Artigos de revistas sobre o tema "Radcliffe College. Class of 1997"

This article explores the implications of social class background in the lives of women who attended Radcliffe College in the late 1940s and in the early 1960s. Viewing social classes as “cultures” with implications for how individuals understand their worlds, we examined social class background and cohort differences in women's experiences at Radcliffe, their adult life patterns, their constructions of women's roles, and the influence of the women's movement in their lives. Results indicated that women from working-class backgrounds in both cohorts felt alienated at Radcliffe. Cohort differences, across social class, reflected broad social changes in women's roles in terms of the rates of divorce, childbearing, level of education, and career activity. There were few social class-specific social changes, but there were a number of social class differences among the women in the Class of 1964. These differences suggested that women from working-class backgrounds viewed women's marital role with some suspicion, whereas women from middle- and upper-class backgrounds had a more positive view. Perhaps for this reason, working-class women reported that the women's movement confirmed and supported their skeptical view of middle-class gender norms.

The Trans Texas Video Conference Network (TTVN) has been linked to all Texas A&M Univ. campuses and most of the Regional Research and Extension Centers. The College of Agriculture and Life Sciences has funded an aggressive project of establishing TTVN class rooms in many departments across the College Station campus, including The Horticultural Science Dept. in 1997. The first two Hort courses taught were HORT 422 Citrus and Subtropical Fruits in Fall 1996 and HORT 418 Nut Culture in Spring 1997. This extended the class room 400 miles south to Weslaco, 300 miles north to Texarkana and Dallas, and 700 miles west to El Paso. Students at each site had video and audio interaction with the professor and with each other. Advantages included the availability of college credit courses to areas where this subject matter did not previously exist, which helps fulfill the Land-grant University Mission. Quality was maintained through lecture and lab outlines on Aggie Horticulture, the department's Web home page, term papers written to ASHS serial publicationspecifications, and rigorous examinations monitored by site facilitators. Lecture presentations were presented via Power Point, which took about twice as long to prepare than traditional overhead transparencies. Administrative problems remain, but will be solved when the requested Distance Education Registration Category is initiated so that subvention credit can be shared. The lecture portion of the graduate course, HORT 601 Nutrition of Horticultural Plants, will be taught in the fall semester 1997 at eight sites throughout the state.

Gertrude stein wrote the twenty-five-page manuscript “the modern jew who has given up the faith of his fathers can reasonably and consistently believe in isolation” for a composition class at Radcliffe College in 1896, when she was twenty-two years old. The essay is distinctly occasional and reads like an early work. It is, nonetheless, one of the few known pieces in which Stein treats directly the question of Jewish identity and the only one to link that question to a specifically political description of the public sphere. The manuscript thus sheds a remarkable light on a number of the most contested questions in studies of Stein's life and works—the problem of her later protofascist political allegiances, of her sense of her exiled Americanness, and of her treatment of writing as an asemantic medium for sketching mobile identities.

Gertrude stein wrote the twenty-five-page manuscript “the modern jew who has given up the faith of his fathers can reasonably and consistently believe in isolation” for a composition class at Radcliffe College in 1896, when she was twenty-two years old. The essay is distinctly occasional and reads like an early work. It is, nonetheless, one of the few known pieces in which Stein treats directly the question of Jewish identity and the only one to link that question to a specifically political description of the public sphere. The manuscript thus sheds a remarkable light on a number of the most contested questions in studies of Stein's life and works—the problem of her later protofascist political allegiances, of her sense of her exiled Americanness, and of her treatment of writing as an asemantic medium for sketching mobile identities.

Alma College initiated an Altitude Physiology class in 1997 devoted to living and learning at high altitude (3440 m). The class incorporated several key elements of High-Impact Educational Practice including a strong student-research component and collaborative groups assignments. A retrospective survey was administered to alumni of the class to determine its long-term impact. Student responses ranged from “agree” to “strongly agree” with statements regarding the class’s impact on positive learning outcomes such as critical thinking, knowledge acquisition, synthesis of knowledge, and understanding of research. Students generally favored non-traditional formats such as living at altitude for gaining understanding of environmental physiology.

