Статті в журналах з теми "1730-1739"

The sixteenth volume in the series presents all articles on the aurora borealis that were published in the journal of the Swedish Societas Regia Literaria et Scientiarum (now Kungl. Vetenskaps-Societeten i Uppsala) from 1730 to 1739. The articles are by the society’s secretary, the professor of astronomy in Uppsala, Anders (in Latin: Andreas) Celsius and by several other Swedish professionals and amateurs of science. In the introduction to this volume, neo-Latinist and historian of science Per Pippin Aspaas summarizes the contents of all articles dealing with the aurora and presents extracts of these texts in English translation. He also provides a short history of the society in the period and gives brief presentations of Anders Celsius, Herman Spöring, Sven Hof, Johan Göstaf Hallman, Johan Sparschuch and Nils Wallerius as auroral researchers.

DHDPS (dihydrodipicolinate synthase; EC 4.2.1.52) is the enzyme that catalyses the first unique step of lysine biosynthesis in plants and micro-organisms. As such, it has attracted much attention as a target for herbicide and anti-microbial action. DHDPS has two substrates: pyruvate and (S)-aspartate β-semialdehyde [(S)-ASA]. There are various literature reports that suggest that high levels of (S)-ASA inhibit the enzyme [Karsten (1997) Biochemistry 36, 1730–1739; Stahly (1969) Biochim. Biophys. Acta 191, 439–451], whereas others have not observed this phenomenon. We have resolved this long-running literature debate and shown unequivocally that this difference in reported behaviour can be attributed to differences in the preparation of (S)-ASA used by each researcher. DHDPS is not inhibited by its substrate; rather, the inhibition is due to an, as yet, unidentified inhibitor in preparations of the substrate generated by ozonolysis. Furthermore, we demonstrate that (R)-ASA is neither an inhibitor nor a substrate of DHDPS from Escherichia coli.

Osmanlı Devleti kuruluşundan itibaren pek çok devletle karşılaşmış ve onlarla askerî, siyasî, ticarî ve diplomatik münasebetlerde bulunmuştur. Fetih politikasını batı yönünde belirleyen devletin karşısına çıkan önemli rakiplerden biri de Rusya'dır. İki ülke arasında ilk kez XV. yüzyılda başlayan münasebetlerin ilk dönemlerinde yükselme devresini yaşayan Osmanlılar, Ruslara göre her açıdan üstün durumdadır. XVI. ve XVII. yüzyıllarda bu üstünlüğünü koruyan ve bunu yaptığı savaş ve antlaşmalara yansıtan Osmanlılar, XVIII. yüzyıldan itibaren eski güç ve otoritesini kaybetmeye başlamıştır. Bu çalışmada iki devlet arasında Sultan I. Mahmud dönemindeki (1730-1754) ilişkiler, taraflar arasında yaşanan 1736-1739 Osmanlı-Rus savaşları çerçevesinde incelenmiştir. Osmanlı Devleti bu devrede bir önceki döneme göre önemli bir toparlanma süreci geçirmiştir. Sultan Birinci Mahmud'un saltanatının başlarında bir taraftan İran ile savaşlar devam ederken, Rusya'nın Azak ve Kırım'a saldırısıyla başlayan Osmanlı-Rus savaşları Avusturya'nın da Ruslarla ittifakı sonucu üçlü bir savaşa dönüşmüştür. 1736 yılında başlayan bu savaşlarda Osmanlı Devleti Sultan Birinci Mahmud'un başarılı politikaları sayesinde iki devlete karşı üstün gelebilmiş ve Osmanlı tarihinin son kazançlı antlaşması olan Belgrad Antlaşması'nı iki devlete ayrı ayrı imzalatmayı başarmıştır. Antlaşma ile Ruslara karşı önemli üstünlük ve avantajlar sağlandığı gibi aynı zamanda taraflar arasında 29 yıl sürecek uzun bir barış döneminin de temelleri atılmıştır.

