Статті в журналах з теми "6-phase induction machine"

A 1-phase 4-pole starting capacitor induction motor which is used as an activator of the table drilling machine has a more complicated construction because it has a centrifugal switch which is connected in series with the capacitor for its initial start and a high rotational speed of the stator field, which is 1500 rpm. While a 3-phase 6-pole induction motor has a much simpler construction because it does not require a centrifugal switch and a capacitor for its initial start with a low rotational speed of the stator field, which is 1000 rpm. This study discusses the effect of modifying the stator winding in a 1-phase 4-pole starting capacitor induction motor on the table drilling machine into a stator winding of 3-phase 6-pole induction motor on the rotation of the rotor. Modifications are carried out on the stator winding of a 1-phase induction motor by changing the number of phases, number of poles, type of winding, wire diameter and number of windings per groove. Modifications are carried out on the windings to obtain a 3-phase 6-pole 24-groove induction motor with 200 windings per groove, a wire diameter of 0.5 mm, and a winding type of spiral double layer. In our trials without a load on the induction motor the rotor rotation decreased by 33.71% from 1498 rpm to 993 rpm, and with a load decreased by 36% from 1450 rpm to 927 rpm.

Pole-phase changing induction machines (IMs) offer the capability to extend the torque-speed envelope compared to their fixed pole-phase counterparts. Dynamic pole-changing can achieve higher torque levels at lower speeds, utilizing higher pole numbers, and extended flux-weakening range with lower pole-number operations. This paper investigates the design impact on the optimum pole-phase changing behavior and respective split of the operating region to different pole-phase operations. Additionally, the improvement in terms of the overall torque per ampere capability and efficiency is illustrated. For the purposes of the analysis, two different IMs with wound independently-controlled stator coils (WICSC) and different original pole numbers are evaluated in an effort to quantify the extent of the benefits of pole-phase changing. These geometries correspond to machines that were originally designed with 2- and 6 magnetic poles, respectively. It is shown that, in the case of the original 2-pole WICSC machine, shifting to a higher pole number is notably beneficial in terms of efficiency in a significant part of the operating region, whereas in the original 6-pole, both higher and lower pole numbers significantly enhance the overall torque capability and efficiency. The results highlight the notable benefits of pole-phase changing IMs and offer deep insight towards the derivation of standard design guidelines for these machines.

The generation of electricity through a wind turbine system is rapidly increasing. Generation of an electricity form a wind turbine is one of the preeminent renewables sources of energy as it is easily available. In many wind farms, the speed of wind is variable due to which achieving stable power output and fault detection is one of the challenges. This objective can be achieved by a doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) along with the use of a fuzzy -PID controller and two fault detection technique in WTs. This Paper shows an investigation of the fault’s detection and improvement in the DFIG model for the constant/stable power output. This model design to show DFIG 9MW (6 x 1.5) along with a 30 km transmission line and the Frequency used for RLC specification is 60 Hz. Asynchronous machine in plant of 1.68 MW, 0.93 power factor, and 2300V line voltage with mechanical power 3 x 103 W. The initial constant wind speed of 15 ms-1 is maintained. Two fault detectors, one phase fault at B25 (25 kV) before the transmission to three-phase two winding transformer. Other phase faults at B120 (120 kV) before the transmission to three phase mutual inductance. The fault actuator in the doubly fed induction generators are reliable and also maintains the safety of wind turbine connected with a grid. PID-Fuzzy Controller is introduced to regulate the speed of the rotor by adjusting pitch which controls speed changes. The result shows due to controlling of pitch angle output level is improved and a good quality factor is achieved. We have introduced a fuzzy controller so the maximum output power can be established to the grid at the trip. In this research work, mathematical modeling of DFIG is presented.

Aluminium based metal matrix composites (MMCs) have better properties and performance. They are commonly used in transport applications which require combinations of high strength and ductility. They are quite attractive due to their low density, capability to be strengthened by precipitation, good corrosion resistance, high thermal and electrical conductivity. Grain refinement plays a crucial role in improving characteristics and properties of aluminium-silicon (Al-Si) alloy. In this investigation, scandium (Sc) and strontium (Sr) elements were added to aluminium-silicon-titanium diboride (Al-Si-TiB2) alloy for refinement of grains. The compositions of 93 wt.% Al-Si, 6 wt.% TiB2, 0.5 wt.% Sc and 0.5 wt.% Sr were melted into induction furnace. Then the composites have been characterized on the mechanical properties and microstructure characterization. Instron tensile machine and vickers hardness tester were used to characterize the mechanical properties of the composite alloy. Microstructure and phase composition were characterized by Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope (FESEM) and X-ray Diffraction (XRD). From the results obtained, addition of Sc and Sr, into Al-S-TiB2 improved the tensile strength and hardness of composite alloy. Results also showed that the inoculants addition able to enhance the refinement of grains and escalate the values of hardness and tensile strength of Al-Si-TiB2 composite. Mechanical properties related much on the microstructure as it can be seen that the addition of grain refiners produced much higher value of mechanical properties.

Simulation of induction machines using phase variables and the explicit inverse inductance matrix This paper addresses the simulation of induction machines using phase variables. It overcomes the chief disadvantage of phase-variables simulation by proving that the inverse of the inductance matrix can be obtained directly without numerical inversion of a 6 × 6 matrix. A closed form is given for this inverse.

Abstract STUDY QUESTION How does the human embryo breach the endometrial epithelium at implantation? SUMMARY ANSWER Embryo attachment to the endometrial epithelium promotes the formation of multinuclear syncytiotrophoblast from trophectoderm, which goes on to breach the epithelial layer. WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY A significant proportion of natural conceptions and assisted reproduction treatments fail due to unsuccessful implantation. The trophectoderm lineage of the embryo attaches to the endometrial epithelium before breaching this barrier to implant into the endometrium. Trophectoderm-derived syncytiotrophoblast has been observed in recent in vitro cultures of peri-implantation embryos, and historical histology has shown invasive syncytiotrophoblast in embryos that have invaded beyond the epithelium, but the cell type mediating invasion of the epithelial layer at implantation is unknown. STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATION Fresh and frozen human blastocyst-stage embryos (n = 46) or human trophoblast stem cell (TSC) spheroids were co-cultured with confluent monolayers of the Ishikawa endometrial epithelial cell line to model the epithelial phase of implantation in vitro. Systems biology approaches with published transcriptomic datasets were used to model the epithelial phase of implantation in silico. PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODS Human embryos surplus to treatment requirements were consented for research. Day 6 blastocysts were co-cultured with Ishikawa cell layers until Day 8, and human TSC spheroids modelling blastocyst trophectoderm were co-cultured with Ishikawa cell layers for 48 h. Embryo and TSC morphology was assessed by immunofluorescence microscopy, and TSC differentiation by real-time quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) and ELISA. Single-cell human blastocyst transcriptomes, and bulk transcriptomes of TSC and primary human endometrial epithelium were used to model the trophectoderm–epithelium interaction in silico. Hypernetworks, pathway analysis, random forest machine learning and RNA velocity were employed to identify gene networks associated with implantation. MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE The majority of embryos co-cultured with Ishikawa cell layers from Day 6 to 8 breached the epithelial layer (37/46), and syncytiotrophoblast was seen in all of these. Syncytiotrophoblast was observed at the embryo-epithelium interface before breaching, and syncytiotrophoblast mediated all pioneering breaching events observed (7/7 events). Multiple independent syncytiotrophoblast regions were seen in 26/46 embryos, suggesting derivation from different regions of trophectoderm. Human TSC spheroids co-cultured with Ishikawa layers also exhibited syncytiotrophoblast formation upon invasion into the epithelium. RT-qPCR comparison of TSC spheroids in isolated culture and co-culture demonstrated epithelium-induced upregulation of syncytiotrophoblast genes CGB (P = 0.03) and SDC1 (P = 0.008), and ELISA revealed the induction of hCGβ secretion (P = 0.03). Secretory-phase primary endometrial epithelium surface transcriptomes were used to identify trophectoderm surface binding partners to model the embryo-epithelium interface. Hypernetwork analysis established a group of 25 epithelium-interacting trophectoderm genes that were highly connected to the rest of the trophectoderm transcriptome, and epithelium-coupled gene networks in cells of the polar region of the trophectoderm exhibited greater connectivity (P < 0.001) and more organized connections (P < 0.0001) than those in the mural region. Pathway analysis revealed a striking similarity with syncytiotrophoblast differentiation, as 4/6 most highly activated pathways upon TSC-syncytiotrophoblast differentiation (false discovery rate (FDR < 0.026)) were represented in the most enriched pathways of epithelium-coupled gene networks in both polar and mural trophectoderm (FDR < 0.001). Random forest machine learning also showed that 80% of the endometrial epithelium-interacting trophectoderm genes identified in the hypernetwork could be quantified as classifiers of TSC-syncytiotrophoblast differentiation. This multi-model approach suggests that invasive syncytiotrophoblast formation from both polar and mural trophectoderm is promoted by attachment to the endometrial epithelium to enable embryonic invasion. LARGE SCALE DATA No omics datasets were generated in this study, and those used from previously published studies are cited. LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTION In vitro and in silico models may not recapitulate the dynamic embryo-endometrial interactions that occur in vivo. The influence of other cellular compartments in the endometrium, including decidual stromal cells and leukocytes, was not represented in these models. WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS Understanding the mechanism of human embryo breaching of the epithelium and the gene networks involved is crucial to improve implantation success rates after assisted reproduction. Moreover, early trophoblast lineages arising at the epithelial phase of implantation form the blueprint for the placenta and thus underpin foetal growth trajectories, pregnancy health and offspring health. STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTEREST(S) This work was funded by grants from Wellbeing of Women, Diabetes UK, the NIHR Local Comprehensive Research Network and Manchester Clinical Research Facility, and the Department of Health Scientist Practitioner Training Scheme. None of the authors has any conflict of interest to declare.