This article is a case study of a protracted struggle to establish a branch campus of the San Francisco Community College in Chinatown for thousands of immigrants and working-class adults, focusing mostly on the period since 1997 when the community was slowly politicized and mobilized to fight for their educational rights. Although educational researchers continue to pay close attention to Asian American fights against discriminatory admission policies among the nation’s top colleges and universities, an urgent need to pay more scholarly and political attention to the neediest, poorest, and powerless among Asian Americans clearly exists. To this segment of the Asian American population, access to community college education is a matter of acquiring tools of survival in America. The study illustrates the equal significance of race and class in understanding the development of Asian American communities, how each can be used to obfuscate or disguise the other, and how both can be easily obscured by other issues, especially “progressive” issues or organizations. Asian American community activists and scholars need to pay more attention to class and class conflict with the communities and between the communities and the mainstream society.

Educating college students about death and dying can be a difficult task when their experiences have been limited to trivial encounters through television and movies. The use of a book such as Tuesdays with Morrie (Albom, 1997) in a course on death and dying offers both college age traditional and older non-traditional students an opportunity to become acquainted with the dying process and to confront contemporary issues such as the September 11th tragedy in a non-threatening manner. This article describes the method in which this book has been incorporated into a death and dying course, a sampling of questions used with a class project and an overview of the adjustments made since its inception as a required reading.

ObjectivesTo assess the sensitivity and specificity of the 2019 EULAR/American College of Rheumatology (ACR) classification criteria for systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) in outpatients at an academic tertiary care centre and to compare them to the 1997 ACR and the 2012 Systemic Lupus International Collaborating Clinics criteria.MethodsProspective and retrospective observational cohort study.Results3377 patients were included: 606 with SLE, 1015 with non-SLE autoimmune-mediated rheumatic diseases (ARD) and 1756 with non-ARD diseases (hepatocellular carcinoma, primary biliary cirrhosis, autoimmune hepatitis). The 2019 criteria were more sensitive than the 1997 criteria (87.0% vs 81.8%), but less specific (98.1% vs 99.5% in the entire cohort and 96.5% vs 98.8% in patients with non-SLE ARD), resulting in Youden Indexes for patients with SLE/non-SLE ARD of 0.835 and 0.806, respectively. The most sensitive items were history of antinuclear antibody (ANA) positivity and detection of anti-double-stranded deoxyribonucleic acid (dsDNA) antibodies. These were also the least specific items. The most specific items were class III/IV lupus nephritis and the combination of low C3 and low C4 complement levels, followed by class II/V lupus nephritis, either low C3 or low C4 complement levels, delirium and psychosis, when these were not attributable to non-SLE causes.ConclusionsIn this cohort from an independent academic medical centre, the sensitivity and specificity of the 2019 lupus classification criteria were confirmed. Overall agreement of the 1997 and the 2019 criteria was very good.

The aim of the present study was to determine whether a significant relationship exists between a student’s college (Allied Health, Arts and Science, Education, and Graduate School) and achievement in an advanced-level course in human physiology (PGY 412G). The mean percentage of correct answers on four multiple-choice tests, collectively totaling 400 points, was used to assess each student’s performance. A four (college)-by-three (academic year) analysis of variance was used for statistical comparisons among 660 students enrolled in PGY 412G from the fall semester of 1995 through the spring semester of 1998. Subsequent pairwise comparisons tests found that the College of Education students had a significantly lower mean percentage of correct answers (61%) compared with students in each of the other colleges ( P < 0.001). No significant differences in percentage scores were found among students enrolled in Allied Health (78%), Arts and Science (78%), or the Graduate School (77%). Also, percentages of correct answers averaged across all students were significantly lower during the 1997–1998 academic year than those in either the 1996–1997 year ( P < 0.001) or the 1995–1996 year ( P < 0.05). Students’ scores during these two earlier years did not differ significantly. Upward letter grade adjustments based on class distributions were made each semester, and more As and Bs and fewer Cs and Ds were given as course grades than expected from an absolute assessment scale. This grade inflation benefited low-scoring students from all colleges, particularly those students enrolled in the College of Education. To improve the understanding of human function of these low-scoring students may require special educational programs.