Sephardi printers were pioneers of moveable type in the Islamic world, establishing a Hebrew printing house in Istanbul in 1493. Initially emphasizing classical religious works in Hebrew, since the eighteenth century printers have been instrumental in the development of scholarship, literature, and journalism in the vernacular of most Jews of the western Ottoman Empire: Ladino. Although most Jewish males knew the Hebrew alphabet, they did not understand Hebrew texts. Communal cultural leaders and printers collaborated in order to bring basic Jewish works to the masses in the only language they really knew. While some books in Ladino were printed as early as the sixteenth century, their percentage increased since the second quarter of the eighteenth century, following the printing of Me-’am lo’ez, by Jacob Culi (1730), and the Bible in Ladino translation by Abraham Assa (1739). In the nineteenth century the balance of Ladino printing shifted toward novels, poetry, history, and biography, sciences, and communal and state laws and regulations. Ladino periodicals, which aimed to modernize, educate, and entertain, were of special social and cultural importance, and their printing houses also served as publishers of Ladino books. Thus, from its beginnings as an agent that aimed to “Judaize” the Jews, Ladino publishing in the later period sought to modernize and entertain, while still trying to spread Judaic knowledge.

وصلَ اليهود الى مستعمرة نيويورك بعد سيطرة الانكليز عليها عام 1664 ، للحصول على حقوق أفضل من التي حصلَ عليها في ظل حكم الهولنديين للمستعمرة وتمكنوا من الحصول على تعاطف القادة الانكليز في المستعمرة ، بدءَ يهود مستعمرة نيويورك في عام 1680 ، من التجارة في المنطقة الواقعة ما بين نيويورك والباني الا انهم كانوا يواجهون بعض العوائق في تجارة التجزئة حتى عام 1690، وفي قرار لحاكم مستعمرة نيويورك دونغان عام 1686 ، اليهودي حتى يتمكن من ممارسة حرفةً والانخراط في تجارة التجزئة عليهِ الحصول على منحة انكار من حاكم المستعمرة وان يتم تجنيسهِ بموجب قانون صادر عن الجمعية التشريعية عندئذ تمرر سلطة المدينة صفة من ان يكون حراً ، وفي حلول عام 1688 ،تغيَر حال اليهود وحصلوا على حقوق حرية التجارة في المدينة، وتمكن اليهود عام 1700 من ان يديرون متاجرهم وشاركوا في تجارة التجزئة بحرية واصبح التاجر لويس موسى كومز في عام 1710 ، أول تاجر يصدر القمح الى جزر ماديرا الواقعة في المحيط الاطلسي، وفي عام 1730 إزداد عدد المهاجرين اليهود الناطقين باللغة الالمانية الى مستعمرة نيويورك ، وتطورَ تجار الشحن اليهود واصبحوا تجاراً بارزين واثرياء بعد عام 1740 ،بعد صدور قانون الجنسية الذي سمحَ لهم بممارسة التجارة في انحاء الامبراطورية البريطانية ، واصبح اليهودي آسحاق موسى في عام 1768 احد مؤسسي غرفة تجارة نيويورك ،وعمل َالتجار اليهود عمل تجاري كبير ومربح في المستعمرة اذ شارك احد التجار اليهود دانيل كومز بالتجارة مع جزر الهند الغربية وماديرا وباربادوس وكوراساو ولندن وارسل مئة وثلاثة وثلاثون سفينة الى كوراساو بين عام 1739-1772 وانظم اليهود الى المنظمة لعمل الحرفيين لاسيما نقابة الموانئ البحرية.