In this paper, an adaptive cost function FCSMPC is derived from newly obtained results concerning the distribution of figures of merits used for the assessment of stator current model-based control of multi-phase induction machines. A parameter analysis of FCSMPC is carried out for the case of a six-phase motor. After extensive simulation and Pareto screening, a new structure has been discovered linking several figures of merit. This structure provides an simple explanation for previously reported results concerning the difficulty of cost function tuning for FCSMPC. In addition, the newly discovered link among figures of merit provides valuable insight that can be used for control design. As an application, a new cost function design scheme is derived and tested. This new method avoids the usual and cumbersome procedure of testing many different controller parameters.

<p class="MsoTitle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.3pt; line-height: normal;"><em><span style="font-size: 10pt;">The three-phase induction motor is an alternative to changing the diesel engine as the main driver in the industrial world. This transition is aimed at energy efficiency and reducing air pollution from diesel engine exhaust gases. It was chosen because it is easy to operate, quiet and low operating costs. Induction motors are used for driving water pumps to as the main propulsion on board vessels. Constraints and failures of induction motor components when operating, cause a decrease in performance and risk of damage. This is due to winding disturbances, increasing motor temperature, unbalanced stator and rotor, broken rotor shafts, air gap eccentricity, motor load, mechanical and environmental effects. The cause of motor damaged is increased temperatures on the motor side. It occurs due to unbalanced phase voltage (UPV), unbalanced magnet pull (UMP) and motor load (ML). This journal discusses three factors and their effect on motor temperature based on Fuzzy Inference System (FIS). FIS analysis is used to simulate changes in motor temperature which are influenced by the variable values of these three factors. This paper uses a qualitative descriptive method with literature reviews and data analysis using FIS in a Matlab application. The analysis of the change in temperature of an induction motor with the three parameters based on FIS has been successfully carried out. The result of study concludes that UPV and UMP are the dominant factors as a cause of temperature changes in the induction motor compared to ML).</span></em></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 24.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -24.0pt; mso-pagination: none; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">Ådnanes, A. 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Pp Ri No 41 Tahun 1999 Tentang Pengendalian Pencemaran Udara. <em>Peraturan Pemerintah No. 41 Tentang Pengendalian Pencemaran Udara</em>.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 24.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -24.0pt; mso-pagination: none; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">Siddiqui, K. M., Sahay, K., &amp; Giri, V. K. (2014). Health Monitoring and Fault Diagnosis in Induction Motor- A Review. <em>International Journal of Advanced Research in Electrical, Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering</em>, <em>3</em>(1), 2320–3765.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 24.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -24.0pt; mso-pagination: none; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">Squirrel, I. (n.d.). <em>Lecture 1 Three-phase Induction Motor Construction and Principle of Operation 2 . 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Purpose. To identify the vibration power components caused by misalignment of electrical machine shafts in the instantaneous power of the induction motor. Methodology. The power components of the induction motor are analytically determined taking into account the power caused by torque vibrations on the shaft. Based on this, using the methods of mathematical modelling in the visual programming environment, the known model of a three-phase induction motor with a short-circuited rotor has been made. In addition, elements and connections are introduced which realize the formation of the moment caused by the imbalance of rotating masses. Using Fourier transform of the electric power of the induction motor, we determine its discrete spectrum. Experimental research is conducted on the electric power of the induction motor with a short-circuited rotor, in similar model conditions, on laboratory equipment. With the use of a virtual device synthesized in the LabVIEW package, the wavelet analysis of stator electric power of the motor of laboratory electrotechnical complex is performed. Findings. Differential equations of the induction motor with a short-circuited rotor in abc coordinate system are obtained, which reflect the distribution of instantaneous power in the machine taking into account the vibration moment. As a result of modelling according to the specified equations of the induction machine, in the conditions of full symmetry of parameters of the scheme and the mode with eccentricity of rotating masses, low-frequency vibrations of electric power of a stator with frequency of 25 Hz have been found. Similar results were obtained as a result of wavelet analysis of the electric power of an induction motor of a laboratory electrotechnical complex. Originality. Rationality of use of instantaneous electrical power of induction motor stator for detection of vibration caused by misalignment between its shaft and the shaft of another machine has been substantiated, which allows detecting vibration without complex methods of measuring vibration displacement and its derivatives. Practical value. Detecting vibration by measuring the electrical parameters of the stator circuit of the induction motor and determining the vibrations of its instantaneous power without the use of specialized equipment significantly simplify the procedure of vibration diagnostics at its early stages.

Abstract Background: Head and Neck (HNSCC) and Ovarian cancer (OC) are two indications for which immunotherapy had limited impact so far. Current treatments achieve high rates of initial success through surgery and adjuvant chemo/radiotherapy, but patients (pts) remain at high risk of relapse in both indications. Immune stimulation using a vaccine is a promising strategy to a clinically meaningful improvement. Herein we report phase I data of TG4050, a vaccine engineered to carry a pt tailored antigen payload, in pts with HNSCC (NCT04183166) or OC (NCT03839524). Methods: Tumor specific variants are identified using next generation sequencing of tumor and normal samples whereby immune relevant mutations are predicted using a machine learning algorithm factoring in parameters known to affect immunogenicity including MHC binding, level of expression, prevalence across clones, and antigen processing. DNA sequences of the mutations of interest, typically 30 per pt, are cloned in a viral vector (Modified Vaccinia Virus Ankara). Following curative intent treatment, HNSCC pts in complete remission were randomized to an immediate vaccination arm to receive weekly doses of TG4050 for 6 weeks followed by a maintenance period of one dose every 3 weeks for up to 20 doses or to a delayed vaccination arm where the same vaccination regimen is initiated at relapse. OC pts received the vaccine upon onset of signs of relapse. PBMC were collected at Baseline and after 6 doses of vaccine. Primary endpoint was vaccine safety and secondary endpoints included feasibility, immunogenicity. Results: 18 pts received TG4050 (5 OC and 13 HNSCC) treatment with no related grade ≥ 3 adverse events. Tumor mutational burden (TMB) was on average 3.00±0.98 and 2.43±0.69 mutations per megabase for HNSCC and OC respectively. Despite this low TMB, all pts had sufficient cancer specific neoantigens to design a vaccine. Ex-vivo ELISPOT was completed for 7 pts at the time of submission. A mean of 44% of selected mutations were associated with a reactive T cell responses either spontaneously or after TG4050 stimulation ranging from 6 to 22 mutations per pt. Vaccination induced a stimulation of T cell response in all tested pts on an average of 10 targeted mutations, induction of de novo responses was seen in all 7 tested pts and amplification of pre-existing response in 6/7 pts. None of the evaluable HNSCC pts receiving TG4050 immediately after first line treatment had relapse after a median follow-up of 7 months while 2 pts had relapse in the delayed vaccination arm. Furthermore, in OC pts treated at early relapse, TG4050 has normalized disease markers (ctDNA and/or CA-125) for 2/4 pts with stable disease for 9 and 11 months. Conclusion: TG4050 treatment is feasible and immunogenic in pts with low to moderate TMB. It is effective in inducing T cell responses and first signs of antitumor activity are encouraging for the continuation of development. Citation Format: Ana Lalanne, Camille Jamet, Christian H. Ottensmeier, Jean-Pierre Delord, Christophe Le Tourneau, Matthew S. Block, Gerardo Colon-Otero, Keith L. Knutson, Annette Tavernaro, Gisele Lacoste, Benoit Grellier, Xavier Noiriel, Thierry Huss, Bernard Burtin, Yoshiko Yamashita, Kousuke Onoue, Kazuhide Onoguchi, Brandon Malone, Olivier Lantz, Oliver Baker, Naoko Yamagata, Yuki Tanaka, Eric Quemeneur, Maud Brandely, Kaidre Bendjama. Feasibility and immunogenicity of adjuvant TG4050, a patient tailored cancer vaccine in head and neck and ovarian cancer [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2023; Part 2 (Clinical Trials and Late-Breaking Research); 2023 Apr 14-19; Orlando, FL. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2023;83(8_Suppl):Abstract nr LB205.

6082 Background: Despite adjuvant therapy, over 50% of surgically treated head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) patients (pts) experience a recurrence of disease. Systemic stimulation of cellular immunity against tumor mutations using a viral vaccine may be an ideal modality to clear residual cancer cells. For this purpose, we developed a pipeline for the design of TG4050, a personalized cancer vaccine (PCV) using a Modified Vaccinia Ankara (MVA) viral vector. We report here preliminary safety and immunogenicity data from a phase I TG4050 study. Methods: Surgically resected stage III or IV, HPV negative HNSCC pts were enrolled in the study. pts must have achieved clinical remission after adjuvant chemoradiotherapy. A PCV for each pt was manufactured with up to 30 neoantigens identified using a state-of-the-art machine learning algorithm, from next generation sequencing (NGS) data. Pts randomized to arm A received the PCV after completion of primary treatment. Pts randomized to arm B received the PCV in the event of relapse, in conjunction with second line therapy. The PCV schedule consisted of an induction period of 6 weekly administrations, followed by booster doses once every 3 weeks for up to one year. Immune cells were collected by leukapheresis at baseline and at day 64. Primary endpoint was safety. Secondary endpoints included feasibility, disease free survival and immune response as assessed by ex-vivo IFNg-ELISPOT. Results: At the time of data cut-off, a total of 31 pts were randomized, 15 in arm A and 16 in arm B. A vaccine was successfully designed for all randomized pts. Pts had no evidence of disease at baseline either at the clinical or molecular level, as assessed by ctDNA assessment. All adverse events (AEs) were mild to moderate and most were injection site reactions. Median follow-up was 9.2 months in arm A vs 7.6 months in arm B. None of the pts in arm A experienced relapse vs. 2 in the arm B. Immune monitoring demonstrated priming of a polyepitopic T cell response against the PCV in 100% of pts in arm A, among pts evaluated to date, with a mean of 9 responses per pt (6-19). Responses were observed regardless of HLA genotype, and without cross-reactivity to the wildtype antigen. Baseline tumor analyses revealed challenging genomic and immune profiles such as low TMB (avg of 3.06 ± 0.86 Mut/Mb), a majority of immune-desert tumors, and a low expression of important immune related factors including PD-L1 (16 pts out of 17 had a negative to moderate PD-L1 expression). Conclusions: Our preliminary data demonstrate that TG4050 is safe, well tolerated, and capable of inducing T cell responses in cold tumors. In summary viral based, PCVs designed to induce tumor-specific neoantigen may be associated with a safe tolerance and an improved outcome in HNSCC pts. Clinical trial information: NCT04183166 .