For decades, social theorists have posited—and descriptive accounts have shown—that students isolated by both social class and ethnicity suffer extreme deprivations that limit the effectiveness of equal-opportunity interventions. Even educational programs that yield positive results for moderately disadvantaged students may not prove beneficial for those who possess less of the economic, social, and cultural capital that play a critical role in improving educational outcomes. Yet evaluations of school choice and other educational interventions seldom estimate programmatic effects on severely disadvantaged students who are isolated by both ethnicity and social class. We experimentally estimate differential effects of a 1997 New York City school voucher intervention on college attainment for minority students by household income and mother’s education. Postsecondary outcomes as of 2017 come from the National Student Clearinghouse. The severely deprived did not benefit from the intervention despite substantial positive effects on college enrollments and degree attainment for the moderately disadvantaged. School choice programs and other interventions or public policies may need to pay greater attention to ensuring that families possess the requisite forms of capital—human, economic, social, and cultural—to realize their intended benefits.

ACCUPLACER, a battery of educational tests used for collegiate-level class placement, is used by hundreds of thousands of students entering institutions of higher education each year. In a previous study Cole and Lutkus (1997) reported a significant relationship between Reading Comprehension scores from ACCUPLACER and age, and so recommended that an exploration of the effect of age on the predictive validity of Reading Comprehension scores be conducted. This study examined such a relationship on data from two midwestern community colleges The results indicated that predictive validity was significantly related to one's age cohort. These results held for each college and the over-all sample.

Florentin Smarandache is known as scientist and writer. He writes in three languages: Romanian, French, and English. He graduated the Department of Mathematics and Computer Science at the University of Craiova in 1979 first of his class, earned a Ph. D. in Mathematics from the State University Moldova at Kishinev in 1997, and continued postdoctoral studies at various American Universities such as University of Texas at Austin, University of Phoenix, etc. after emigration. He did post-doctoral researches at Okayama University of Science (Japan) between 12 December 2013 - 12 January 2014; at Guangdong University of Technology (Guangzhou, China), 19 May - 14 August 2012; at ENSIETA (National Superior School of Engineers and Study of Armament), Brest, France, 15 May - 22 July 2010; and for two months, June-July 2009, at Air Force Research Laboratory in Rome, NY, USA (under State University of New York Institute of Technology). In U.S.A. he worked as a software engineer for Honeywell (1990-1995), adjunct professor for Pima Community College (1995-1997), in 1997 Assistant Professor at the University of New Mexico, Gallup Campus, promoted to Associate Professor of Mathematics in 2003, and to Full Professor in 2008. Between 2007-2009 he was the Chair of Math & Sciences Department.

Objective: To initiate the research process of investigating how pharmacy education affects the health status of pharmacy students. Design: Student functioning and well-being were assessed within two pharmacy classes at two points in time. Setting: College of Pharmacy, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ. Participants: Students enrolled in either their first (class of 1997) or third (class of 1995) professional year of The University of Arizona's 4-year Doctor of Pharmacy degree program. Main Outcome Measure: The RAND 36-Item Health Survey 1.0. Results: No significant mean score differences were found between the classes, and the mean scores for the first-year class remained stable during the semester. The third-year class's mean scores for the emotional well-being and emotional problem-related role functioning scales decreased significantly during the semester. Conclusions: Pharmacy school may affect students' functioning and well-being in different and unique ways compared with medical school. Additional research should be conducted to assess changes in pharmacy student health status and to develop mechanisms to help counter any negative impact that may occur during pharmacy school.