Abstract Wind direction kept in ships’ logbooks is a consolidated but underexploited observational source of relevant climatic information. In this paper, we present four indices of the monthly frequency of wind direction, one for each cardinal direction: Northerly (NI), Easterly (EI), Southerly (SI) and Westerly (WI), based on daily wind direction observations taken aboard ships over the English Channel. These Directional Indices (DIs) are the longest observational record of atmospheric circulation to date at the daily scale, covering the 1685–2014 period. DIs anomalies are associated with near-surface climatic signals over large areas of Europe in all seasons, with zonal indices (WI and EI) and meridional indices (NI and SI) often affecting different regions. Statistical models including all DIs are able to explain a considerable amount of European climate variability, in most cases higher than that accounted for by the North Atlantic Oscillation. As such, the DIs are able to reproduce the known European climatic history and provide new insights of certain episodes from monthly to multi-decadal time scales such as the warm winter decade of 1730–1739 or the extremely cold 1902 summer. The DIs show the potential to better constrain the atmospheric circulation response to external forcings and its associated anomalies. In particular, we provide first observational evidences of all year-round atmospheric circulation signals following the strongest tropical volcanic eruptions of the last three centuries. These signatures are more complex than previously thought and suggest that the well-reported winter warming and summer cooling cannot be simply interpreted in terms of changes in zonality.

Background Inappropriate asthma control reduces quality of life and causes increased exacerbations. Mobile health (mHealth) employs information and communication technology for surveying health-related issues. Objective This noninterventional, observational study assessed current real-world asthma control levels among Japanese patients with asthma and cough variant asthma (CVA) using the Zensoku-Log app. Methods We developed the app using the ResearchKit platform and conducted a mobile-based, self-reporting, observational survey among patients with asthma and CVA. The app was downloaded 7855 times between February 2016 and February 2018, and enabled collection of data on symptoms, comorbidities, quality of life, medications, asthma control, and adherence. Results Of the 1744 eligible participants (median age 33 years; range 20-74 years; male-to-female ratio 38.7:61.3), 50.97% (889/1744) reported unscheduled visits, 62.84% (1096/1744) reported regularly scheduled visits, 23.14% (402/1737) smoked, and 40.75% (705/1730) had pets. In addition, 91.89% (1598/1739) of participants had atopic predisposition, including allergic rhinitis and atopic dermatitis. Daily inhaled corticosteroid and oral corticosteroid treatment had been prescribed for 89.45% (1552/1735) and 22.07% (383/1735) of participants, respectively. Although an asthma control questionnaire demonstrated poor asthma control in 58.48% (1010/1727), a leukotriene receptor antagonist, theophylline, and a long-acting muscarinic antagonist had been prescribed for only 30.66% (532/1735), 15.91% (276/1735), and 4.38% (76/1735), respectively. The Adherence Starts with Knowledge 12 total score was 29. In the 421 participants who repeated the questionnaire, asthma control increased significantly between the initial and last rounds (P=.002). Conclusions Users of this mHealth app in Japan had poorly controlled asthma and may need more treatment for asthma and their comorbidities. Repeated app users demonstrated improved asthma control. Trial Registration UMIN Clinical Trial Registry UMIN000021043; https://upload.umin.ac.jp/cgi-open-bin/ctr_e/ctr_view.cgi?recptno=R000023913.

This article illustrates the changing shapes of knowledge in Spain in the period spanning from the Baroque (ca. 1600&ndash;1680) to the pre-Enlightenment (ca. 1730). Scepticism and the dichotomies <em>enga&ntilde;o</em> &ndash; <em>desenga&ntilde;o</em> (illusion &ndash; disillusion) and <em>ser</em> &ndash; <em>parecer</em> (reality &ndash; appearances) were at the heart of the Baroque obsession with the foundations of knowledge, which culminated in an epistemological crisis. In the pre-Enlightenment, epistemological preoccupations were directed towards <em>error</em> instead of <em>desenga&ntilde;o</em>, notably in the writings of the Benedictine monk Benito Jer&oacute;nimo Feijoo (1676&ndash;1764), who was a key figure in the divulgation of the &lsquo;new science&rsquo; and &lsquo;new philosophy&rsquo; in Spain. The epistemic value of the concept <em>desenga&ntilde;o</em> is examined here by contrasting Feijoo&rsquo;s essay on philosophical scepticism in his <em>Teatro Cr&iacute;tico Universal. Discursos varios en todo g&eacute;nero de materias, para desenga&ntilde;o de errores comunes </em>(Universal Critical Theater. Varied discourses on all kinds of matters to the disillusion of common errors, 1726&ndash;1739) with the use of scepticism in the Baroque author Francisco de Quevedo&rsquo;s <em>Sue&ntilde;os y discursos de verdades descubridoras de abusos, vicios y enga&ntilde;os, en todos los oficios y estados del mundo</em> (Dreams and discourses on truths revealing abuses, vices and deceptions in all the professions and estates of the world) published a hundred years earlier (1627).