Three-phase induction motors (IMs) are electrical machines used on a large scale in industrial applications because they are versatile, robust and low maintenance devices. However, IMs are significantly affected when fed by unbalanced voltages. Prolonged operation under voltage unbalance (VU) conditions degrades performance and shortens machine life by producing imbalances in stator currents that abnormally raise winding temperature. With the development of new technologies and research on non-destructive techniques (NDT) for fault diagnoses in IMs, it is relevant to obtain economically accessible, efficient and reliable sensors capable of acquiring signals that allow the identification of this type of failure. The objective of this study is to evaluate the application of low-cost piezoelectric sensors in the acquisition of acoustic emission (AE) signals and the identification of VU through the analysis of short-term Fourier transform (STFT) spectrograms. The piezoelectric sensor makes NDT feasible, as it is an affordable and inexpensive component. In addition, STFT allows time-frequency analyses of acoustic emission signals. In this NDT, two sensors were coupled on both sides of an induction motor frame. The AE signals obtained during the IM operation were processed and the resulting spectrograms were analyzed to identify the different VU levels. After comparing the AE signals for faulty conditions with the signals for the IM operating at balanced voltages, it was possible to obtain a desired identification that confirmed the successful application of low-cost piezoelectric sensors for VU condition detection in three-phase induction machines.

The large number of inductive loads used, namely 3-phase induction motors and welding machines, has caused a low power factor in the electrical system at PT. Sunrise Steel. In this industry there are 2 production sites for coated steel named Continous Galvalume Line 1 and Continous Galvalume Line 2. There are 6 transformers that supply power to the two places, but there are 2 transformers that have a very low power factor, where Transformer 1 (Continous Galvalume Line 2) a capacitor bank has been installed but the power factor is still low, which is 0.67 and Transformer 3 (Continous Galvalume Line 1) is 0.66. The addition of Capacitor Bank is of course very much needed to increase the value of the power factor in the two electrical systems. This research targets an increase in power factor to 0.98, where Transformer 1 (Continuous Galvalume Line 2) requires the addition of a 17.831 uF capacitor and Transformer 3 (Continous Galvalume Line 1) requires a 2948,81 uF capacitor using an automatic compensation technique. The compensation method used in both is the global compensation method, a capacitor will be installed on each main LVMDP. ETAP Power Station software is used to simulate the results of installing capacitor banks.

The growth of Electric Vehicles (EV) moving towards to go green in the world. The high cost of EVs mainly depends on an electric motor. The Switched Reluctance Motor (SRM) speed-torque characteristics are perfectly suited for EV drive. Compared to other poly-phase machines, the SRM has high performance, magnet less, fault-tolerant, and high durability. The design has been carried out on electric vehicle grade modelling with different super core materials. This paper proposes the rating of 3kW, 3500rpm, and 8/6 topology by selecting stator and rotor optimal geometric parameters to design an efficient SRM configuration. The design step analyses the flux distribution uniform materials to analyze the performance of flux density, power, torque density, losses, efficiency, and torque ripple analysis. The finite element analysis is comparatively selected to improve the accuracy of material simulation for EV-SRM using Ansys Maxwell software to optimize the design for weight reduction, changing induction to reduce the acoustic noise.

Background and Aims. Prediction of treatment efficacy is an active and growing field of pharmacology. In the Fondazione Italiana Linfomi (FIL) MCL0208 phase III trial (NCT02354313), a 24 months lenalidomide maintenance (LM, 15 mg days 1-21 every 28 days) after high-dose immuno-chemotherapy followed by autologous transplantation (ASCT) in 300 frontline mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) patients showed substantial clinical activity in terms of Progression-Free Survival (PFS) vs observation (OBS). However, this benefit seemed not uniform across patient series. To deeper investigate the differential pattern of response to lenalidomide, a wide analysis of the host pharmacogenomics (PG) background was planned, in order to dissect whether specific germline polymorphisms of transmembrane transporters, metabolic enzymes or cell surface receptors (ABCB1, ABCG2, VEGFA, FCGR2A, NCF4, GSTP1, CRBN) might predict the drug efficacy. Actually, several single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of ABCB1 exert an effect on substrate affinity of lenalidomide for the transmembrane transporter. Moreover, VEGFA is involved in the anti-angiogenic activity of lenalidomide and might eventually upregulate ABCB1 expression, too. Patients and methods. Genotypes for SNPs were obtained through allele-specific (ASO) probes on germline DNA from peripheral blood. Minor allele frequencies (MAFs) were obtained and the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium (HWE) was checked. Genotypes were used to infer individual haplotypes by Arlequin and Haploview softwares. Minimal residual disease (MRD) was assessed with ASO primers on either IGH or BCL-1/IGH rearrangements by RQ-PCR in bone marrow samples. TP53 disruption was identified by NGS targeting resequencing and copy number variation analysis. Clinical-biological correlations were screened by automated machine learning methods and validated by both Kaplan-Meier at univariate level and Cox models for multivariate analysis (MV). A logistic regression was implemented to investigate correlations between polymorphisms and MRD kinetics. Results. 278 out of 300 patients (93%) were fully genotyped. The MAF values of the SNPs were very similar to published data and the HWE was confirmed. Most notably, ABCB1 c.2677G&gt;T/A(W) and VEGFA c.2055A&gt;C were significantly associated to outcome and are thus described in this abstract. In the case of ABCB1, the three loci were in strong linkage disequilibrium (p&lt;0.001). 31% of patients were homozygous for ABCB1 wild type alleles (GG, "WT"), 53% heterozygous (GW, "HET") and 16% polymorphic on both chromosomes (WW, "POL"). 20% were VEGFA WT (AA), 47% HET (AC) and 33% POL (CC). PG did not impact on induction therapy and randomization rates of this trial, as superimposable polymorphism frequencies were described between the enrolled and randomized population. Conversely, both ABCB1 HET and POL and VEGFA HET/POL associated with higher MRD clearance rates vs WT after 6 months of LM (93% vs 71% and 91% vs 67%, respectively). Interestingly, the risk of MRD reappearance during LM was 86% lower for patients harboring either polymorphism vs WT (odds ratio 0.14, 95% CI 0.02-0.99; p&lt;0.05). Actually, ABCB1 HET/POL predicted for a more favorable PFS vs WT in LM (3yPFS 85% vs 69% p&lt;0.05, Fig.1A), as well as VEGFA HET/POL (3yPFS 85% vs 59% p&lt;0.01, Fig.1B). The two polymorphisms co-occurred in 57% of patients, being 12% ABCB1 HET/POL only, 23% VEGFA HET/POL and 8% ABCB1/VEGFA WT. Interestingly, patients with either polymorphism had superimposable outcome to patients in whom both co-occurred (Fig.1C). Finally, MV showed that either polymorphism was protective for PFS among randomized patients (HR=0.42; 95% CI 0.20-0.85; p&lt;0.05). According to this hypothesis, among the 17 ABCB1/VEGFA WT patients LM did not improved PFS vs OBS (Fig.1D), independently from TP53 disruption. Conclusions. The first PG data on LM after ASCT in MCL suggested that: 1) ABCB1 and VEGFA polymorphisms did not impact on the chemotherapeutic efficacy of FIL-MCL0208 trial; 2) both polymorphisms favored sustained MRD clearance during LM; 3) either polymorphism conferred a survival advantage during LM. Taken together, these observations hint that a variable excretion of lenalidomide through ABCB1 (heralded by SNPs), as well as an altered VEGFA pathway, could predict treatment efficacy. This observation might be very useful in the future to tailor lenalidomide therapy to MCL patients. Disclosures Ferrero: Servier: Speakers Bureau; Gilead: Research Funding, Speakers Bureau; EUSA Pharma: Honoraria, Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees, Speakers Bureau; Janssen: Consultancy, Honoraria, Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees, Speakers Bureau. Boccomini:SC Ematologia, ASOU Città della Salute e della Scienza di Torino, Turin, Italy: Current Employment. Maria:Roche: Consultancy, Other: travel, accomodations, expenses; Abbvie: Consultancy, Other: travel, accomodations, expenses; BMS: Consultancy; MSD: Consultancy; Janssen: Consultancy, Other: travel, accomodations, expenses; Gilead: Consultancy, Other: travel, accomodations, expenses, Research Funding. Ferreri:Gilead: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees, Research Funding; Morphosys: Research Funding; Hutchinson: Research Funding; BMS: Research Funding. Palumbo:Novartis: Honoraria, Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees, Speakers Bureau; Celgene: Honoraria, Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees, Speakers Bureau; Amgen: Honoraria, Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees, Speakers Bureau. Galimberti:Novartis: Speakers Bureau; Incyte: Honoraria. OffLabel Disclosure: Lenalidomide maintenance in mantle cell lymphoma

Background Current technology innovations, such as wearables, have caused surprising reactions and feelings of deep connection to devices. Some researchers are calling mobile and wearable technologies cognitive prostheses, which are intrinsically connected to individuals as if they are part of the body, similar to a physical prosthesis. Additionally, while several studies have been performed on the phenomenology of receiving and wearing a physical prosthesis, it is unknown whether similar subjective experiences arise with technology. Objective In one of the first qualitative studies to track wearables in a longitudinal investigation, we explore whether a wearable can be embodied similar to a physical prosthesis. We hoped to gain insights and compare the phases of embodiment (ie, initial adjustment to the prosthesis) and the psychological responses (ie, accept the prosthesis as part of their body) between wearables and limb prostheses. This approach allowed us to find out whether this pattern was part of a cyclical (ie, period of different usage intensity) or asymptotic (ie, abandonment of the technology) pattern. Methods We adapted a limb prosthesis methodological framework to be applied to wearables and conducted semistructured interviews over a span of several months to assess if, how, and to what extent individuals come to embody wearables similar to prosthetic devices. Twelve individuals wore fitness trackers for 9 months, during which time interviews were conducted in the following three phases: after 3 months, after 6 months, and at the end of the study after 9 months. A deductive thematic analysis based on Murray’s work was combined with an inductive approach in which new themes were discovered. Results Overall, the individuals experienced technology embodiment similar to limb embodiment in terms of adjustment, wearability, awareness, and body extension. Furthermore, we discovered two additional themes of engagement/reengagement and comparison to another device or person. Interestingly, many participants experienced a rarely reported phenomenon in longitudinal studies where the feedback from the device was counterintuitive to their own beliefs. This created a blurring of self-perception and a dilemma of “whom” to believe, the machine or one’s self. Conclusions There are many similarities between the embodiment of a limb prosthesis and a wearable. The large overlap between limb and wearable embodiment would suggest that insights from physical prostheses can be applied to wearables and vice versa. This is especially interesting as we are seeing the traditionally “dumb” body prosthesis becoming smarter and thus a natural merging of technology and body. Future longitudinal studies could focus on the dilemma people might experience of whether to believe the information of the device over their own thoughts and feelings. These studies might take into account constructs, such as technology reliance, autonomy, and levels of self-awareness.