This study examined the role of assets in economic mobility within a youth cohort (N = 4,467) between 1985 and 19 97. Increasing percentages of poor and affluent youth resided in families with no change in economic status while increasing percentages of middle-class youth resided in families experiencing downward economic mobility. The rate of economic stasis of youth living in affluent families was about three times that of those in poor families. Length of time of asset ownership influenced economic mobility beyond that of background, sociodemographic, psychological, and other cumulative correlates. In particular, IRAs and tax-deferred annuities were related to positive economic mobility. Robust indicators of positive economic mobility included being a college graduate, number of siblings in family of origin, number of years of full-time employment, number of years living in households where someone received either AFDC/TANF or SSI, and locus of control. Robust indicators of downward economic mobility included age of respondent, number of years married, and being Catholic. Finally, neither sex nor race/ethnicity increased the explanatory power of positive economic mobility beyond that of other correlates regardless of asset ownership. Discussion also includes public and private initiatives to expand IRAs into Individual Development Accounts and to encourage employers to offer (and workers to take advantage of) tax-deferred annuities, particularly for low-income workers.

AbstractRequirements engineering methods have been developed to assist in requirements specification. Teaching these methods to college engineering students should prepare students to develop a more complete, consistent, and testable requirements specification than they would have developed if they had not used these methods. The “Software Metrics Toolset Software Requirements Specification” was developed using several requirements engineering methods and was completed in Fall 1997 EE590 Software Systems Engineering II class. This report will compare the final set of requirements from the Software Metrics Toolset (SMT) Software Requirements Specification to the developed SMT for completeness and cost impact. The software requirements elicitation methods used in the development of the Software Metric Toolset effectively limited the cost of requirement changes in the actual development and customer delivery stage to less than 3% of the budgeted cost. The results underscore the value of using multiple methodologies that look at different aspects of the requirements.

A nascent literature recognizes that student loan debt is racialized and disproportionately affects youth of color, especially black youth. In this study, the authors expand on this research and ask whether black-white disparities in student debt persist, decline, or increase across the early adult life course, examine possible mechanisms for changes in racial disparities in student debt across early adulthood, and ask whether racial disparities in student debt contribute to black-white wealth inequality among a recent cohort of college-going young adults. The authors address these questions using nationally representative data from the National Longitudinal Study of Youth 1997, multilevel growth curve models, and linear decomposition methods. There are three findings. First, black-white disparities in debt increase across the early adult life course, and previous research underestimated racial disparities in debt. Second, growth in this racial disparity is partially explained by differences in the social background, postsecondary experiences, and disparities in attained social and economic status of black and white young adults. As a result, the authors find that, compositionally, racial inequalities in student debt account for a substantial minority of the black-white wealth gap in early adulthood and that this contribution increases across the early adult life course. The authors conclude that debt trajectories are more informative than point-in-time estimates and that student debt may be a new mechanism of wealth inequality that creates fragility in the next generation of the black middle class.

Many language learners struggle with unequal access and lack of opportunities for active participation in meaningful discussions in and outside of the classroom. In this study, 15 international college students engaged in critical media literacy discussion over a myriad of social justice topics through the lens of intercultural understanding and acceptance. Participants analyzed the content and recorded video reflection on an online video discussion platform, Flipgrid as they answer the five critical media literacy questions. These critical questions foster discussions of intercultural interpretation online and in class discussions as students expressed their perceptions of social justice issues. This project drew on the theory of intercultural communicative competence (Byram, 1997) integrating social justice into language curriculum in two ways: by exposing students to important issues, and by helping students claim their voice in the discussion. Results of students’ video reflections and face-to-face discussions show the trajectory and growth of students’ progress in intercultural awareness. The findings offer guidelines for language educators to incorporate issues of social justice by using engaging platforms and media literacy practices.