Generally, the libraries have keeping very few old-published Armenian books or codices in Hungary. The small-sized-17th Armenian Catholic Breviary (Cisaran, Kargaworut’iwn) is an exception, which has proved the rule. At present, this Breviary is being kept at the Oriental Collection in the Library of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary. According to the contemporaneous Armenian land Latin handwritings in this Breviary, the scholarship was able to follow closely behind its real fate. This ecclesiastical book was published at about the mid-17th century at the-called Polyglotta’s press in the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of Faith (Sacra Congregatio de Propaganda Fide), the Institute of the Roman Catholic Missions at the Holy Apostolic See in Rome. At the last third of the 17th century, the Breviary was brought by Polish-born Armenian Uniate priests from Rome to Stanisławów (now Ivano-Frankivsk in Ukraine) in Poland. The Breviary in the 1720’s or in 1730’s got to the hand of Stefan Stefanowicz Roszka (1670−1739), Armenian Uniate Prelate in Stanisławów, when he was sent to Transylvania as an Apostolic Visitor in order to the control the Armenians’ daily religious life in Transylvania at the behest of the Holy Apostolic See in 1728. The Unaite Prelate brought this Breviary to the Armenian Uniate Holy Trinity Parish in Szamosújvár (Gherla, Armenopolis) as a gift. In this manner, this Breviary was kept at the Library of the Armenian Catholic Parish in Szamosújvár till the end of the Wold War II. Later on, the Breviary arrived at the National Library of Széchényi in Budapest in the late 1940’s, but, as some decades passed, it was delivered to the Oriental Collection of the Library of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences in the 1960’s or in 1970’s. Therefore, in this brief article, we have attempted to investigate the past of this Breviary from church-historical point of view. Further on, this writing has aimed at summarising the historical backgrounds of the Armenian colonies in Poland and Transylvania in the late 17th and the early 18th centuries. Finally, this study has been focused upon the implementation of the church-unions with Rome and the birth of the Armenian Catholic Church, resting upon the partly discovered and entirely undiscovered sources as well as analysing critically secondary literature.

The transition from syllabic to syllabo-tonic verse in Russian poetry in the 1730s — early 1740s years is connected to the activity of three outstanding writers: Vasilii Trediakovskii (1703–1769), Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765) and Aleksandr Sumarokov (1717–1777). This reform concerned first of foremost binary and ternary meters and paved the way for creation of more complicated meters, among them syllabo-tonic equivalents of ancient Aeolic verse. The Sapphic hendecasyllable was the most known and widespread of them. The sapphic stanza was likewise very popular in European literatures; it consists of three sapphic hendecasyllabic lines and an adonean fourth line. Russian syllabic poets eagerly created rhymed sapphicstanzas with a caesura after the fifth syllable in the hendecasyllables, with the stresses in all four lines unregulated. Trediakovskii composed such sapphic stanzas for his translation of Paul Tallemant’s gallant novel “Le voyage de l’isle d’amour, à Licidas” (Paris, 1663), printed 1730 in Saint Petersburg. In 1735, Trediakovskii published “A New and Brief Method of Composing Russian Verse”, which is considered the beginning of the reform of Russian versification. In this treatise, Trediakovskii proposed a more regulated sapphic stanza. The sapphic hendecasyllables were to consist of six trochees; the third of them, before a regular caesura, was catalectic. All lines concluded with feminine rhymes. In the second edition of this work (1752) Trediakovskii revisited his conception. At this point he understood the sapphic hendecasyllable as a combination of four trochees with one dactyl in the middle of them. Under the influence of Lomonosov’s “Letter on the Rules of the Russian Poetry” (1739) Trediakovskii became convinced of the necessity of alternating rhymes and for this reason decided that the first two lines in the sapphic stanza should have masculine rhymes. As a result he truncated these lines so that they contained only ten syllables. In his lost “Letter about Sapphic and Horatian Stanzas” (1755) Aleksandr Sumarokov expressed strong disagreement with Trediakovskii’s revised conception. He found decasyllables in sapphic stanzas unacceptable; he also came out against regular caesurae. However, Sumarokov treated the metrical structure of the sapphic hendecasyllable the same way as Trediakovskii had. In 1755 and 1758, Sumarokov published three poems in sapphic syllabo-tonic stanzas, rhymed and unrhymed, but always without a regular caesurae. In 1762, Trediakovskii translated two stanzas from Horace’s Carmen saeculare. Their form allows one to conclude that he took Sumarokov’s criticism intoaccount: he rejected decasyllables in these stanzas. Only in the question of caesura did he remain unyielding.

