Добірка наукової літератури з теми "1740-1749"

Die Regierungszeiten von Maria Theresia (1740-1780) und Joseph II. (1780-1790) sind als Ansatzpunkte für die Entwicklung des Rechtsstaates Österreich zu sehen. Man reformierte alle Bereiche des Rechts und bewegte sich damit auf gleicher Entwicklungsebene wie Bayern, Preußen oder Frankreich. Ausgangspunkt war eine Reform der Gerichtsorganisation von oben nach unten, beginnend mit der Einrichtung einer zentralen Obersten Justizstelle in Wien 1749, der Endpunkt liegt erst im Jahre 1848 mit der Verstaatlichung der Rechtspflege in erster Instanz. Hand in Hand ging damit eine Neuordnung des Zivil-und Strafprozesses -beide Maßnahmen mit dem Ziel eine für alle ohne Unterschied des Standes gleiche Rechtsdurchsetzung zu schaffen.

Actuellement conservées à la bibliothèque de l’Arsenal (BnF), les archives de la Lieutenance générale de police de Paris laissent apparaître durant les décennies 1740 et 1750 un véritable bond qualitatif des pratiques bureaucratiques de la police. L’accumulation de papiers se double en effet de la floraison d’un nouvel outil administratif, le registre, qui conduit à interroger la place des activités écrites dans les pratiques policières. Ainsi, avant même le célèbre mémoire de l’officier de la maréchaussée Guillauté en 1749, l’enregistrement s’impose comme l’instrument indispensable à la connaissance des populations parisiennes. Ce travail de bureau des policiers représente alors une dimension nouvelle et croissante de leur activité à côté de leur présence sur le terrain jusqu’alors dominante. D’abord apparu comme une nécessité dans le domaine de « la recherche des voleurs » avant le milieu du siècle, le recours aux pratiques d’enregistrement se propage ensuite plus largement dans la police dans le contexte réformateur des lieutenances de Berryer (1747-1757) et Sartine (1759-1774). Consacrant un nouveau style de police fondé sur la surveillance ciblée et l’enregistrement, il favorise à terme l’émergence d’une véritable culture policière de l’écrit. Cette évolution, forgée dans la pratique et marquée par l’empirisme et les tâtonnements, permet néanmoins à la police parisienne de devenir dans les années 1760, aux côtés de l’Armée et de la Marine, l’un des foyers d’une nouvelle culture administrative, ici au service de la régulation de l’ordre urbain dans la capitale du royaume.

The early eighteenth century witnessed the early development of the dominant literary form of modern times, the novel. The novel emerged as a form with structure and interplay between individuals and their relationships to society. As a new form, the novel tends to make some significant, critical, and social statements about the society. Hence, the novel is used to create a new environment that is related to life and people. Indeed, this is what makes the novel appeal to readers as a new genre. Novelists either try to deal with daily social problems that happen in the lives of people or pretend that they are telling real stories. It is not surprising to find that Daniel Defoe molds his Robinson Crusoe (1719)on a real story while Samuel Richardson in Pamela (1740) turns out to be didactic to meet the needs of the growing numbers of female readers. On his part, Henry Fielding tries to expose his society to the readers in his masterpiece The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling (1749); from now on Tom Jones. Accordingly, the novel becomes popular at this time because it has something relevant to the mob; it deals with their social life, and they can identify themselves with its characters in the actual daily life. Through Tom Jones, Fielding presented “a true and realistic picture of human nature” (Kettle, 71). As long as its main concern is the existing society, novelists feel so involved that their criticism becomes direct, frank, and effective. My paper deals with these concerns as depicted in the novels mentioned above.

A mancha-de-estenfílio do tomateiro, causada pelos fungos Stemphylium solani e S. lycopersici, foi considerada, por muito tempo, como uma doença secundária devido à utilização combinada de fungicidas e variedades resistentes. Recentemente, severas epidemias da mancha-de-estenfilio têm sido relatadas nas várias regiões produtoras sugerindo a necessidade de retomar o emprego de cultivares com resistência a esta enfermidade. O objetivo do presente trabalho foi avaliar a reação de genótipos cultivados e silvestres de tomateiro [Solanum (secção Lycopersicon)] frente a isolados destas duas espécies de Stemphylium. Na primeira etapa do trabalho, 109 genótipos de Solanum (secção Lycopersicon) foram avaliados via inoculação com uma suspensão de 10(4) conídios/mL dos isolados 'EH-1740' (S. solani) e 'EH-1749' (S. lycopersici). As plantas foram transplantadas aos 18 dias da semeadura e inoculadas sete dias depois. A avaliação da resposta dos genótipos foi feita 15 dias após a inoculação. Cinqüenta e oito genótipos considerados promissores foram novamente avaliados (com os mesmos isolados) em um segundo experimento. Neste experimento a reação dos genótipos foi avaliada cada dois dias utilizando como critérios o período de incubação e a severidade da doença através de uma escala de notas de 0 a 5. Com os valores de severidade, nas diferentes leituras, foi calculada a área abaixo da curva de progresso da doença e o índice de doença. Foram identificadas 35 fontes de resistência às duas espécies de Stemphylium em genótipos das espécies S. lycopersicum, S. habrochaites, S. peruvianum e S. pimpinellifolium. Os genótipos de S. lycopersicum e S. pimpinellifolium resistentes possuem, provavelmente, o gene de resistência Sm. No entanto, os genótipos de S. peruvianum e S. habrochaites podem representar fontes de novos genes/alelos que conferem resistência às duas espécies fúngicas. Esta potencial diversidade de fatores de resistência para Stemphylium pode ser útil em futuras ações de pesquisa dentro de programas de melhoramento genético do tomateiro bem como para o manejo integrado da doença.

