The goal of this study was to evaluate the potential for amino acid coated nano minerals as a supplement in broiler feed. Zinc was selected as a model mineral for this test and supplementation of nano zinc, both coated and uncoated was compared with organic and inorganic commercial forms of zinc. A total of 48 pens (8 birds each) were assigned to one of the following dietary treatments: Control, methionine-Zinc chelate (M-Zn), nano zinc oxide (Nano-ZnO), and methionine coated nano zinc oxide (M-Nano-ZnO). All experimental diets were formulated with the same total zinc, methionine, protein, and energy content with just the zinc source as a variable. Bird weight, feed intake and feed conversion ratios were recorded weekly, with three birds culled (sacrificed) at day 21 and day 35 for sampling measures. Ileal digestibility of zinc was determined at day 21 and day 35 using titanium dioxide as an inert marker. Blood serum, liver and spleen samples were collected at day 21 and day 35 and analysed for zinc content via inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Tibia strength and morphometrics were measured from both legs of three birds per pen at day 21 and day 35. The study was conducted at Nottingham Trent University Poultry Unit, UK. The novel method of producing nano minerals coated with amino acids was successfully tested with zinc and material produced to test in the feeding study. Methionine coated nano zinc oxide supplementation significantly improved bird weight gain and the increased feed intake of broilers compared to an inorganic zinc form. Ileal digestibility was also improved with this methionine-nano zinc. Moreover, this supplementation improved the tibia strength of broilers at the age of 21 days, though this was not observed at day 35. Therefore, M-Nano-ZnO could be used to supplement broilers to improve both performance and digestibility with a limited positive impact on bone strength. The results of the current study suggest that the amino acid coating of nano minerals can improve the digestibility of minerals which may have further implications for the field of mineral nutrition in animal feeds.

Background Animal source foods (ASFs) are rich in high-quality proteins, including essential amino acids and highly bioavailable micronutrients vital for child growth and cognitive development. But, the daily consumption of ASFs among 6–23 months old children is very low in Tigray, Northern Ethiopia. Objective The study aimed to assess the effectiveness of nutrition education intervention to improve the consumption of ASFs among 6–23 months old children from rural communities with strict religious fasting traditions of avoiding intake of ASFs in Northern Ethiopia. Methods A quasi-experimental study was conducted in two food insecure districts namely Samre Seharti (intervention) and Tanqua Abergele (comparison). The mother-child pairs in the intervention group (n = 140) received nutrition education based on the barriers and available resources for optimal consumption of ASFs among children and followed up for nine months. The mother-child pairs in the comparison group (n = 153) received routine nutrition education. The data were collected using a pre-tested structured questionnaire. The baseline and endline data assessment included interviews on socio-demographic and socio-economic status, dietary intake, and child feeding practices. The effectiveness of the intervention was measured using the difference-in-difference (DID) analysis model. Results At endline, the consumption of ASFs among children was 19.5 percentage points higher in the intervention group compared with the comparison group (p = 0.008). In addition, there was a significant increase in egg consumption among children in the intervention group (DID of 16.9, p = 0.012) from the comparison group. No child was consuming meat at baseline in both the intervention and comparison arms and it was very low at endline (5.2% vs. 7.9%). Overall, the proportion of children that consumed eggs in the intervention group was higher than in the comparison group in households that owned sheep and goats (4.8% vs. 21.4%, p = 0.050) and chicken (6.3% vs. 43.8%, p = 0.002) after education interventions. However, no statistically significant difference was observed between cow ownership and milk consumption among children (p>0.05). Conclusions Age-appropriate educational interventions for mothers and owning small livestock in the household can improve the consumption of ASFs and eventually the minimum diet diversity of children in communities with strict religious traditions of avoiding ASFs during the fasting seasons.