¿Qué significa controlar la deuda en el siglo XVIII en España? Examino la política adoptada entre la Guerra de Sucesión y la suspensión de pagos de 1739. La Tesorería Mayor creada en 1703 y rediseñada desde la Nueva Planta es su principal instrumento. Además del control contable y la centralización de los fondos, sus objetivos son crear una deuda por cuenta corriente, evaluarla y reorganizar el reparto de sus beneficios entre monarquía y grupos privados. La forma de Tesorería elegida permite asentar el crédito real en un grupo selecto de hombres de negocios, renunciándose a la deuda más formalizada y pública que ofrece la banca. Esta orientación política se pone a prueba al elevarse el gasto de guerra en los años 1730. Las reformas entonces sin duda no sólo contemplan los órganos de toma de decisión o el reparto de la fiscalidad, sino también esta política de deuda.

Many 18th century cookery books contain plates showing how dishes were arranged on the table. These range from the most elaborate (Charles Carter, The Complete Practical Cook, with 60 curious copper plates, 1730) to the engagingly simple illustrations, of which one shows a table with but two dishes on it, in Sarah Harrison's The House-keeper's pocket book (2nd ed'n corrected and improved, 1739). But it is rare to find an author who says anything which brings these plates to life and gives us an idea of what it was like to be a guest at a table so arrayed. Mrs Alice Smith has no plates in her Art of Cookery (1758) but she does provide some illuminating prose. Her book is very rare. Maclean, alone of the bibliographers, lists it; and she records only one publicly owned copy, in the New York Public Library. She also lists the edition of 1760, but only on the basis of a reference in the Scots Magazine of that year. Elizabeth David, who has a copy of the 1760 edition, has kindly allowed us to transcribe the relevant passage, which appears below.