Abstract Abstract 1800 Poster Board I-826 Background The prevalence of peripheral neuropathy (PNP) during the treatment of MM with Bortezomib is high. About 20% of patients develop a grade 3-4 PNP due to this treatment, and as a result Bortezomib treatment is stopped or a reduced dose is given. Therefore, there is a strong need to find markers which predict the susceptibility of a patient to develop Bortezomib related PNP. Materials and methods: Bortezomib treated patients from the Dutch/German Hovon 65 GMMG-HD4 trial and the French IFM-2005/01 trial were used for this analysis. In both trials, the efficacy of Bortezomib as induction treatment prior to high-dose therapy is evaluated and PNP status was recorded. Samples were genotyped using a custom-built molecular inversion probe (MIP)-based single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) chip containing 3404 SNPs (Bank on a Cure program; Van Ness et al., 2008). In total, 232 patients who did not develop PNP were compared to 210 PNP cases (grade 1, n=82; grade 2 n=86, grade 3, n=31, grade 4, n=11). Results The data were processed on the basis of the following criteria. First, SNPs genotyped in less than 75% of the samples were removed (n=155). This resulted in elimination of 59% of the data with unknown genotype while only 1% of the genotyped data were lost. The remaining 41% of the missing data were imputed using BIMBAM (Guan et al., PLoS Genet. 4:e1000279, 2008). As reference panels, the data sets of the BOAC chips from this study, 500 random samples from the Rotterdam ERGO study (Köttgen et al., Nat. Genet. 41, 712–717, 2009) and 60 phased CEU HAPMAP samples were used. Secondly, SNPs were excluded which did not show any genotype variance and which were not in Hardy Weinberg equilibrium. As a last step the data was adjusted for stratification using Eigenstrat (Price et al., Nat. Genet. 38: 904–909, 2006). By removing 21 SNPs and 14 samples the variance between the IFM and Hovon was reduced to an acceptable level (p = 0.011). The resulting combined IFM/Hovon dataset now contained 2764 SNP and 428 samples. The data set was divided in 6/7 (n=367) part as a learning set and 1/7 (n=61) as a validation set. Possibly informative SNPs were selected using information gain as a feature selection method (Cover et al., Elements of information theory. New York, John Wiley, 1991). 66 SNPs with an information gain in allele and genotype frequency were selected (p value < 0.05 after permutation test (n=10000)). Classifiers generated by Partial C4.5 decision tree (PART), support vector machine (SVM) and Random forest learned on this set reached a better than random performance. Sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value and negative predictive value were respectively 55%, 70%, 60%, and 66% for the PART classifier. Conclusion Preliminary classifiers generated by this dataset suggest that building a classifier with clinically relevant performance may be within reach. To this end, we will report on the outcome of different combinations of existing classifier methods and feature selection methods. Van Ness, B, Ramos, C, Haznadar, M, Hoering, A,Haessler, J, Crowley, J, Jacobus, S, Oken, M, Rajkumar, V, Greipp, P, Barlogie, B, Durie, B, Katz, M, Atluri, G, Ganf, G, Gupta, R, Steinbach, M, Kumar, V, Mushlin, R, Johnson, D, and Morgan, G. (2008). Genomic Variation in Myeloma: Design, content, and initial application of the Bank On A Cure SNP Panel to analysis of survival. BMC Medicine. 6:26. Disclosures Hanifi-Moghaddam: Skyline Diagnostics: Employment.

In this paper, an oil-cooling induction switched reluctance machine (ISRM) is offered. The stator and rotor of the electric machine are non-segmental. However, by placing coils on the rotor, a short magnetic flux path is achieved in the rotor and stator cores. As a result, a higher torque with lower losses is generated. This configuration can be used in high-power electric motors for electric and hybrid vehicles. ISRM is a novel machine and there is a lack of access to its operation and data characteristics. ISRM can be designed in different configurations with various stator and rotor pole numbers and winding strategies. In this study, an oil-cooling three-phase ISRM with 6 stator poles and 4 rotor poles was considered. Firstly, a 2D finite element model of it is created, and its magnetic properties extracted, the flux path, torque and efficiency of the ISRM are calculated, and the results are presented. Secondly, the thermal performance of the motor is analyzed using ANSYS Motor-Cad software. Finally, a prototype of the ISRM and its appropriate drive with the oil cooling system is built and tested. The experimental results and conclusions which prove the ability of the presented machine are presented in the last parts of the paper.

Electricity generation from moving currents without using dams (i.e., in-stream hydrokinetic electricity) has the potential to introduce multiple GW of renewable power to U.S. grids. This study evaluates a control system designed to regulate the generator rotor rate (rpm) to improve power production from in-stream hydrokinetic turbines. The control algorithm is evaluated using numerical models of both a rigidly mounted tidal turbine (TT) and a moored ocean current turbine (OCT) coupled to an induction electric machine model. The moored simulation utilizes an innovative approach for coupling a multiple degrees-of-freedom (DOF) nonlinear hydrodynamic/mechanical turbine model with a nonlinear electromechanical generator model. Based on the turbine torque-speed characteristic, as well as the asynchronous machine features, a proportional–integral (PI) controller is used to generate a correction term for the frequency of the three-phase sinusoidal voltages that are supplied to the asynchronous generator. The speed control of the induction generator through the supply frequency is accomplished by a simplified voltage source inverter (VSI). The simplified VSI consists of control voltage sources (CVSs), while the comparison with a real VSI using diodes and transistors, which are controlled by pulse width modulation (PWM) technique, is also presented. Simulations are used to evaluate the developed algorithms showing that rpm fluctuations are around 0.02 for a tidal turbine operating in a wave field with a 6 m significant wave height and around 0.005 for a moored ocean current turbine operating in a wave field with a 2 m significant wave height.

AbstractAmyloidogenic processing of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) forms the amyloid-β peptide (Aβ) component of pathognomonic extracellular plaques of AD. Additional early cortical changes in AD include neuroinflammation and elevated iron levels. Activation of the innate immune system in the brain is a neuroprotective response to infection; however, persistent neuroinflammation is linked to AD neuropathology by uncertain mechanisms. Non-parametric machine learning analysis on transcriptomic data from a large neuropathologically characterised patient cohort revealed the acute phase protein lactoferrin (Lf) as the key predictor of amyloid pathology. In vitro studies showed that an interaction between APP and the iron-bound form of Lf secreted from activated microglia diverted neuronal APP endocytosis from the canonical clathrin-dependent pathway to one requiring ADP ribosylation factor 6 trafficking. By rerouting APP recycling to the Rab11-positive compartment for amyloidogenic processing, Lf dramatically increased neuronal Aβ production. Lf emerges as a novel pharmacological target for AD that not only modulates APP processing but provides a link between Aβ production, neuroinflammation and iron dysregulation.

AbstractPump fault diagnosis is essential for the maintenance and safety of the device as it is an important appliance used in various major sectors. Fault diagnosis at the proper time can reduce maintenance costs and save energy. This article uses a Simulink model based on mathematical equations to analyze the effects of parameter estimation of three-phase induction motor-based centrifugal pumps in inter-turn fault conditions. The inter-turn fault causes a massive in, a massive increase in current, which severely affects the parameters of both motor and pump. These have been analyzed by simulation through the Matlab Simulink model. Later, the results are verified by a hardware in loop (HIL) based simulator. In this paper, machine learning (ML) based artificial neural network (ANN) and ANFIS (ANN and Fuzzy) models have been applied for fault detection. ANN and ANFIS-based models provide a satisfactory level of accuracy. These models provide accurate training and testing results. Based on root mean square error (RMSE), R2, prediction accuracy, and mean validation value, these models are compared to find out which is more suitable for this experiment. Various supervised algorithms are compared with ANN, ANFIS, and lastly, found which is the most suitable for this experiment.

AbstractRecently, renewable resources such as wind, hydro, and tidal have experienced a rapid development. Electricity production, based on wind, has been concentrated on a large scale. Additionally, a doubly fed induction generator has been used in wind farms on a large scale. This machine is influenced by the multiple transient states that are happening in the grid. Many researchers studied the effect of voltage-dip on DFIG performance; none of them studied the effect of voltage-dip sharing with wind-speed changing for both sub- and hyper-synchronous modes. In this paper, DFIG behavior is investigated under a transient state which is represented by 3-phase voltage-dip, in both operation modes (sub-synchronous & hyper-synchronous) with various values of the wind speed. Based on MATLAB Simulink, the various DFIG parameters are extracted to determine the relation between voltage-dip, variable wind speed, and DFIG performance. Results show that the parameters that are affected were rotor-current, rotor-voltage, and DC-Link voltage, while stator-current and stator-flux are not affected. It is also shown that DC-Link voltage values are smaller in the hyper-synchronous mode compared with sub-synchronous one.