Background:A number of blood count parameters are associated with inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. There is discordant evidence whether neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR), platelet-to-lymphocyte ratio (PLR) and mean platelet volume (MPV) might reflect inflammatory response and have prognostic value in SLE patients. However, the studies examining the potential role of these markers in LN are missing.Objectives:To examine NLR, PLR and MPV at the time of biopsy in patients with LN and evaluate their association with prognosis.Methods:In this retrospective study we analyzed the demographic, histologic, laboratory and clinical characteristics of patients with biopsy-proven LN diagnosed between 2011 and 2020. All patients met the 1997 revised American College of Rheumatology classification criteria for SLE. Complete remission was defined as proteinuria <0.5 g/day and serum creatinine within 10% from baseline, and partial remission as more than 50% reduction in proteinuria to sub-nephrotic levels and serum creatinine within 10% from baseline.Results:We have included 55 patients (80% women) with biopsy-proven LN (age at biopsy 38±13 years). On renal histology, one patient was class I LN, two patients were class II, 7 were class III, 5 were class III+V, 23 were class IV, two were class IV+V, 11 class VI and 4 had other features. Median baseline NLR was 3.64 (IQR: 1.85, 6.93), PLR was 167 (IQR: 116, 300) and MPV was 10.0 (IQR: 9.2, 10.8). There were no differences in any of the three parameters between different classess of LN (all p>0.05). Eighteen patients achieved complete remission (CR), 16 partial remission and 21 did not achieve remission. None progressed to ESRD and two patients died, both from sepsis. There no differences in NLR, PLR and MPV at the time of biopsy between group which achieved CR/PR vs. no remission (all p>0.05; Figure 1). We constructed a thorough multivariate regression model which showed that neither NLR, PLR or MPV are predictors of renal remission in LN.Conclusion:NLR, PLR and MPV are not useful prognostic markers in predicting renal remission in LN.References:[1]Hartmann LT, et al. Open Rheumatol J. 2018 Aug 31;12:129-138.[2]Chen SY, et al. J Res Med Sci. 2018 May 30;23:48.[3]Zhao CN, et al. Rheumatol Int. 2018 Sep;38(9):1635-1641.Disclosure of Interests:None declared

Background:Optimal prognostic predictors in lupus nephritis (LN) are still not clearly defined. Studies have recently shown that albumin-to-globulin ratio (A/G) is not only a good predictor of outcomes in malignancy, infection and renal disease, but is also a potential marker of increased immunoglobulin synthesis and LN activity and might be useful as a predictor of the development of LN in SLE patients. Studies on the role of A/G in predicting outcomes in LN are, however, lacking.Objectives:To assess a potential prognostic value of A/G at renal biopsy in predicting outcomes in LN.Methods:In this retrospective study we analyzed the demographic, histologic, laboratory and clinical characteristics of patients with biopsy-proven LN diagnosed between 2011 and 2020. All patients met the 1997 revised American College of Rheumatology classification criteria for SLE. Complete remission was defined as proteinuria <0.5 g/day and serum creatinine within 10% from baseline, and partial remission as more than 50% reduction in proteinuria to sub-nephrotic levels and serum creatinine within 10% from baseline.Results:We have included 55 patients (80% women) with biopsy-proven LN (age at biopsy 38±13 years). On renal histology, one patient was class I LN, two patients were class II, 7 were class III, 5 were class III+V, 23 were class IV, two were class IV+V, 11 class VI and 4 had other features. Median eGFR and proteinuria at biopsy were 69 (IQR: 44, 100) mL/min/1.73 m2 and 3.5 (2.3, 5.6) g/day, respectively. Baseline mean A/G was 1.12±0.29 and did not differ between LN classes (p=0.91). At one-year follow-up eGFR increased non-significantly (69 vs. 82 mL/min/1.73 m2, p=0.13) and proteinuria decreased (3.5 vs. 0.6 g/day, p<0.001). Eighteen patients achieved complete remission (CR), 16 partial remission and 21 did not achieve remission. None progressed to ESRD and two patients died, both from sepsis. A/G at the time of biopsy did not differ between group which achieved CR/PR vs. no remission (p>0.05; Figure 1) and was not a significant predictor of remission in a multivariate regression model (OR 5.9, 95% CI 0.6, 63.2).Conclusion:While being a potential marker for transition of SLE to LN, A/G was not showed to be a predictor of renal remission in LN.References:[1]Liu XR, et al. Lupus. 2021 Jan 6:961203320981139.[2]Kwon OC, et al. Semin Arthritis Rheum. 2018 Dec;48(3):462-466ckDisclosure of Interests:None declared