Abstract In August 1739, Hotin was captured by Russian troops during the war fought by the Ottoman Empire simultaneously against Russia and Austria. The fortress commander, Ilyas Kolchak Pasha, a Muslim convert from Bosnia, was imprisoned in St. Petersburg while the entire provincial archive was transported to Russia. Today it is held in Moscow and contains almost three thousand documents in Ottoman-Turkish and in Polish, while its small section has also been discovered in Chernihiv. Since the eighteenth century, many other Ottoman documents have been incorporated into the so-called Kolchak Pasha archive in Moscow, including documents from Azov and Perekop, from the archives of Ukrainian Cossack hetmans, and even from the archive of Russian tsars, including two original oath-letters (artnames) sent by the Crimean khans in 1634 and 1646. Needless to say, most of the documents origin from Hotin, from the time when the post of its governor was occupied by Kolchak Pasha. The present article traces the history of this collection, its composition, and offers some glimpses into everyday life of the sancak of Hotin in the 1730s. Its final part is devoted to the Polish language section of the archive and to the network of Kolchaks correspondents in Poland-Lithuania, mostly consisting of opponents to August III, brought to the Polish throne in 1733 with the armed support of Russia. Apart from mutually providing information, both sides exchanged gifts and small favors, while Polish nobles sent their wives to go shopping in Ottoman Hotin, thus rendering the border between Christianity and Islam much more transparent than it has often been assumed.Аннотация В августе 1739 г. Хотин был захвачен российскими войсками в ходе войны, которую Османская империя вела одновременно против России и Австрии. Комендант крепости, Ильяс Колчак-паша, обращенный в ислам боснийец, был пленен и отправлен в Санкт-Петербург, в то время как весь провинциальный архив был перевезен в Россию. В настоящее время он находится в Москве и содержит более трех тысяч документов на османско-турецком и польском языках, одновременно небольшая его часть также была обнаружена в Чернигове. Начиная с XVIII в. множество других документов были также включены в состав так называемого архива Колчак-паши в Москве, включая документы из Азова и Перекопа, из архивов украинских казацких гетманов и даже из российских царских архивов, включая шертные грамоты (artname), отправленные крымскими ханами в 1634 и 1646 гг. Излишне говорить, что большинство документов имеют хотинское происхождение в период, когда пост наместника занимал Колчак-паша. Представленная статья обрисовывает историю этой коллекции, ее структуру и дает некоторое представление о повседневной жизни Хотинского санджака в 1730-е гг. ее заключительная часть посвящена польскоязычной секции архива и сети агентов Колчака в Речи Посполитой, в основной состоявшей из противников Августа III, возведенного на польский трон в 1733 г., благодаря вооруженной российской поддержке. Помимо двусторонней поставки информации, обе стороны обменивались подарками и небольшими взаимными услугами. При этом польские дворяне и их жены выезжали за покупками в османский Хотин, делая тем самым границы между христианским и исламским мирами более прозрачной, чем часто принято считать.

" e fi rst schools in German language were founded in Banat shortly after the conquest of the region by the Habsburg Empire. In 1730 there were already about 30 schools in Banat. In the elementary schools, the teacher was elected by the local community and in the early period he had also the responsibilities of an organist and notary of the commune. Together with the priest and the mayor, they formed the elite of the village. The first secondary school, a secondary school with teaching in Latin, was founded by the Jesuit Order on November 6th, 1725. At its peak it had six classes, three teachers and the number of students varied between 50 and 70. The austro-ottoman war of 1737–1739 led to the destruction of many villages colonized by germans in the south of Banat and affected the school system. The main purpose of the German Catholic elementary schools was education in the spirit of religion by teaching reading, writing and church music. After the end of the war and the colonization during the reign of Queen Maria Theresa, the number of village schools in German language grew rapidly. A new stage in the history of German education in Banat was marked by the introduction in the province of a new school reform. “Die allgemeine Schulordnung für die deutschen Normal-, Haupt- und Trivialschulen” was sanctioned by the Queen on December 4, 1774. One of the fi rst measures of the administration of the province was the foundation of a Normalschule and of a school board to which all schools of the province were subordinated. " e teachers showed a lot of interest in the new method of teaching, so that at the end of 1777, the school board found that almost all teachers of German schools participated in courses to get used to the new teaching methods. " e progresses made in this respect on the territory of the military border were even faster as the Aulic War Council sent several teachers for training in the Normalschule in Vienna. In 1787, there were 30 schools with 37 teachers and 1407 students in this territory. Despite some shortcomings, this school reform led to undeniable progress, tripling the number of schools between 1766 and 1801. With the incorporation of Banat in Hungary in 1779, the place of the “Allgemeine Schulordnung…” was taken by “Ratio Educationis”, introduced in Hungary in 1777. In the first half of the XIX-th century the German language schools suffered a slight decline, especially as the attempts to gradually impose Hungarian language in public life and school multiplied. After the revolution of 1848–1849 and the organization of the new province “Serbische Woiwodschaft und Temeser Banat”, which had its center in Timisoara and was directly subordinated to the central authority in Vienna, the ministry introduced German as language of instruction in secondary schools. In elementary schools, the teaching language corresponded to the native language of the majority of the students. This favorable development of education in Banat, initiated after the revolution of 1848–1849, was maintained after the reincorporation of Banat in Hungary in 1860, especially as until the Austro-Hungarian Compromise there was no pressure from the authorities to transform German language schools into community schools.