Abstract Research on Self –excited induction generator (SEIG) brings a lot of attentions in the last three decades as a promising solution in distributed generation systems with low cost investment. There are two important fixations to attend in the operation of SEIG based systems, a) excitation and b) voltage regulation. Many procedures are reported regarding selection of excitation capacitance in the literature, based on state-state analysis, dynamic modeling, empirical formulas and machine parameters which involve various levels of complexity in findings. Moreover, the voltage regulation is the main challenge in implementation of SEIG based isolated systems. To address this problem, many power electronic-based schemes are proposed in the literature and but these solutions have few demerits importantly that additional cost of equipment and troubles due to failure of protection schemes. In particular, the installation of SEIG takes place at small scale in kW range in remote/rural communities which should not face such shortcomings. Further in case of off-grid systems, the maximum loading is fixed based on connected rating of the generator. This paper presents the various methods to find excitation capacitance and illustrates an experimental investigation on different possible reactive power compensation methods of delta connected SEIG and aimed to identify a simple method for terminal voltage control without power electronics. In this experimental work, the prime-mover of the generator is a constant speed turbine, which is the emulation of a micro/pico hydro turbine. From the results, it is found that a simple delta connected excitation and delta configured reactive power compensation limits voltage regulation within ±6% while maintaining the frequency of ±1%, which make feasible of the operation successfully in remote electrification systems.