Background Access to Advanced Placement (AP) courses is stratified by class and race. Researchers have identified how schools serving disadvantaged students suffer from various kinds of resource deprivations, concluding that interventions are needed to equalize access to AP courses. On the other hand, the theory of Effectively Maintained Inequality (EMI) argues that schools serving advantaged students may perpetuate inequalities by expanding their AP curriculum so their graduates can be competitive in the college admissions process. Research Questions Between 2000 and 2002, California attempted to expand AP offerings and enrollments. This study answers whether or not this intervention narrowed inequalities in AP along class and racial lines. It also examines if community affluence affects district officials’ views of pressures to offer AP courses, which could explain any effectively maintained inequalities in AP access. Research Design This study uses a panel dataset of all California public high schools from 1997 to 2006. It examines the changing effects of school poverty, upper-middle class presence, and school racial composition on offerings of and enrollments in AP subjects. It supplements the quantitative analysis with interviews from 11 school district officials in California conducted in 2006. Results Hierarchical generalized linear models show that upper-middle class presence structures California high schools’ AP subject offerings and enrollments, much more than school poverty. California's intervention resulted in increased AP subject offerings and enrollments in high schools serving disadvantaged and less advantaged students, but these reductions in deprivation had trivial effects on inequalities, since schools serving advantaged students increased their own AP offerings and enrollments. In addition, high schools serving White and Asian students had larger increases in AP offerings and enrollments than high schools serving Black and Hispanic students. Interview data indicate that officials in affluent districts perceived a greater demand for AP subjects, and were more likely to report their school staff was proactive to initiate new AP courses than officials in districts serving working-class communities. Conclusions The findings document that while policies can increase AP access at schools serving low-income students, the actions of affluent schools and families will pose substantial barriers to achieving parity in AP offerings and enrollments. Moreover, studies gauging resource inequalities among schools may underestimate these inequalities if they use school poverty to measure schools’ socioeconomic composition.

The profession of "dental technician" appeared relatively late. The first dental technicians were trained by dentists and worked for them. Gradually, they separated as master owners of the studios and began to hire and train apprentices and journeymen. This time has long been forgotten. After 1997, a dental technician became a person who acquired the right to practice the profession after three years of college education. At the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century, the profession began with private initiative, passed through state and municipal ownership of dental laboratories, in order to return, for the most part, back to private initiative. Our goal is to study and present demographic characteristics, professional status and qualifications of practitioners in the specialty. To achieve this goal, we studied literature sources, regulations and conducted a sociological survey involving 360 dental technicians. The respondents are from 25 regional colleges of the Bulgarian Association of Dental Technicians, from which we received permission to hold it. We found that the class is relatively aging, which is in line with the demographic problems in our country and in the countries of the European Union. The profession is dominated by men, managers of dental laboratories, who for the most part are registered as Independent Medical and Technical Laboratories. A relatively large number of dental technicians periodically attend postgraduate courses to meet the ever-increasing demands of dentists and patients.