С конца XVII века армянские патриаршества Иерусалима и Константинополя стояли перед испытаниями и преодолением их тяжелых последствий. Константинопольское патриаршество, ослабевшее от теологических распрей, не сумело сохранить неприкосновенность Иерусалимского монастыря св. Иакова. Монастырь оказался во власти авантюристов и алчных представителей местной верхушки, которые безжалостно грабили собственность монастыря. Частая смена патриархов привела к тому, что под вопросом оказалось даже само существование армянской конгрегации в Иерусалиме. Этой катастрофической ситуации положило конец избрание Ованеса Колота и Григора Ширванаци духовными главами соответственно Константинопольского и Иерусалимского армянских патриаршеств. Монастырь св. Иакова ожидали новые испытания из-за претензий греческой конгрегации к самому монастырю и его имуществу. Взаимная борьба между армянской и греческой конгрегациями вокруг так называемого эфиопского наследия закончилась в 1739 г., когда османское государство решило сохранить статус-кво, существовавший до 1734 г., т. е. до начала армяно-греческого противостояния. Монастырь св. Иакова со всем своим имуществом оставался армянским, в Иерусалиме сохранялся их сюзеренитет над единоверцами-ассирийцами, эфиопами и коптами. Since the end of the 17th century, the Armenian Patriarchates of Jerusalem and Constantinople have faced trials and overcoming their grave consequences. The Patriarchate of Constantinople, weakened by theological strife, was unable to maintain the inviolability of the Jerusalem monastery of St. Jacob. The monastery was at the mercy of adventurers and greedy representatives of the local elite, who ruthlessly plundered the property of the monastery. The frequent change of patriarchs led to the fact that even the very existence of the Armenian congregation in Jerusalem was called into question. This catastrophic situation was put to an end by the election of Hovhannes Kolot and Grigor Shirvanatsi as spiritual heads of the Armenian Patriarchates of Constantinople and Jerusalem, respectively. The monastery of St. Jacob awaited new trials because of the claims of the Greek congregation to the monastery itself and its property. The mutual struggle between the Armenian and Greek congregations around the so-called Ethiopian heritage ended in 1740, when the Ottoman state decided to maintain the status quo that existed until 1734, i.e., before the start of the Armenian-Greek confrontation. The Monastery of St. Jacob with all its property remained Armenian, in Jerusalem their suzerainty over fellow believers- Assyrians, Ethiopians and Copts was preserved.