AbstractDue to the scarcity of concentrate and green fodder and its high prices in animal feeding, the quest for readily available and inexpensive alternative sources has become critical for breeders seeking to minimize the cost of animal production. Azolla is an invasive plant that grows faster in freshwater lakes, rivers, wetlands, and ditches in both temperate and tropical countries by a few precautionary steps with low production costs. It can modify biodiversity and aquatic ecosystems substantially. Azolla has a symbiotic relationship with the nitrogen-fixing blue-green alga Anabaena azollae, which increases the protein content of Azolla, making it one of the greatest alternative feed ingredients as a source of protein, with 25–30% protein, 7–10% amino acids, vitamins (Beta Carotene, vitamin A, vitamin B12), minerals (calcium, potassium, phosphorus, ferrous, magnesium, copper, etc.), and antioxidants. Several studies showed that Azolla can be fed to animals like cow, buffalo, sheep, goat and rabbit because it is easily digestible (because to its high protein and low lignin content), increases feed efficiency, average daily gain of animals, and milk production by 15–20%. Therefore, the present review was aimed to show the possibility of using Azolla as a source of alternative low-cost protein and its impact on animal efficiency.

Total dependence of aquaculture on imports of feeds can significantly compromise Russia’s food supply security; hence the task of designing new domestic feeds is of primary importance. A major challenge of world aquaculture is providing fish with a balanced diet, in particular, with a well-balanced composition of amino acids. In this review, we analyze international publications on the composition of amino acids in fish feed over the last two years. We summarize the data on the amino acid composition of prospective food sources for fish aquaculture: agricultural crops, insects, annelids, higher crustaceans, animal waste, phytoplankton, zooplankton, macrophytes, and microorganisms. We performed a comparative analysis of the composition of amino acids in promising aquafeed sources and fish flour traditionally used for fish feeding. Based on the results, we conclude that each of the examined food sources can be used as a component of fish nutrition and offers realistic prospects for production of alternative feeds. To ensure high quality of fish aquaculture products, the priority should be given to development of technologies which allow to control amino acid feed composition during the production process with respect to fish species-specific needs. It is hoped that this review will be useful to researchers and practitioners involved in designing and producing new domestic aquafeed for fish

Aquaculture is food sector, which is growing rapidly in the last 25 years with annual growth rate 8,2 . One of the mostperspective branches of aquaculture is shrimp farming. The cost of feeds is up to 80% of the cost of shrimp breeding, so providingthe industry with high-quality feeds is the important goal of the feed industry in all over the world. The theoretical research was devotedto the task of compound shrimp feed production. In order to satisfy shrimp requirements, shrimp feeding systems were shown.Existing shrimp breeding systems are shown as different from the type of reservoirs (static / running water, indoor or outdoor), feedingmethods, and the species of grown shrimp. Features of the nutritional standards for freshwater and saltwater shrimps were analyzed.Nutrient requirements of shrimp have been changed through shrimp life-cycle. The shrimp life-cycle was shown.World leaders-producers of compound mixed feeds for shrimps were shown. The analysis of pellet size and nutritional valueof compound mixed feeds of crude protein content in prestart, starter, grower and finish periods of cultivation and in accordancewith the system of cultivation and feeding shrimp (intensive, extensive, semi-intensive) is carried out. The requirements for the contentof main minerals, vitamins and restrictions to the content of crude fiber are given. Traditional ingredients are described. Bindersand preservatives, which are used for shrimp feeds, are shown and subscribed. In raw material the main problem is the need to ensurehigh protein content in the shrimp feed recipes. Because of many factors, fish meal quantity should be reduced in recipes. Becauseof its attractive amino acid content, availability and relatively affordable price, soybean meal and soy concentrates have receivedincreasing attention as substitutes for marine animal meals.The features of technological lines and processes of production of mixed feeds for shrimp are shown.Еhe advantages and disadvantages of using the two most common processes of production of shrimp feeds (pelleting andextrusion), despite the relatively high cost extrusion, undoubtedly, is the main process of shrimp feed production.At the same time, there are challenges, which need to be overcome by the industry for effective further development: toproduce environmentally friendly feeds, to conduct further studies in order to clarify the required nutritional value of shrimp feedand add amino acids, feed enzymes, chemo-attractants, probiotics, and immunostimulants, to provide the necessary water stability ofpellets, and to increase feed conversion rate, develop regional, national, or international guidelines and codes of practices for bothfeed manufacturing practices and feed management practices, reduce fish meal in shrimp feed recipes.Despite the existence of problems, shrimp production is growing and the production of feed for their feeding has a greatpotential as an important source of animal protein in human nutrition.