“Journalists have to begin a new type of journalism, sometimes being the guide on the side of the civic conversation as well as the filter and gatekeeper.” (Kolodzy 218) “In many respects, citizen journalism is simply public journalism removed from the journalism profession.” (Barlow 181) 1. Citizen Journalism — The Latest Innovation? New Media theorists such as Dan Gillmor, Henry Jenkins, Jay Rosen and Jeff Howe have recently touted Citizen Journalism (CJ) as the latest innovation in 21st century journalism. “Participatory journalism” and “user-driven journalism” are other terms to describe CJ, which its proponents argue is a disruptive innovation (Christensen) to the agenda-setting media institutions, news values and “objective” reportage. In this essay I offer a “contrarian” view, informed by two perspectives: (1) a three-stage model of theory-building (Carlile & Christensen) to evaluate the claims made about CJ; and (2) self-reflexive research insights (Etherington) from editing the US-based news site Disinformation between November 1999 and February 2008. New media theories can potentially create “cognitive dissonance” (Festinger) when their explanations of CJ practices are compared with what actually happens (Feyerabend). First I summarise Carlile & Christensen’s model and the dangers of “bad theory” (Ghoshal). Next I consider several problems in new media theories about CJ: the notion of ‘citizen’, new media populism, parallels in event-driven and civic journalism, and mergers and acquisitions. Two ‘self-reflexive’ issues are considered: ‘pro-ams’ or ‘professional amateurs’ as a challenge to professional journalists, and CJ’s deployment in new media operations and production environments. Finally, some exploratory questions are offered for future researchers. 2. An Evaluative Framework for New Media Theories on Citizen Journalism Paul Carlile and Clayton M. Christensen’s model offers one framework with which to evaluate new media theories on CJ. This framework is used below to highlight select issues and gaps in CJ’s current frameworks and theories. Carlile & Christensen suggest that robust theory-building emerges via three stages: Descriptive, Categorisation and Normative (Carlile & Christensen). There are three sub-stages in Descriptive theory-building; namely, the observation of phenomena, inductive classification into schemas and taxonomies, and correlative relationships to develop models (Carlile & Christensen 2-5). Once causation is established, Normative theory evolves through deductive logic which is subject to Kuhnian paradigm shifts and Popperian falsifiability (Carlile & Christensen 6). Its proponents situate CJ as a Categorisation or new journalism agenda that poses a Normative challenged and Kuhnian paradigm shift to traditional journalism. Existing CJ theories jump from the Descriptive phase of observations like “smart mobs” in Japanese youth subcultures (Rheingold) to make broad claims for Categorisation such as that IndyMedia, blogs and wiki publishing systems as new media alternatives to traditional media. CJ theories then underpin normative beliefs, values and worldviews. Correlative relationships are also used to differentiate CJ from the demand side of microeconomic analysis, from the top-down editorial models of traditional media outlets, and to adopt a vanguard stance. To support this, CJ proponents cite research on emergent collective behaviour such as the “wisdom of crowds” hypothesis (Surowiecki) or peer-to-peer network “swarms” (Pesce) to provide scientific justification for their Normative theories. However, further evaluative research is needed for three reasons: the emergent collective behaviour hypothesis may not actually inform CJ practices, existing theories may have “correlation not cause” errors, and the link may be due to citation network effects between CJ theorists. Collectively, this research base also frames CJ as an “ought to” Categorisation and then proceeds to Normative theory-building (Carlile & Christensen 7). However, I argue below that this Categorisation may be premature: its observations and correlative relationships might reinforce a ‘weak’ Normative theory with limited generalisation. CJ proponents seem to imply that it can be applied anywhere and under any condition—a “statement of causality” that almost makes it a fad (Carlile & Christensen 8). CJ that relies on Classification and Normative claims will be problematic without a strong grounding in Descriptive observation. To understand what’s potentially at stake for CJ’s future consider the consider the parallel debate about curricula renewal for the Masters of Business Administration in the wake of high-profile corporate collapses such as Enron, Worldcom, HIH and OneTel. The MBA evolved as a sociological and institutional construct to justify management as a profession that is codified, differentiated and has entry barriers (Khurana). This process might partly explain the pushback that some media professionals have to CJ as one alternative. MBA programs faced criticism if they had student cohorts with little business know-how or experiential learning (Mintzberg). Enron’s collapse illustrated the ethical dilemmas and unintended consequences that occurred when “bad theories” were implemented (Ghoshal). Professional journalists are aware of this: MBA-educated managers challenged the “craft” tradition in the early 1980s (Underwood). This meant that journalism’s ‘self-image’ (Morgan; Smith) is intertwined with managerial anxieties about media conglomerates in highly competitive markets. Ironically, as noted below, Citizen Journalists who adopt a vanguard position vis-a-vis media professionals step into a more complex game with other players. However, current theories have a naïve idealism about CJ’s promise of normative social change in the face of Machiavellian agency in business, the media and politics. 3. Citizen Who? Who is the “citizen” in CJ? What is their self-awareness as a political agent? CJ proponents who use the ‘self-image’ of ‘citizen’ draw on observations from the participatory vision of open source software, peer-to-peer networks, and case studies such as Howard Dean’s 2004 bid for the Democrat Party nominee in the US Presidential election campaign (Trippi). Recent theorists note Alexander Hamilton’s tradition of civic activism (Barlow 178) which links contemporary bloggers with the Federalist Papers and early newspaper pamphlets. One unsurfaced assumption in these observations and correlations is that most bloggers will adopt a coherent political philosophy as informed citizens: a variation on Lockean utilitarianism, Rawlsian liberalism or Nader consumer activism. To date there is little discussion about how political philosophy could deepen CJ’s ‘self-image’: how to critically evaluate sources, audit and investigation processes, or strategies to deal with elites, deterrence and power. For example, although bloggers kept Valerie Plame’s ‘outing’ as a covert intelligence operative highly visible in the issues-attention cycle, it was agenda-setting media like The New York Times who the Bush Administration targeted to silence (Pearlstine). To be viable, CJ needs to evolve beyond a new media populism, perhaps into a constructivist model of agency, norms and social change (Finnemore). 4. Citizen Journalism as New Media Populism Several “precursor trends” foreshadowed CJ notably the mid-1990s interest in “cool-hunting” by new media analysts and subculture marketeers (Gibson; Gladwell). Whilst this audience focus waned with the 1995-2000 dotcom bubble it resurfaced in CJ and publisher Tim O’Reilly’s Web 2.0 vision. Thus, CJ might be viewed as new media populism that has flourished with the Web 2.0 boom. Yet if the boom becomes a macroeconomic bubble (Gross; Spar) then CJ could be written off as a “silver bullet” that ultimately failed to deliver on its promises (Brooks, Jr.). The reputations of uncritical proponents who adopted a “true believer” stance would also be damaged (Hoffer). This risk is evident if CJ is compared with a parallel trend that shares its audience focus and populist view: day traders and technical analysts who speculate on financial markets. This parallel trend provides an alternative discipline in which the populism surfaced in an earlier form (Carlile & Christensen 12). Fidelity’s Peter Lynch argues that stock pickers can use their Main Street knowledge to beat Wall Street by exploiting information asymmetries (Lynch & Rothchild). Yet Lynch’s examples came from the mid-1970s to early 1980s when indexed mutual fund strategies worked, before deregulation and macroeconomic volatility. A change in the Web 2.0 boom might similarly trigger a reconsideration of Citizen Journalism. Hedge fund maven Victor Niederhoffer contends that investors who rely on technical analysis are practicing a Comtean religion (Niederhoffer & Kenner 72-74) instead of Efficient Market Hypothesis traders who use statistical arbitrage to deal with ‘random walks’ or Behavioural Finance experts who build on Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman’s Prospect Theory (Kahneman & Tversky). Niederhoffer’s deeper point is that technical analysts’ belief that the “trend is your friend” is no match for the other schools, despite a mini-publishing industry and computer trading systems. There are also ontological and epistemological differences between the schools. Similarly, CJ proponents who adopt a ‘Professional Amateur’ or ‘Pro-Am’ stance (Leadbeater & Miller) may face a similar gulf when making comparisons with professional journalists and the production environments in media organisations. CJ also thrives as new media populism because of institutional vested interests. When media conglomerates cut back on cadetships and internships CJ might fill the market demand as one alternative. New media programs at New York University and others can use CJ to differentiate themselves from “hyperlocal” competitors (Christensen; Slywotzky; Christensen, Curtis & Horn). This transforms CJ from new media populism to new media institution. 5. Parallels: Event-driven & Civic Journalism For new media programs, CJ builds on two earlier traditions: the Event-driven journalism of crises like the 1991 Gulf War (Wark) and the Civic Journalism school that emerged in the 1960s social upheavals. Civic Journalism’s awareness of minorities and social issues provides the character ethic and political philosophy for many Citizen Journalists. Jay Rosen and others suggest that CJ is the next-generation heir to Civic Journalism, tracing a thread from the 1968 Chicago Democratic Convention to IndyMedia’s coverage of the 1999 “Battle in Seattle” (Rosen). Rosen’s observation could yield an interesting historiography or genealogy. Events such as the Southeast Asian tsunami on 26 December 2004 or Al Qaeda’s London bombings on 7 July 2005 are cited as examples of CJ as event-driven journalism and “pro-am collaboration” (Kolodzy 229-230). Having covered these events and Al Qaeda’s attacks on 11th September 2001, I have a slightly different view: this was more a variation on “first responder” status and handicam video footage that journalists have sourced for the past three decades when covering major disasters. This different view means that the “salience of categories” used to justify CJ and “pro-am collaboration” these events does not completely hold. Furthermore, when Citizen Journalism proponents tout Flickr and Wikipedia as models of real-time media they are building on a broader phenomenon that includes CNN’s Gulf War coverage and Bloomberg’s dominance of financial news (Loomis). 6. The Mergers & Acquisitions Scenario CJ proponents often express anxieties about the resilience of their outlets in the face of predatory venture capital firms who initiate Mergers & Acquisitions (M&A) activities. Ironically, these venture capital firms have core competencies and expertise in the event-driven infrastructure and real-time media that CJ aspires to. Sequoia Capital and other venture capital firms have evaluative frameworks that likely surpass Carlile & Christensen in sophistication, and they exploit parallels, information asymmetries and market populism. Furthermore, although venture capital firms such as Union Street Ventures have funded Web 2.0 firms, they are absent from the explanations of some theorists, whose examples of Citizen Journalism and Web 2.0 success may be the result of survivorship bias. Thus, the venture capital market remains an untapped data source for researchers who want to evaluate the impact of CJ outlets and institutions. The M&A scenario further problematises CJ in several ways. First, CJ is framed as “oppositional” to traditional media, yet this may be used as a stratagem in a game theory framework with multiple stakeholders. Drexel Burnham Lambert’s financier Michael Milken used market populism to sell ‘high-yield’ or ‘junk’ bonds to investors whilst disrupting the Wall Street establishment in the late 1980s (Curtis) and CJ could fulfil a similar tactical purpose. Second, the M&A goal of some Web 2.0 firms could undermine the participatory goals of a site’s community if post-merger integration fails. Jason Calacanis’s sale of Weblogs, Inc to America Online in 2005 and MSNBC’s acquisition of Newsvine on 5 October 2007 (Newsvine) might be success stories. However, this raises issues of digital “property rights” if you contribute to a community that is then sold in an M&A transaction—an outcome closer to business process outsourcing. Third, media “buzz” can create an unrealistic vision when a CJ site fails to grow beyond its start-up phase. Backfence.com’s demise as a “hyperlocal” initiative (Caverly) is one cautionary event that recalls the 2000 dotcom crash. The M&A scenarios outlined above are market dystopias for CJ purists. The major lesson for CJ proponents is to include other market players in hypotheses about causation and correlation factors. 