Voices from Iran is authored by Mahnaz Kousha, an Iranian college professorwho lectures on issues relating to women in the Middle East at MacalesterCollege in Minnesota. The 10-chapter work provides a qualitative study, featuring15 Iranian women, that addresses the position of women in Iran.Participants ranged in age from from 38 to 55 and lived in the capital city ofTehran from 1995 to 1997. These women came from low- to high-incomefamilies, had educational backgrounds that range from high school diplomasto college/university degrees, and possessed employment experience in Iran.Even though the work can be considered a valuable piece in that it servesas a medium through which the voices of Iranian women can be heard, it doesnot necessarily reflect the experiences of all women due to the limitation ofthe research itself (region, language, religion). In addition, some of Kousha’sconclusions are far reaching and can be rendered debatable. For instance, theissue of why educated mothers still do not treat their daughters fairly andseem unable to help them question and resist their social status is notaddressed. The author also fails to provide an in-depth analysis regarding theimpact of family class and culture in shaping the subjectivities of their daughters.As well, the social and cultural impact of the Islamic revolution onwomen’s rights in Iran is not discussed. Moreover, a closing summary orassessment is not made at the end of the work.The book’s first three chapters include an introduction, a methodologychapter, and an introduction to the research participants. The analysis of thedata begins from chapters 4 and 5, where the different relationshipsbetween mothers and daughters are discussed. Some of the participants’experiences involve mothers who openly shared their problems and concernswith them such as the isolation and powerlessness that they have withtheir husbands or mothers-in-law. Others complained that their mothers discriminatedagainst them while giving their brothers preferential treatment.Of interest is the fact that the author does not explore the underlying factorsthat may have contributed to this problematic behavior such as parentaleducation, socioeconomic status, local culture, and religious issues.In chapter 6, Kousha analyzes the relationship between fathers anddaughters. The father is seen as the first man in his daughter’s life, providing ...

Purpose This paper aims to describe the development and execution of the video cover letter exercise. This learning innovation challenges students to develop a concise, targeted marketing message using video technologies and tools. Design/methodology/approach In the first full semester of mandatory implementation, a pre-test/post-test design using McCroskey's measure of communication apprehension (CA) examined the effects of the exercise in reducing students' levels of CA. There were 200 students in the course, of which 139 completed both the pre-test and post-test measure survey. The measure captures overall levels of CA and more specifically examines anxiety associated with oral communication in group discussions, dyads, group meetings and public speaking. Findings Paired sample t-tests revealed that the CA was significantly reduced overall and more specifically in settings related to group discussions and public speaking. The tool provides an effective and efficient means for assessing basic oral communication skills. It also advances oral communication skills by significantly reducing levels of CA in undergraduate business students. Originality/value Oral communication skills are consistently ranked toward the top of faculty, student and recruiter lists of requisite skills for successful business graduates (Maes et al., 1997) and marketing majors more specifically (Nicholson et al., 2005). It is not surprising then that oral communication skills are also typically included as one of the most commonly assessed learning outcomes in college of business programs (Martell, 2007). Unfortunately, decreasing resources, growing class sizes and diverse course formats (e.g. online, face-to-face and blended) create ever growing challenges to effective development and assessment of oral communication skills in our marketing and business student populations.

Objective To evaluate the reliability, validity, feasibility and psychometric performance of the Lupus Impact Tracker (LIT) as a patient reported outcome (PRO) measure tool in pediatric systemic lupus erythematosus (pSLE). Methods This is a prospective, observational, pilot study where patients aged between 12 and 25 years, fulfilling the 1997 ACR classification criteria for SLE, were enrolled. Over 3 consecutive, routine, clinical visits, the patients completed the LIT alongside the Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System-Short Forms (PROMIS-SFs), Childhood Health Assessment Questionnaire (CHAQ). Rheumatologists completed the Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Disease Activity Index 2000 (SLEDAI-2K) and the Systemic Lupus International Collaborating Clinics/American College of Rheumatology (SLICC-ACR) Damage Index. Demographic, clinical and laboratory data were also collected. Results Of 46 patients enrolled, 38 patients completed 2 visits and 31 completed all 3 visits. Seventy-eight percent were female, 33% African American, 28% Asian, 15% Caucasian and 17% Hispanic. The mean (SD) age was 17.2 (2.7) years, with a mean (SD) disease duration of 4.6 (3.1) years. The mean (SD) SLEDAI-2K at enrollment was 3.54 (2.96). In the 38 patients who completed two or more visits, intra-class correlation coefficient and Cronbach alpha were calculated to be 0.70 and 0.91 respectively, signifying good reliability of LIT. The LIT showed positive correlation with CHAQ-Disability Index and majority of the PROMIS-SFs parameters. Construct validity was established against clinical disease activity (SLEDAI-2K). Conclusion The preliminary results indicate that the LIT is a reliable and valid instrument to capture PRO in p-SLE. Prospective validation with a larger, multicenter cohort is the next step.