Fish meal is obtained as a result of the processing and drying of fish that are not suitable for human consumption and the wastes left in the fishing industry, or by passing them through various technological processes. Fish meal, one of the two main products of the fishing industry, is used in feeds as a protein source with high digestibility with its high content of amino acids, vitamins, and minerals. Fish meal is one of the most important features that makes it superior to other feed raw materials due to the essential amino acids and long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids it contains. With the addition of fish meal to the ration performance and immune system of young animals are positively affected. It is stated that fish meal can be added 3-10% to poultry rations, 5% to cattle and sheep rations, and 10% to pig rations. In Türkiye, a significant part of fish meal and oil production is carried out in the Black Sea Region. In this study, the nutrient content of fish meals taken from four different fish meal production factory in the Black Sea Region was evaluated. Accordingly, the highest values are; dry matter (DM) 95.90% (p&lt;0.0001) and ash 17.20% (p&lt;0.0001) in D factory, crude protein (CP) 73.40% (p&lt;0.0001) in A factory, crude oil ether extract(EE) 11.33% (p&lt;0.01) in B factory, metabolic energy(ME, poultry) 3537.5 Kcal kg-1 (p&lt;0.001) in B factory were determined. It was determined that there was no statistical difference among the factories in terms of linoleicacid and linolenic acid amounts of essential fatty acids (p˃0.01), while palmitic acid, palmitoleic acid and oleic acid levels were found to be significant in B factory (p˃0.001). It has been observed that there is a difference in nutrient contents among the fish meal mostly produced in the Black Sea Region in our country.

BioProtein® (BP) is a trademark for single cell (bacteria) protein, based on conversion of methane, with the addition of ammonia and oxygen, to a protein source. BP is produced by Norferm AS in Norway, and has been authorized by the EU as a protein source in animal feeds since 1995, for fattening pigs (8%), calves (8%) and salmon (19-33%). Significant immune effects were revealed in a toxicity study performed in rats fed a nucleic acid reduced BP product (NABP) and thereafter, similar, but less severe effects were also found after feeding with untreated BP. Additional studies confirmed increased mesenteric lymph node weights in cats and foxes. Due to the undesirable effects and also due to applications for extended use, BP has been assessed by the Scientific Committee on Animal Nutrition (SCAN) and EU’s Scientific Committee on Food (SCF) in 1995, by SCAN in 2001 and 2003 and by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) in 2005. The EU memberstates United Kingdom, France and Finland have also conducted assessments. The EU approval from 1995 remains unchanged. The Norwegian Food Safety Authority requested the Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food Safety (VKM) to assess the risk of using BP as a protein source in feedingstuffs, both for the animal categories already authorized and for extended use to pet animals, chickens and pigs from weaning to slaughter. The Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food Safety was asked to consider all existing documentation. Based on all documentation enclosed with the request from the Norwegian Food Safety Authority and published scientific articels, an opinion on the safety of BP assessed by the VKM panel on Animal Feed was published on 20 March 2006 (05/608-final-rev1). The Producer made a complaint regarding this opinion and claimed that not all documents on BP had been evaluated. The Norwegian Food Safety Authority then requested VKM to revise its opinion on the risk of using BP as a protein source in feedingstuffs, based on 17 documents previously not available to VKM, in addition to the 20 documents included in the opinion published on 20 March 2006. BP is composed of a protein with a somewhat different amino acid compostion compared with fish meal, but BP and fish meal have more similarities in amino acid content than soybean meal. BP has relatively high level of nucleic acids, phospholipids, lipopolysaccarides and minerals. Effect studies with BP have been conducted in rats/mice, pigs, chicken, cats, foxes, and salmon. Most of the concern regarding the side effects of BP in feed is related to the immune response. The main findings include changes in weight and morphology of mesenteric