7. ‘Pro-Ams’ & Professional Journalism’s Crisis CJ emerged during a period when Professional Journalism faced a major crisis of ‘self-image’. The Demos report The Pro-Am Revolution (Leadbeater & Miller) popularised the notion of ‘professional amateurs’ which some CJ theorists adopt to strengthen their categorisation. In turn, this triggers a response from cultural theorists who fear bloggers are new media’s barbarians (Keen). I concede Leadbeater and Miller have identified an important category. However, how some CJ theorists then generalise from ‘Pro-Ams’ illustrates the danger of ‘weak’ theory referred to above. Leadbeater and Miller’s categorisation does not really include a counter-view on the strengths of professionals, as illustrated in humanistic consulting (Block), professional service firms (Maister; Maister, Green & Galford), and software development (McConnell). The signs of professionalism these authors mention include a commitment to learning and communal verification, mastery of a discipline and domain application, awareness of methodology creation, participation in mentoring, and cultivation of ethical awareness. Two key differences are discernment and quality of attention, as illustrated in how the legendary Hollywood film editor Walter Murch used Apple’s Final Cut Pro software to edit the 2003 film Cold Mountain (Koppelman). ‘Pro-Ams’ might not aspire to these criteria but Citizen Journalists shouldn’t throw out these standards, either. Doing so would be making the same mistake of overconfidence that technical analysts make against statistical arbitrageurs. Key processes—fact-checking, sub-editing and editorial decision-making—are invisible to the end-user, even if traceable in a blog or wiki publishing system, because of the judgments involved. One post-mortem insight from Assignment Zero was that these processes were vital to create the climate of authenticity and trust to sustain a Citizen Journalist community (Howe). CJ’s trouble with “objectivity” might also overlook some complexities, including the similarity of many bloggers to “noise traders” in financial markets and to op-ed columnists. Methodologies and reportage practices have evolved to deal with the objections that CJ proponents raise, from New Journalism’s radical subjectivity and creative non-fiction techniques (Wolfe & Johnson) to Precision Journalism that used descriptive statistics (Meyer). Finally, journalism frameworks could be updated with current research on how phenomenological awareness shapes our judgments and perceptions (Thompson). 8. Strategic Execution For me, one of CJ’s major weaknesses as a new media theory is its lack of “rich description” (Geertz) about the strategic execution of projects. As Disinfo.com site editor I encountered situations ranging from ‘denial of service’ attacks and spam to site migration, publishing systems that go offline, and ensuring an editorial consistency. Yet the messiness of these processes is missing from CJ theories and accounts. Theories that included this detail as “second-order interactions” (Carlile & Christensen 13) would offer a richer view of CJ. Many CJ and Web 2.0 projects fall into the categories of mini-projects, demonstration prototypes and start-ups, even when using a programming language such as Ajax or Ruby on Rails. Whilst the “bootstrap” process is a benefit, more longitudinal analysis and testing needs to occur, to ensure these projects are scalable and sustainable. For example, South Korea’s OhmyNews is cited as an exemplar that started with “727 citizen reporters and 4 editors” and now has “38,000 citizen reporters” and “a dozen editors” (Kolodzy 231). How does OhmyNews’s mix of hard and soft news change over time? Or, how does OhmyNews deal with a complex issue that might require major resources, such as security negotiations between North and South Korea? Such examples could do with further research. We need to go beyond “the vision thing” and look at the messiness of execution for deeper observations and counterintuitive correlations, to build new descriptive theories. 9. Future Research This essay argues that CJ needs re-evaluation. Its immediate legacy might be to splinter ‘journalism’ into micro-trends: Washington University’s Steve Boriss proclaims “citizen journalism is dead. Expert journalism is the future.” (Boriss; Mensching). The half-lives of such micro-trends demand new categorisations, which in turn prematurely feeds the theory-building cycle. Instead, future researchers could reinvigorate 21st century journalism if they ask deeper questions and return to the observation stage of building descriptive theories. In closing, below are some possible questions that future researchers might explore: Where are the “rich descriptions” of journalistic experience—“citizen”, “convergent”, “digital”, “Pro-Am” or otherwise in new media? How could practice-based approaches inform this research instead of relying on espoused theories-in-use? What new methodologies could be developed for CJ implementation? What role can the “heroic” individual reporter or editor have in “the swarm”? Do the claims about OhmyNews and other sites stand up to longitudinal observation? Are the theories used to justify Citizen Journalism’s normative stance (Rheingold; Surowiecki; Pesce) truly robust generalisations for strategic execution or do they reflect the biases of their creators? How could developers tap the conceptual dimensions of information technology innovation (Shasha) to create the next Facebook, MySpace or Wikipedia? References Argyris, Chris, and Donald Schon. Theory in Practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1976. Barlow, Aaron. The Rise of the Blogosphere. Westport, CN: Praeger Publishers, 2007. Block, Peter. Flawless Consulting. 2nd ed. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer, 2000. Boriss, Steve. “Citizen Journalism Is Dead. Expert Journalism Is the Future.” The Future of News. 28 Nov. 2007. 20 Feb. 2008 http://thefutureofnews.com/2007/11/28/citizen-journalism-is-dead- expert-journalism-is-the-future/>. Brooks, Jr., Frederick P. The Mythical Man-Month: Essays on Software Engineering. Rev. ed. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1995. Campbell, Vincent. Information Age Journalism: Journalism in an International Context. New York: Arnold, 2004. Carlile, Paul R., and Clayton M. Christensen. “The Cycles of Building Theory in Management Research.” Innosight working paper draft 6. 6 Jan. 2005. 19 Feb. 2008 http://www.innosight.com/documents/Theory%20Building.pdf>. Caverly, Doug. “Hyperlocal News Site Takes A Hit.” WebProNews.com 6 July 2007. 19 Feb. 2008 http://www.webpronews.com/topnews/2007/07/06/hyperlocal-news- sites-take-a-hit>. Chenoweth, Neil. Virtual Murdoch: Reality Wars on the Information Superhighway. Sydney: Random House Australia, 2001. Christensen, Clayton M. The Innovator’s Dilemma: When New Technologies Cause Great Firms to Fail. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press, 1997. Christensen, Clayton M., Curtis Johnson, and Michael Horn. Disrupting Class: How Disruptive Innovation Will Change the Way the World Learns. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2008. Curtis, Adam. The Mayfair Set. London: British Broadcasting Corporation, 1999. Etherington, Kim. Becoming a Reflexive Researcher: Using Ourselves in Research. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers, 2004. Festinger, Leon. A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1962. Feyerabend, Paul. Against Method. 3rd ed. London: Verso, 1993. Finnemore, Martha. National Interests in International Society. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1996. Geertz, Clifford. The Interpretation of Cultures. New York: Basic Books, 1973. Ghoshal, Sumantra. “Bad Management Theories Are Destroying Good Management Practices.” Academy of Management Learning & Education 4.1 (2005): 75-91. Gibson, William. Pattern Recognition. London: Viking, 2003. Gladwell, Malcolm. “The Cool-Hunt.” The New Yorker Magazine 17 March 1997. 20 Feb. 2008 http://www.gladwell.com/1997/1997_03_17_a_cool.htm>. Gross, Daniel. Pop! Why Bubbles Are Great for the Economy. New York: Collins, 2007. Hoffer, Eric. The True Believer. New York: Harper, 1951. Howe, Jeff. “Did Assignment Zero Fail? A Look Back, and Lessons Learned.” Wired News 16 July 2007. 19 Feb. 2008 http://www.wired.com/techbiz/media/news/2007/07/assignment_ zero_final?currentPage=all>. Kahneman, Daniel, and Amos Tversky. Choices, Values and Frames. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2000. Keen, Andrew. The Cult of the Amateur. New York: Doubleday Currency, 2007. Khurana, Rakesh. From Higher Aims to Hired Hands. Princeton, NJ: Princeton UP, 2007. Kolodzy, Janet. Convergence Journalism: Writing and Reporting across the News Media. Oxford: Rowman & Littlefield, 2006. Koppelman, Charles. Behind the Seen: How Walter Murch Edited Cold Mountain Using Apple’s Final Cut Pro and What This Means for Cinema. Upper Saddle River, NJ: New Rider, 2004. Leadbeater, Charles, and Paul Miller. “The Pro-Am Revolution”. London: Demos, 24 Nov. 2004. 19 Feb. 2008 http://www.demos.co.uk/publications/proameconomy>. Loomis, Carol J. “Bloomberg’s Money Machine.” Fortune 5 April 2007. 20 Feb. 2008 http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/2007/04/16/ 8404302/index.htm>. Lynch, Peter, and John Rothchild. Beating the Street. Rev. ed. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994. Maister, David. True Professionalism. New York: The Free Press, 1997. Maister, David, Charles H. Green, and Robert M. Galford. The Trusted Advisor. New York: The Free Press, 2004. Mensching, Leah McBride. “Citizen Journalism on Its Way Out?” SFN Blog, 30 Nov. 2007. 20 Feb. 2008 http://www.sfnblog.com/index.php/2007/11/30/940-citizen-journalism- on-its-way-out>. Meyer, Philip. Precision Journalism. 4th ed. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2002. McConnell, Steve. Professional Software Development. Boston, MA: Addison-Wesley, 2004. Mintzberg, Henry. Managers Not MBAs. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler, 2004. Morgan, Gareth. Images of Organisation. Rev. ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2006. Newsvine. “Msnbc.com Acquires Newsvine.” 7 Oct. 2007. 20 Feb. 2008 http://blog.newsvine.com/_news/2007/10/07/1008889-msnbccom- acquires-newsvine>. Niederhoffer, Victor, and Laurel Kenner. Practical Speculation. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2003. Pearlstine, Norman. Off the Record: The Press, the Government, and the War over Anonymous Sources. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 2007. Pesce, Mark D. “Mob Rules (The Law of Fives).” The Human Network 28 Sep. 2007. 20 Feb. 2008 http://blog.futurestreetconsulting.com/?p=39>. Rheingold, Howard. Smart Mobs: The Next Social Revolution. Cambridge MA: Basic Books, 2002. Rosen, Jay. What Are Journalists For? Princeton NJ: Yale UP, 2001. Shasha, Dennis Elliott. Out of Their Minds: The Lives and Discoveries of 15 Great Computer Scientists. New York: Copernicus, 1995. Slywotzky, Adrian. Value Migration: How to Think Several Moves Ahead of the Competition. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press, 1996. Smith, Steve. “The Self-Image of a Discipline: The Genealogy of International Relations Theory.” Eds. Steve Smith and Ken Booth. International Relations Theory Today. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press, 1995. 1-37. Spar, Debora L. Ruling the Waves: Cycles of Discovery, Chaos and Wealth from the Compass to the Internet. New York: Harcourt, 2001. Surowiecki, James. The Wisdom of Crowds. New York: Doubleday, 2004. Thompson, Evan. Mind in Life: Biology, Phenomenology, and the Sciences of Mind. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2007. Trippi, Joe. The Revolution Will Not Be Televised. New York: ReganBooks, 2004. Underwood, Doug. When MBA’s Rule the Newsroom. New York: Columbia University Press, 1993. Wark, McKenzie. Virtual Geography: Living with Global Media Events. Bloomington IN: Indiana UP, 1994. Wolfe, Tom, and E.W. Johnson. The New Journalism. New York: Harper & Row, 1973. Citation reference for this article MLA Style Burns, Alex. "Select Issues with New Media Theories of Citizen Journalism." M/C Journal 10.6/11.1 (2008). echo date('d M. Y'); ?> <http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0804/10-burns.php>. APA Style Burns, A. (Apr. 2008) "Select Issues with New Media Theories of Citizen Journalism," M/C Journal, 10(6)/11(1). Retrieved echo date('d M. Y'); ?> from <http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0804/10-burns.php>.

