Literatura científica selecionada sobre o tema "Second grammatical treatise"

Medieval Icelandic grammar and poetics based their analysis, to a great extent, on traditional Nordic scholarship. In poetics, Snorra Edda was central, but insights from Classical learning were used to supplement it in the Third and the Fourth Grammatical Treatises. A comparison between Snorri’s description of metrical form in Háttatal and Latin metrics reveals fundamental differences. In the Nordic system, the emphasis is on alliteration and rhyme, but in the Latin one rhythm is central. Furthermore, there are significant differences in the kind of phonological terminology and analysis presented in the grammatical treatises respectively, the First providing the sharpest insights, but the Second perhaps being the most original, seeking inspiration from music. The Third Treatise shows input from runic learning as well as Latin doctrine in its grammatical part, and a healthy mixture of native and Classical learning in its poetics.

The paper analyzes grammatical and lexical ways of expressing medical instructions in Celsus’ treatise De medicina. The author examines and compares all occurrences of medical prescriptions in the text and comes to the following conclusions. Celsus uses various linguistic ways to express treatment recommendations, among which gerundive is the most frequent one. Adjectives and adverbs are used not only to introduce medical prescriptions, but also to characterize treatment methods. As for the verbs in the treatise, Celsus mostly uses the third person form, while the second person forms are not used at all.

The article examines species of variance in the graphic, phonetic-phonological and grammatical systems, which should be taken into account in the preparation of the historical grammar dictionary, grammar annotation of historical texts. The author defines the dynamic processes which make it dependent on the example of theoretical guide treatise by I. Galyatovskyi “Order or method of compiling a sermon” (second half of 17th century). The author points to the various graphical representations of phonemes, formation of new paradigms and interference processes. Phonetic variability correlated to loss of reduced phonemes and formation of a new phoneme /i/. Grammatical variation appears due to the influence Old Church Slavonic language or borrowing new terms from Latin. Coexistence grammatical forms old and new types of inflection manifested primarily in conjugation. She also gives an example of a variative paradigm of the noun.

AbstractThis paper argues that the rise and the transmission of the runes is largely determined by sociolinguistic factors. First, the older fuþark is identified as a unique Germanic design, adapted from Latin or Greek sources by one or more well-born Germani to mark group identity and status. Hence it is rather unlikely that the search for an exact source alphabet of the older fuþark will make a major breakthrough in future research. Second, the present author argues that the extension of the fuþark in the Anglo-Frisian setting is due to high-scale contact with the Christian Church, including Latin manuscript culture and Classical grammatical schooling, whereas these factors were almost entirely absent in pre-Viking-Age Scandinavia. The clerical influence is shown not least by “Christian inscriptions” in Anglo-Saxon England such as the Ruthwell Cross. Learned Christians recycled the obsolete runes to reestablish the phonological type of perfect fit – a situation which is diametrically opposed to the Scandinavian scenario. Typologically, therefore, the First Grammatical Treatise in Iceland is directly in line with the Anglo-Frisian extension of the runic alphabet, whereas the Viking-Age fuþark represents a counter-development with no clear influence of the Christian Church until the early 900s.

The given study is the second part of the article, which scrutinizes the idea of Severus of Antioch concerning which way, in the event of Christ’s incarnation, the meanings of the concepts of essence, nature, hypostasis, and person, which are the most important for representation of the theological sense of this event, are mystically transformed. Along with that, the polemics between the Chalcedonites and Severian Monophysites deployed on this idea, which is immediately represented in the third chapter of Leontius’ of Byzantium treatise “Refutation of syllogisms of Severus”, is taken into consideration. By its content, this chapter is split into two parts, each consisting of an argument of a Severian adversary of the Chalcedonite confession and a detailed refutation of this argument proposed by Leontius. While the content of the first half of the text is focused on the philosophical analysis of the problem of methodological adequacy of the very formulation of Severus’ idea both from the viewpoint of external philosophical wisdom and of theology, the second half is dedicated to the problem of the grammatical and philosophical status of the exegesis of ambiguous expressions of the Fathers. In this section of the study, a detailed interpretation is proposed of the first part of the third chapter of Leontius’ treatise, and, on the grounds of addressing the models of philosophical and theological argumentation authentic for the first half of the 6th century, an analysis is performed of the logico-philosophical and theological sense of the polemical arguments applied by the opponents.