Znanstveni pristup prirodi u XVIII stoljeću iz temelja je promijenio stil i kompoziciju putopisa u evropskoj književnosti. Među najvažnija djela koja su odredila putopis XVIII st. spadaju djela Georgia Louisa Leclerca de Buffon (1707—-1788) Histoire naturelle i Epoques de la nature (1749—1789), koja se danas smatraju poče- cima geologije. Samu geologiju uzdigao je do samostalne znanstve- ne discipline frajburški profesor A. G. Werner (1750—1817), Sva ta djela plod su raspoloženja stoljeća koje se oduševljavalo pri- rodom. Godine 1729. švicarski učeni wunderkind, liječnik i bota- ničar Albrecht von Haller (1708—1777) napisao je u poletnim al eksandr incima odu Alpama (Die Alpen), koja je uskoro postala jedna od najčitanijih pjesama stoljeća. Njegova oda bila je prvi opis djevičanske prirode, koja je spas čovjeku pokvarenu uljuđe- nim gradskim životom. Potaknut tim i sličnim raspoloženjima, švicarski filozof Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712—1778) nastanio se 12. rujna 1765. poput modernog pustinjaka na otoku Saint-Pierre, usred jezera Bienne, gdje je ostao do 21. listopada, a nije otišao svojom voljom.’ Horace Bénédicte de Saussure (1740—1799) fi- zičar i meteorolog napisao je brojne prirodoslovne putopise po Alpama. Godine 1768. austrijski botaničar barun Joseph von Seenus putuje Istrom, Kvarnerskim otocima i obalnim područjem Velebita.

Les romancières du XVIIIe siècle ont rencontré – en leur temps – un succès réel et vif à l’échelle européenne. Elles ont pourtant été écartées de la transmission du patrimoine littéraire. Il importe d’élucider les causes et les circonstances de cette mise à l’écart. Elles bousculent, avec une rare insolence, les présupposés liés à l’auctorialité, au genre romanesque et à l’écriture des femmes. Ce travail explore les destinées de quelques-unes de ces romancières – Mme Riccoboni, Mme de Tencin, Mme d’Epinay – et de leurs textes afin de prendre la mesure des représentations imaginaires qui ont façonné leur réception. Il s’agit par conséquent de renouveler la lecture de ces textes que, peut-être, nous ne savons pas, ou plus, lire. C’est ce que permet la notion de décalage. Par le jeu des discours, les romans de Mme de Tencin et de Mme de Fontaines subvertissent l’ordre symbolique de la société patriarcale. De ces romans se dégagent les spécificités d’une position féminine. Ces textes ont tendance, pourtant, à figer in fine les termes du discours romanesque. L’ironie aux multiples usages est le discours qui permet de sortir des impasses discursives rencontrées dans cette étude. Dans sa diversité, l’ironie est la plus à même de maintenir, pour les personnages féminins de Mme de Souza, de Mme Cottin ou dans les romans de Mme de Charrière, l’ouverture du décalage, l’insolence du questionnement, véritable condition du littéraire et du féminin
18th century female novelists enjoyed, in their time, strong and vibrant acclaim throughout Europe. Their work nonetheless did not become part of the literary heritage. It is important to analyse the circumstances and reasons for this exclusion.They irreverently question the codes and conventions of authorship, as well as fiction and women’s writing. This work explores the fate of some of these writers – Mme Riccoboni, Mme de Tencin, Mme d’Epinay – and their work, so as to understand the full extent of the collective projections that explain how they have been perceived.Hence, we need to go back on these novels which, maybe, we no longer know how to read. This is made possible by the notion of distance, incongruence or discrepancy. Through the play of different discourses, Mme de Tencin’s and Mme de Fontaines’ novels subvert the symbolic order of patriarchal society. Their novels set out the contours and specifics for the position of women. Yet, they tend to overly constrain the rules of fictional discourse.Irony, in its multiple shapes, is the discourse that allows to circumvent the discursive traps encountered in this study. In its diversity, irony is best suited to sustain – for the female characters of Mme de Souza, Mme Cottin or those in Mme de Charrière’s novels – the opening brought about by distance, the irreverence of questioning – true requirement for literature as well as for all that is feminine

This chapter examines a decisive period in English literary history during the 1740s. This decade saw Samuel Richardson and Henry Fielding falling into an unplanned but extraordinary artistic competition that would open two vital channels of production in the novel-writing to come: in Richardson's case toward the representation of inward experience as if mediated by no external authority, in Fielding's toward worldly experience as if mediated wholly by an authoritative storyteller. They did not compete in the usual sense, but such was their entangled proximity it nevertheless seemed a contest. The decade began with Richardson's Pamela (1740), followed by Fielding's Joseph Andrews (1742), and ended with Richardson's Clarissa (1747–8) and Fielding's Tom Jones (1749). This second pair of novels has long since established itself as the more powerful of the two, rightly enough, but against any other novels of the period the first would easily command superiority.