lymph nodes, followed by induction of specific antibodies. Histopathological examination after feeding with NABP also revealed changes in the intestines and several internal organs indicating systemic effects. The Producer claims that the immune response seen in BP-fed mice/rats is most likely a normal response to ingestion of large doses of a foreign antigen, and further, that oral tolerance towards this protein is induced over time. However, these interpretations are not adequately supported by the supplied documentation. A tendency towards adaption might be indicated in some of the studies, other results argue against tolerance induction. It is unclear whether the content of phospholipids, lipopolysaccarides, nucleic acids or the protein structure, or the combination of these compounds is responsible for the immunological changes observed. However, the particulate structure of BP has been shown to influence the observed immune response as the systemic immune response was avoided by ingestion of BP free of whole cells. The studies conducted in target species have not included adequate examinations of the immune effects from ingestion of BP. Concerning terrestrial species, no histopathological effects were revealed in the pig, chicken, cat or fox studies. However, increased mesenteric lymph nodes were reported in cats and foxes fed BP. In the remaining studies the main focus has been on production parameters; weight gain, feed intake, feed efficiency, metabolism of nutrients, observation of clinical health, and product quality. When the contents of amino acids were balanced, the inclusion of low levels of BP (9%) tended to stimulate growth in pigs and the same tendency was found in chicken with 6% BP. Higher feed levels of BP tended to cause a reduction in growth. In salmon, a dose dependent improvement of growth was reported in a short term experiment (8 weeks). However, in longer term experiments with salmon, depressed growth and increased liver weight were observed in freshwater at 19% BP with no-effect-level at 10%. In seawater studies, a tendency of reduced growth was found in salmon fed with 20% BP in the diet, and BP levels of 27% and higher levels resulted in significantly reduced body weight. Furthermore, levels of 27% BP and above in fish feed reduced specific immune responses, but increased lymphocyte response, and also tended to improve the survival after bacterial and viral infections. At 37% BP in the diet histopathological changes in the distal intestine, and reduced storage of glycogen and increased lipid deposition and liver weight were observed. No negative effects were seen in salmon in seawater at a feed level of 13.5% BP. The results indicate negative effects in salmon at BP levels in fish feed considerably lower than those currently approved (19 and 33%, in feed for salmon in fresh and sea water, respectively). To conclude, in terrestrial target species documented effects of BP include reduced weight gain and increased weight of mesenteric lymph nodes. In the more thoroughly studied species the rat, findings incluse histopathologic effects in mesenteric lymph nodes, changed humoral immune responses, increased weight of other lymphoid tissue (spleen), increased level of neutrophile granulocytes, and slight leakage of hepatic and renal tubuli enzymes. In terrestrial target species, 6% BP in the feed is considered to be the highest inclusion level not to cause such effects. The results from the rat studies show a similar no-effect-level. In salmon, reduced weight gain, liver storage effects, changed humoral and celluar immune responses and histopathological effects in the intestine are documented. A 10% level of BP in fish feed is the highest level tested without causing such effects. There are relatively few valid studies for the risk assessment of BP in target species, and the designs of the assessed studies are very variable. Thus, there are qualitative and quantitative uncertainties concerning the effects of BP in target species. The Panel on Animal Feed is of the opinion that an inclusion level of BP of 6% in the diets to terrestrial target animals and a 10% maximum inclusion level in salmon feed (both for fresh- and seawater stages) would reduce the risk of potentially adverse effects in the animals. The risk associated with the human consumption of products from animals fed on BP is considered negligible. However, the production of single cell protein for feed production represents a relatively new scientific approach which implies precautionary handling.