The given study is the third part of the article, which scrutinizes the idea of Severus of Antioch concerning which way, in the event of Christ’s incarnation, the meanings of the concepts of essence, nature, hypostasis, and person, which are the most important for representation of the theological sense of this event, are mystically transformed. Along with that, the polemics between the Chalcedonites and Severian Monophysites deployed on this idea, which is immediately represented in the third chapter of Leontius’ of Byzantium treatise “Refutation of syllogisms of Severus”, is taken into consideration. By its content, this chapter is split into two parts, each consisting of an argument of a Severian adversary of the Chalcedonite confession and a detailed refutation of this argument proposed by Leontius. While the content of the first half of the text is focused on the philosophical analysis of the problem of methodological adequacy of the very formulation of Severus’ idea both from the viewpoint of external philosophical wisdom and of theology. In the final, third part of the study, a detailed interpretation of the second part of the third chapter of Leontius’ treatise is proposed, where the argumentation of the Severians and Chalcedonites intended to solve the problem of the grammatical, philosophical and theological status of exegesis of Saint Fathers’ ambiguous expressions is represented together with the formulation of the method which would allow to exclude the homonymy present in these expressions.

Modern knowledge of the grammarian Consentius’ De barbarismis et metaplasmis, a work valuable for the study of the Latin language, dates back to a relatively recent past: it was only in 1817 that its editio princeps was published by Ph.C. Buttmann, just a few years after the legal scholar A.W. Cramer came across a mention of the then unknown treatise in a ninth-century MS in the Bayerische Staatsbibliothek of Munich, numbered Clm 14666. Based on this solitary manuscript, H. Keil published the short treatise in the fifth volume of his Grammatici Latini. With no little enthusiasm did W.M. Lindsay announce his unearthing of what, in his own words, had ‘long been a “desideratum”, a second authority’ for this text, in the MS F 15 III d at the Universitätsbibliothek Basel; this was followed by E.O. Winstedt's complete collation and M. Niedermann's critical edition. After about a century now there comes to light a third authority, surprisingly enough in a codex which has enjoyed such fame in the past decades that one might wonder how Consentius could have gone unnoticed in it for so long: this is the eleventh-century MS of Venice, Biblioteca Nazionale Marciana Lat. Z. 497 (= 1811), in which the De barbarismis et metaplasmis is contained on fols. 84vb 39 - 90va 39; moreover, a so-far-unnoticed quotation from it (32.9-14), together with one from Consentius’ De nomine et uerbo (Consent. gramm. V 353.6-7), is found on fol. 41vb 16–21 of the same manuscript in a famous grammatical florilegium. The codex, written in Romanesque minuscule and probably originating in Rome, is regarded as a handbook of liberal arts designed by Lawrence Archbishop of Amalfi, formerly a monk at Montecassino, thereafter a teacher in Florence and Rome, where he died in about 1049. Based on palaeographical evidence, F.L. Newton rightfully assumed as an exemplar for this codex a MS in Beneventan script, as some features can be detected that betray the scribal imitation of that typical South Italian script, namely the use of the distinctive abbreviation for eius as ‘ei in ligature with stroke through the descender of the i’, the Beneventan ti ligature for the assibilated sound, and the 2-shaped Beneventan interrogation sign, to which I would add the typical abbreviation for in as a long i cut by a horizontal stroke and the confusion of a and t. Interestingly enough, none of these features is found on fols. 66–95, those containing the new Consentius: from a codicological point of view, this is an autonomous section, written by a different scribe from the rest of the MS and preserving some grammatical texts generally attributed to insular authors, such as Smaragdus’ Liber in partibus Donati (fols. 66–81vb) and part of the compilation entitled Pauca de barbarismo (fols. 81vb - 84vb), which precedes the De barbarismis et metaplasmis; not surprisingly, the new text of Consentius displays numerous features of the Insular script, such as the symbols for enim, autem, eius, est, nihil and et. On this basis it is most likely that this whole section was never included in the Beneventan exemplar, but was added at the time and place of copying of our MS in order to enrich the grammatical content.