“Journalists have to begin a new type of journalism, sometimes being the guide on the side of the civic conversation as well as the filter and gatekeeper.” (Kolodzy 218) “In many respects, citizen journalism is simply public journalism removed from the journalism profession.” (Barlow 181) 1. Citizen Journalism — The Latest Innovation? New Media theorists such as Dan Gillmor, Henry Jenkins, Jay Rosen and Jeff Howe have recently touted Citizen Journalism (CJ) as the latest innovation in 21st century journalism. “Participatory journalism” and “user-driven journalism” are other terms to describe CJ, which its proponents argue is a disruptive innovation (Christensen) to the agenda-setting media institutions, news values and “objective” reportage. In this essay I offer a “contrarian” view, informed by two perspectives: (1) a three-stage model of theory-building (Carlile & Christensen) to evaluate the claims made about CJ; and (2) self-reflexive research insights (Etherington) from editing the US-based news site Disinformation between November 1999 and February 2008. New media theories can potentially create “cognitive dissonance” (Festinger) when their explanations of CJ practices are compared with what actually happens (Feyerabend). First I summarise Carlile & Christensen’s model and the dangers of “bad theory” (Ghoshal). Next I consider several problems in new media theories about CJ: the notion of ‘citizen’, new media populism, parallels in event-driven and civic journalism, and mergers and acquisitions. Two ‘self-reflexive’ issues are considered: ‘pro-ams’ or ‘professional amateurs’ as a challenge to professional journalists, and CJ’s deployment in new media operations and production environments. Finally, some exploratory questions are offered for future researchers. 2. An Evaluative Framework for New Media Theories on Citizen Journalism Paul Carlile and Clayton M. Christensen’s model offers one framework with which to evaluate new media theories on CJ. This framework is used below to highlight select issues and gaps in CJ’s current frameworks and theories. Carlile & Christensen suggest that robust theory-building emerges via three stages: Descriptive, Categorisation and Normative (Carlile & Christensen). There are three sub-stages in Descriptive theory-building; namely, the observation of phenomena, inductive classification into schemas and taxonomies, and correlative relationships to develop models (Carlile & Christensen 2-5). Once causation is established, Normative theory evolves through deductive logic which is subject to Kuhnian paradigm shifts and Popperian falsifiability (Carlile & Christensen 6). Its proponents situate CJ as a Categorisation or new journalism agenda that poses a Normative challenged and Kuhnian paradigm shift to traditional journalism. Existing CJ theories jump from the Descriptive phase of observations like “smart mobs” in Japanese youth subcultures (Rheingold) to make broad claims for Categorisation such as that IndyMedia, blogs and wiki publishing systems as new media alternatives to traditional media. CJ theories then underpin normative beliefs, values and worldviews. Correlative relationships are also used to differentiate CJ from the demand side of microeconomic analysis, from the top-down editorial models of traditional media outlets, and to adopt a vanguard stance. To support this, CJ proponents cite research on emergent collective behaviour such as the “wisdom of crowds” hypothesis (Surowiecki) or peer-to-peer network “swarms” (Pesce) to provide scientific justification for their Normative theories. However, further evaluative research is needed for three reasons: the emergent collective behaviour hypothesis may not actually inform CJ practices, existing theories may have “correlation not cause” errors, and the link may be due to citation network effects between CJ theorists. Collectively, this research base also frames CJ as an “ought to” Categorisation and then proceeds to Normative theory-building (Carlile & Christensen 7). However, I argue below that this Categorisation may be premature: its observations and correlative relationships might reinforce a ‘weak’ Normative theory with limited generalisation. CJ proponents seem to imply that it can be applied anywhere and under any condition—a “statement of causality” that almost makes it a fad (Carlile & Christensen 8). CJ that relies on Classification and Normative claims will be problematic without a strong grounding in Descriptive observation. To understand what’s potentially at stake for CJ’s future consider the consider the parallel debate about curricula renewal for the Masters of Business Administration in the wake of high-profile corporate collapses such as Enron, Worldcom, HIH and OneTel. The MBA evolved as a sociological and institutional construct to justify management as a profession that is codified, differentiated and has entry barriers (Khurana). This process might partly explain the pushback that some media professionals have to CJ as one alternative. MBA programs faced criticism if they had student cohorts with little business know-how or experiential learning (Mintzberg). Enron’s collapse illustrated the ethical dilemmas and unintended consequences that occurred when “bad theories” were implemented (Ghoshal). Professional journalists are aware of this: MBA-educated managers challenged the “craft” tradition in the early 1980s (Underwood). This meant that journalism’s ‘self-image’ (Morgan; Smith) is intertwined with managerial anxieties about media conglomerates in highly competitive markets. Ironically, as noted below, Citizen Journalists who adopt a vanguard position vis-a-vis media professionals step into a more complex game with other players. However, current theories have a naïve idealism about CJ’s promise of normative social change in the face of Machiavellian agency in business, the media and politics. 3. Citizen Who? Who is the “citizen” in CJ? What is their self-awareness as a political agent? CJ proponents who use the ‘self-image’ of ‘citizen’ draw on observations from the participatory vision of open source software, peer-to-peer networks, and case studies such as Howard Dean’s 2004 bid for the Democrat Party nominee in the US Presidential election campaign (Trippi). Recent theorists note Alexander Hamilton’s tradition of civic activism (Barlow 178) which links contemporary bloggers with the Federalist Papers and early newspaper pamphlets. One unsurfaced assumption in these observations and correlations is that most bloggers will adopt a coherent political philosophy as informed citizens: a variation on Lockean utilitarianism, Rawlsian liberalism or Nader consumer activism. To date there is little discussion about how political philosophy could deepen CJ’s ‘self-image’: how to critically evaluate sources, audit and investigation processes, or strategies to deal with elites, deterrence and power. For example, although bloggers kept Valerie Plame’s ‘outing’ as a covert intelligence operative highly visible in the issues-attention cycle, it was agenda-setting media like The New York Times who the Bush Administration targeted to silence (Pearlstine). To be viable, CJ needs to evolve beyond a new media populism, perhaps into a constructivist model of agency, norms and social change (Finnemore). 4. Citizen Journalism as New Media Populism Several “precursor trends” foreshadowed CJ notably the mid-1990s interest in “cool-hunting” by new media analysts and subculture marketeers (Gibson; Gladwell). Whilst this audience focus waned with the 1995-2000 dotcom bubble it resurfaced in CJ and publisher Tim O’Reilly’s Web 2.0 vision. Thus, CJ might be viewed as new media populism that has flourished with the Web 2.0 boom. Yet if the boom becomes a macroeconomic bubble (Gross; Spar) then CJ could be written off as a “silver bullet” that ultimately failed to deliver on its promises (Brooks, Jr.). The reputations of uncritical proponents who adopted a “true believer” stance would also be damaged (Hoffer). This risk is evident if CJ is compared with a parallel trend that shares its audience focus and populist view: day traders and technical analysts who speculate on financial markets. This parallel trend provides an alternative discipline in which the populism surfaced in an earlier form (Carlile & Christensen 12). Fidelity’s Peter Lynch argues that stock pickers can use their Main Street knowledge to beat Wall Street by exploiting information asymmetries (Lynch & Rothchild). Yet Lynch’s examples came from the mid-1970s to early 1980s when indexed mutual fund strategies worked, before deregulation and macroeconomic volatility. A change in the Web 2.0 boom might similarly trigger a reconsideration of Citizen Journalism. Hedge fund maven Victor Niederhoffer contends that investors who rely on technical analysis are practicing a Comtean religion (Niederhoffer & Kenner 72-74) instead of Efficient Market Hypothesis traders who use statistical arbitrage to deal with ‘random walks’ or Behavioural Finance experts who build on Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman’s Prospect Theory (Kahneman & Tversky). Niederhoffer’s deeper point is that technical analysts’ belief that the “trend is your friend” is no match for the other schools, despite a mini-publishing industry and computer trading systems. There are also ontological and epistemological differences between the schools. Similarly, CJ proponents who adopt a ‘Professional Amateur’ or ‘Pro-Am’ stance (Leadbeater & Miller) may face a similar gulf when making comparisons with professional journalists and the production environments in media organisations. CJ also thrives as new media populism because of institutional vested interests. When media conglomerates cut back on cadetships and internships CJ might fill the market demand as one alternative. New media programs at New York University and others can use CJ to differentiate themselves from “hyperlocal” competitors (Christensen; Slywotzky; Christensen, Curtis & Horn). This transforms CJ from new media populism to new media institution. 5. Parallels: Event-driven & Civic Journalism For new media programs, CJ builds on two earlier traditions: the Event-driven journalism of crises like the 1991 Gulf War (Wark) and the Civic Journalism school that emerged in the 1960s social upheavals. Civic Journalism’s awareness of minorities and social issues provides the character ethic and political philosophy for many Citizen Journalists. Jay Rosen and others suggest that CJ is the next-generation heir to Civic Journalism, tracing a thread from the 1968 Chicago Democratic Convention to IndyMedia’s coverage of the 1999 “Battle in Seattle” (Rosen). Rosen’s observation could yield an interesting historiography or genealogy. Events such as the Southeast Asian tsunami on 26 December 2004 or Al Qaeda’s London bombings on 7 July 2005 are cited as examples of CJ as event-driven journalism and “pro-am collaboration” (Kolodzy 229-230). Having covered these events and Al Qaeda’s attacks on 11th September 2001, I have a slightly different view: this was more a variation on “first responder” status and handicam video footage that journalists have sourced for the past three decades when covering major disasters. This different view means that the “salience of categories” used to justify CJ and “pro-am collaboration” these events does not completely hold. Furthermore, when Citizen Journalism proponents tout Flickr and Wikipedia as models of real-time media they are building on a broader phenomenon that includes CNN’s Gulf War coverage and Bloomberg’s dominance of financial news (Loomis). 6. The Mergers & Acquisitions Scenario CJ proponents often express anxieties about the resilience of their outlets in the face of predatory venture capital firms who initiate Mergers & Acquisitions (M&A) activities. Ironically, these venture capital firms have core competencies and expertise in the event-driven infrastructure and real-time media that CJ aspires to. Sequoia Capital and other venture capital firms have evaluative frameworks that likely surpass Carlile & Christensen in sophistication, and they exploit parallels, information asymmetries and market populism. Furthermore, although venture capital firms such as Union Street Ventures have funded Web 2.0 firms, they are absent from the explanations of some theorists, whose examples of Citizen Journalism and Web 2.0 success may be the result of survivorship bias. Thus, the venture capital market remains an untapped data source for researchers who want to evaluate the impact of CJ outlets and institutions. The M&A scenario further problematises CJ in several ways. First, CJ is framed as “oppositional” to traditional media, yet this may be used as a stratagem in a game theory framework with multiple stakeholders. Drexel Burnham Lambert’s financier Michael Milken used market populism to sell ‘high-yield’ or ‘junk’ bonds to investors whilst disrupting the Wall Street establishment in the late 1980s (Curtis) and CJ could fulfil a similar tactical purpose. Second, the M&A goal of some Web 2.0 firms could undermine the participatory goals of a site’s community if post-merger integration fails. Jason Calacanis’s sale of Weblogs, Inc to America Online in 2005 and MSNBC’s acquisition of Newsvine on 5 October 2007 (Newsvine) might be success stories. However, this raises issues of digital “property rights” if you contribute to a community that is then sold in an M&A transaction—an outcome closer to business process outsourcing. Third, media “buzz” can create an unrealistic vision when a CJ site fails to grow beyond its start-up phase. Backfence.com’s demise as a “hyperlocal” initiative (Caverly) is one cautionary event that recalls the 2000 dotcom crash. The M&A scenarios outlined above are market dystopias for CJ purists. The major lesson for CJ proponents is to include other market players in hypotheses about causation and correlation factors. 7. ‘Pro-Ams’ & Professional Journalism’s Crisis CJ emerged during a period when Professional Journalism faced a major crisis of ‘self-image’. The Demos report The Pro-Am Revolution (Leadbeater & Miller) popularised the notion of ‘professional amateurs’ which some CJ theorists adopt to strengthen their categorisation. In turn, this triggers a response from cultural theorists who fear bloggers are new media’s barbarians (Keen). I concede Leadbeater and Miller have identified an important category. However, how some CJ theorists then generalise from ‘Pro-Ams’ illustrates the danger of ‘weak’ theory referred to above. Leadbeater and Miller’s categorisation does not really include a counter-view on the strengths of professionals, as illustrated in humanistic consulting (Block), professional service firms (Maister; Maister, Green & Galford), and software development (McConnell). The signs of professionalism these authors mention include a commitment to learning and communal verification, mastery of a discipline and domain application, awareness of methodology creation, participation in mentoring, and cultivation of ethical awareness. Two key differences are discernment and quality of attention, as illustrated in how the legendary Hollywood film editor Walter Murch used Apple’s Final Cut Pro software to edit the 2003 film Cold Mountain (Koppelman). ‘Pro-Ams’ might not aspire to these criteria but Citizen Journalists shouldn’t throw out these standards, either. Doing so would be making the same mistake of overconfidence that technical analysts make against statistical arbitrageurs. Key processes—fact-checking, sub-editing and editorial decision-making—are invisible to the end-user, even if traceable in a blog or wiki publishing system, because of the judgments involved. One post-mortem insight from Assignment Zero was that these processes were vital to create the climate of authenticity and trust to sustain a Citizen Journalist community (Howe). CJ’s trouble with “objectivity” might also overlook some complexities, including the similarity of many bloggers to “noise traders” in financial markets and to op-ed columnists. Methodologies and reportage practices have evolved to deal with the objections that CJ proponents raise, from New Journalism’s radical subjectivity and creative non-fiction techniques (Wolfe & Johnson) to Precision Journalism that used descriptive statistics (Meyer). Finally, journalism frameworks could be updated with current research on how phenomenological awareness shapes our judgments and perceptions (Thompson). 8. Strategic Execution For me, one of CJ’s major weaknesses as a new media theory is its lack of “rich description” (Geertz) about the strategic execution of projects. As Disinfo.com site editor I encountered situations ranging from ‘denial of service’ attacks and spam to site migration, publishing systems that go offline, and ensuring an editorial consistency. Yet the messiness of these processes is missing from CJ theories and accounts. Theories that included this detail as “second-order interactions” (Carlile & Christensen 13) would offer a richer view of CJ. Many CJ and Web 2.0 projects fall into the categories of mini-projects, demonstration prototypes and start-ups, even when using a programming language such as Ajax or Ruby on Rails. Whilst the “bootstrap” process is a benefit, more longitudinal analysis and testing needs to occur, to ensure these projects are scalable and sustainable. For example, South Korea’s OhmyNews is cited as an exemplar that started with “727 citizen reporters and 4 editors” and now has “38,000 citizen reporters” and “a dozen editors” (Kolodzy 231). How does OhmyNews’s mix of hard and soft news change over time? Or, how does OhmyNews deal with a complex issue that might require major resources, such as security negotiations between North and South Korea? Such examples could do with further research. We need to go beyond “the vision thing” and look at the messiness of execution for deeper observations and counterintuitive correlations, to build new descriptive theories. 9. Future Research This essay argues that CJ needs re-evaluation. Its immediate legacy might be to splinter ‘journalism’ into micro-trends: Washington University’s Steve Boriss proclaims “citizen journalism is dead. Expert journalism is the future.” (Boriss; Mensching). The half-lives of such micro-trends demand new categorisations, which in turn prematurely feeds the theory-building cycle. Instead, future researchers could reinvigorate 21st century journalism if they ask deeper questions and return to the observation stage of building descriptive theories. In closing, below are some possible questions that future researchers might explore: Where are the “rich descriptions” of journalistic experience—“citizen”, “convergent”, “digital”, “Pro-Am” or otherwise in new media?How could practice-based approaches inform this research instead of relying on espoused theories-in-use?What new methodologies could be developed for CJ implementation?What role can the “heroic” individual reporter or editor have in “the swarm”?Do the claims about OhmyNews and other sites stand up to longitudinal observation?Are the theories used to justify Citizen Journalism’s normative stance (Rheingold; Surowiecki; Pesce) truly robust generalisations for strategic execution or do they reflect the biases of their creators?How could developers tap the conceptual dimensions of information technology innovation (Shasha) to create the next Facebook, MySpace or Wikipedia? References Argyris, Chris, and Donald Schon. Theory in Practice. 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