The first armed civilian unit in Banat was documented during the siege of the fortress of Timişoara in the year 1551. It was a detachment made up of 200 armed citizens, whose roots can be traced in the civil freedoms conferred through the privileges of the free royal borough by the Hungarian king Louis the Great, in the year 1364. After Banat was transformed into a Turkish pashalik, the Ottoman authorities maintained the tradition of paramilitary units recruited from among the civilian population. During the confrontations between the Austrians and the Ottomans, the Serbian and Serbian-Romanian units – and even one made up of Bulgarians –, documented in Szeged, Arad, Novi Sad, Vărădia de Mureş, Şoimoş, Păuliş, Glogovăţ-Vladimirescu, Pecica, Şemlacu, Nădlac, Cenad, Gyula, Ineu, Hălmagiu and Lugoj, went into the service of Austria. After the Peace Treaty of Passarowitz in 1718, in order to secure the southern borders of the recently occupied province, the governor of the province – the general Mercy Florymund – intended to move the Serbian troops from the former border on the Tisa-Mureş line towards the bank of the Danube. After the failure of the action, starting with the year 1724, the first units of border patrols were created, recruited from among the Romanians and Serbians from the Timişoara-Ciacova-Odzaci (Serbia) and Ohaba-Mâtnic areas. Between 1738-1739 we have information upon the participation of the Timişoara armed citizens’ guards to fights against the Turks and the Romanian rebels. Simultaneously, the Aulic Chamber and the private companies for the exploitation and processing of mineral resources (Gewerkschaften) set up mining companies (Bergschützen-Compagnie) at Potoc, Maidanpek, Dognecea, Oraviţa, Ciclova and Moldova Nouă.A new phase of the Civic Guards and the noblemen’s banderies in Banat was the period of the French wars of 1794-1814. Even though the Banat banderies had few direct combat contacts with the French, the citizens’ guards from the larger cities had an important contribution to maintaining order in the province. A new phase in the history of Banat civic guards were the years 1848-1849, when the National Guards from the free royal boroughs, as well as those from mining settlements, played an important role in the unfolding of military events.Armed civic guards in some of the more important Banat towns: Biserica Albă. the first civic guard was established in the year 1738, drawing its members from among the German population. In the year 1777, an armed company (Schützenkorp), made up of 100 infantrymen, was formed from among the inhabitants of the free military town who had citizen rights.Lugoj. The nucleus of the first armed Citizens’ guard in Lugoj was made up of the group of inhabitants who, in 1775, gathered to fight the armed gangs that terrorized the town and the neighbouring villages. The actual civic guard of the town was established in 1793, when it was granted the privilege of chamber town (“Kammeral Kleinstadt Lugosch”). From this period we also have information about a Shooting society of riemen musicians (Bürger und Schützenmusik), led by the schoolteacher Adam Reinhol.Zrenjanin. Becicherecul Mare was granted the privilege of fair-holding town on 8 May 1769 by Maria Theresa. On this occasion was probably established the Citizen’s guard which, on 12 July 1779, received Count Christophorus Niczky with military honours upon his arrival in town.Oraviţa. The town’s German inhabitants, organized into an armed guard led by the forestry inspector Meier, took up arms against the Ottoman troops and Romanian rebels which attacked the town on 4 June 1738. In 1809, when the regular troops left town, Oraviţa miners formed an armed unit. Between 1752 and 1763 we have information about a Guard of armed miners, known as the “Werkschütz” and maintained with chamber funds, whose members were recruited only from among the German population. Pančevo. In 1794, Panciova received free town (Freie Comunität) privileges, on condition that, besides the payment of a tax, it should create an armed unit from among its citizens. During the French war, following the Imperial call of 20 August 1808, the town organized a battalion of volunteers. Reşiţa. During the 1789 war with the Turks, the forestry inspector of the Chamber estates in Reşiţa, Beckmann, organised, acting upon orders of the Vienna Military Council, an armed Civil guard, made up of 600 shooters. In the spring of 1848, a National Guard (Bürger Garda) of 173 citizens was formed in Reşiţa.Timişoara. The first information about the existence of citizens organized to provide military support to the administration dates back to the year 1735. Besides military actions, the armed Citizens’ Guards (known as “Bürgergarde” and “Freie Compagnie”) ensured the protection as well as the quarantine of provisional hospitals at Fântâna Paşei and at the Green Forest Hunters’ Lodge during the plague of 1838-1839.When it was given the privileges of free royal town through the imperial diploma issued by Joseph II on 21 December 1781, point No. 10 of the diploma stated: “Die Bürger der Stadt sollen im Krieg und Zeiten der Gefahr im Einvernehmen und mit der Zustimmung des Militärkommandos und der politischen Führung mit der Waffe in der Hand der Festung wehren, alle Versuche und Verschwörungen feindlicher Kräften denunzieren und gegenüberstellen.”Vršac. The excellent expert in the town’s history, the historian Felix Milleker, reports on the existence of a Shooting Society as early as 1730. According to Milleker, the Shooting Society was also known as the “Schützen.”Vinga. The Bulgarian citizens of the town (which became a fair-holding town in 1744), had the right to elect freely the town’s administration, consisting of a judge and 6 jurors. In addition to this, they had to maintain an armed civilian company which, in exceptional cases, also rendered service in Timişoara. The provisions of the diploma issued by Maria Theresa on 1 August 1744 granted special rights to the Bulgarian citizens settled here. Beside the right of the sword (i.e. the right to also administer justice in capital cases), the town’s administration also had the obligation to maintain an armed company (Landmiliz) for the defense of the town.Beside the already mentioned towns, for the period studied we have data on the activity of civil guards or shooting societies in over 70 rural localities with German population.