Summary The Institutio de nomine et pronomine et verbo by Priscian enjoyed, unlike the Institutiones grammaticae of which it is a summary, vast popularity in the early Middle Ages, because it provided the basic elements of Latin morphology and swiftly taught students how to decline and conjugate. In the eighth and ninth centuries we find 24 manuscripts in which the text is contaminated to such an extent that it prevents the charting of any stemma codicum, although it is possible to identify the influence of particular codices on one another. The text was well known in France, but there are copies also in Bavaria, in the Abruzzi and in Spain. Only four of these manuscripts contain the Institutiones grammaticae as well: the two works were destined for two very different kinds of public. Their coexistence in Paris, BN, lat. 7498 comes as a response to the need to have the complete corpus of Priscian in Saint-Amand; in Paris, BN, lat. 7503 the position occupied by the treatise suggests that it was felt as a summary of the first section of the Institutiones which deals with the noun, and as a preparation to the second section which concerns verbs; in Reims 1094 didactic considerations appear to predominate; in Wolfenbüttel 64, a witness to the presence of grammatical texts in Lyon, the fragment of the Institutio gives the impression of being a scholastic exercise. It has to be noted, however, that in three manuscripts out of four, the text is inserted into the first seven books of the Institutiones. The authors whose works most frequently occur together with Institutio are Isidore, Bede, Donatus, Servius’s De finalibus, Sergius’s De littera, Phocas, Sedulius, St. Jerome, Eutyches, Agroecius, Consentius, the Liber de finalibus metrorum, Maximus Victorinus’s De ratione metrorum and Servius’s Commentum in Artem Donati. The richest manuscripts in terms of texts are the great scholastic manuals Bologna 797, Orléans 295 and St. Gall 878 by Walahfrid Strabo.

Abstract Heuristic is the first step to provide a good critical text edition. It allows to collect all the manuscripts of a work, as well as to order them according to their content. This preliminary work phase is also important in order to obtain essential information about the genre and type of a work, thus providing useful new starting points for a comprehensive study. The paper provides the first results of this work phase within the project that involves editing, translating and providing a commentary on Dionysius of Halicarnassus’ ‘Epistula ad Ammaeum II’. All the manuscripts of the ‘Epistula’ can be divided into two groups, which are almost always characterised by two specific and different compositions: the first one allows us to consider the ‘Epistula’ as a rhetorical treatise providing rhetorical and grammatical remarks about the style of Thucydides; the second clarifies the importance of the ‘Epistula’ as necessary support to the comprehension of the ‘Historiae’ of Thucydides. Within these two groups of manuscripts there are some witnesses which present an unusual composition, such as the Parisinus gr. 2755. This case study sheds light on interesting and sometimes neglected aspects of the ‘Epistula’ and provides a complete analysis of its genre and use.

This article touches upon the idea of inchoativity in the works of Roman grammarians. It aims to observe the development of the usage of the term inchoativus in the Roman grammatical tradition. The study is based on Latin grammatical treatises dating back to the 3rd-7th centuries A.D., the most part of which was published by Heinrich Keil in the second half of the 19th century. Besides Keil's edition, the article refers to recent editions of grammatical treatises. The study was conducted using three digital textual databases including Corpora Corporum, Digital Library of Latin Texts, and PHI Latin Texts. The Latin adjective inchoativus (or inco-hativus, а less common spelling), which literally means ‘inceptive, initial', is attested in three meanings and is used in collocations concerning verbal tense, verbal inflection, and conjunctions respectively. The first two usages were widespread and refer to verbal categories, while the last one is attested only once. The article is divided into two parts. The first one discusses collocations with types of verbal tense such as gradus ‘grade, degree', distantia ‘distance', differentia ‘difference', discertio ‘difference', species ‘aspect' and tempus ‘tense' itself. The second part deals with Roman grammatical categories including forma ‘form', qualitas ‘quality', species ‘aspect', genus ‘voice', figura ‘figure'. The study draws a conclusion that the adjective inchoativus/incohativus is used with categories of tense and aspect only in the works of early grammarians including Probus, Sacerdos, Diomedes, Charisius, and PseudoProbus. However, these grammarians also mention this term with regard to verb forms ending in -sco. Mostly, inchoativity is bound with the Roman verbal category of forma, which can be observed in the works by Dositheus, Phocas, Eutyches, Audax, Pseudo-Victorinus, Donatus and his commentators Sergius, Servius, Pompeius, Cledonius, and Julian of Toledo, and species (Macrobius, Priscian), which is not to be confused with the species of tense mentioned above. Pseudo-Asper is the only Roman grammarian who exceptionally puts inchoativity into the category of figura and spells inchoativus as incohativus. If the category of forma is absent, inchoativity is reckoned to be a verbal quality (Diomedes). Inchoativity is included into the category of voice in case voice is regarded as a subcategory of quality (Sacerdos, Pseudo-Probus, and Cledonius). In respect to forms ending in -sco, inchoativity is a manifestation of the so-called grammatical category of quality.

This chapter treats two imperial Greek phenomena that have often been paired, usually in opposition: Atticism and Asianism. It first describes the theory, practice, and development of Atticism, the attempt by imperial Greeks to write in the language of the fifth and fourth century bce, treating its stylistic and grammatical variants and outlining its relation to imperial classicism. The second part treats the so-called “Asian” prose style associated primarily with the Hellenistic writer Hegesias of Magnesia and reminiscent of Gorgias and the first sophistic. The term itself is not current in the Second Sophistic, but the chapter argues that the style and aesthetic to which it refers are not only present in the work of many writers, but are also portrayed in a positive light by Philostratus. The tension between the classicizing tendencies of Atticism and the unclassical flavor of Asianism is an essential component of imperial Greek culture.

Viking Mediologies is a study of premodern multimedia. Rooted in the practice of Viking Age skalds, it maps the place of poetry in the media landscape of premodern Scandinavia across the 500-year span of skaldic tradition. The skaldic medium came into existence around the beginning of the Viking Age, entering a crowded field of aristocratic self-representations in media such as commemorative monuments, visual arts, and the hall culture of the chieftain’s retinue. Focusing on three domains of embodied mediation—memory, vision, and sound—the book argues that Viking Age skalds set out to capture shared, contingent meanings in named, memorable, reproducible texts. The book explores how commemorative poetry in kviðuháttr remembers histories of ruin and loss, skaldic ekphrasis discloses the presence of the gods, and dróttkvætt encomium evokes the soundscape of battle. In the poetry of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries skalds adjusted to the demands of a literate audience, while the historical and poetological texts of the Icelandic High Middle Ages opened a dialogue between Latin Christian ideas of mediation and local practices. These processes are traced in case studies of skaldic genealogical poetry, sight and perception in the Prose Edda, and poetic resonance in the Second Grammatical Treatise and Háttatal.

Analysis of the two manuscript versions of the Second Grammatical Treatise reveals a common interest in musical performance, which is also reflected in the treatise’s tripartite division of sound, indebted to medieval music theory. Music and grammar meet in the ars rithmica, an analytical tradition devoted to syllable-counting, often rhyming kinds of poetry usually performed to musical accompaniment. The “new poetics” of the late twelfth and thirteenth centuries, influenced by ars rithmica, posits meter as a tool for the renewal of poetry based on the best of old traditions. The influence of ars rithmica is apparent in the grammatical treatises, and its characteristic style of analysis can be traced in Háttatal’s account of the end-rhymed runhent meter. The “poetry machine” of the Codex Upsaliensis version of the Second Grammatical Treatise, a diagrammatical representation of poetic rhyme based on the conceit of a hurdy-gurdy with letter-annotated keys, demonstrates that the interrelationship between rhyme, music, and meter was virulent in a pedagogical context in late medieval Iceland, while its manuscript link with Háttatal suggests a reading of the Prose Edda compilation as an Icelandic “new poetics.”

This chapter focuses on phrase structure, whose discussion in the eighteenth century was subsumed under the theory of melody and based on the parallel between music and language. The first part is devoted to classification of caesuras and melodic sections contained by them. Since the former were equivalent to punctuation marks (period, colon, semicolon, comma) and the latter to grammatical units (sentences, clauses), the musical terminology adopted by eighteenth-century authors (Johann Mattheson, Joseph Riepel, Friedrich Wilhelm Marpurg, Johann Philipp Kirnberger, and Heinrich Christoph Koch) was influenced by linguistic terminology and it developed for decades, with meanings of individual terms changing from author to author. The second part of the chapter treats the different lengths of phrases. It links the preference for four-measure phrases to regular hypermeter and it presents a classification of four-measure phrase rhythms.