IntroductionThe aims were to study the sociodemographic characteristics of patients presenting to the clinic and to study the clinical and serological pattern of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) in a new rheumatology clinic of a predominantly Yoruba population.Material and methodsThis was a retrospective, cross-sectional study conducted over 7 years (January 2017 – December 2023). Patients who satisfied the 1997 American College of Rheumatology (ACR) and/or the 2012 Systemic Lupus International Collaborating Clinics (SLICC) classification criteria were enrolled using their medical records. Patients with overlap syndromes and other inflammatory or noninflammatory rheumatic diseases were excluded from the study. Their sociodemographic, clinical, laboratory, and treatment data were retrieved from their medical records and analysed using IBM SPSS version 23.0 software.ResultsA total of 65 patients were diagnosed with SLE with a frequency of 15.8%. The mean age ±SD of the patients at presentation was 33.85 years ±11.01 and the female to male ratio was 9.8 : 1. The median (IQR) duration of symptoms at presentation was 7.0 months (3–24). The common clinical presentations included synovitis (86.2%), acute cutaneous rash (53.8%), oral ulcers (52.3%), nonscarring alopecia (50.8%), and serositis (47.7%). Proteinuria was seen in 37.7% of the patients and the predominant renal histopathological feature was Class IV. Antinuclear antibody was 100% positive with 50.94% of the patients having a titre of 1 : 5,120 and above. Anti- double-stranded deoxyribonucleic acid and anti-Smith antibodies each had 50% prevalence. Dyslipidaemia was found in 76.7% of the patients.ConclusionsThe study’s findings are largely consistent with similar studies done in Africa. Further prospective multi-centred studies are needed to further determine the epidemiological characteristics of the disease in Nigeria with a multi-ethnic population.

Introduction: Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a multidimensional disease; however, the association of another systemic autoimmune disease further complicates its clinical presentation. Aim: We decided to investigate whether the association of overlap syndromes is linked with a different clinical picture compared to pure lupus and whether this association changes the sensitivity of the following commonly used criteria: the 2019 European League Against Rheumatism/American College of Rheumatology (EULAR/ACR), the ACR-1997 and the 2012 Systemic Lupus International Collaborating Clinics (SLICC) criteria. Method: We performed a retrospective observational study among 382 patients afflicted with lupus: we measured as much of the full clinical and laboratory picture as possible in an unselected cohort. The diagnosis of SLE and other systemic autoimmune diseases was established by the rheumatologist in routine care and then the authors compared the characteristics of patients with pure lupus and those with overlapping pathologies. The diagnosis rates were compared to those that were determined based on the three classification criteria in order to identify various sensitivities and whether the existence of an overlap affects their rates. The fulfillment of each set of criteria was calculated using an Excel-based automatic calculation. Results: Among the patients, the ACR 1997′s sensitivity was 81.2% (310 patients), and the SLICC 2012 criteria achieved 94.5% sensitivity (361 patients). The 2019 EULAR/ACR classification criteria resulted in a slightly lower sensitivity (90.3%—345 patients) when compared to the original publication (96%) due to the lower sensitivity of our anti-nuclear antibody (ANA) test (measured via enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)). Nearly all ANA-negative (21/22—95%) patients showed a positive lupus-associated antibody test. The proportion of ANA-negative cases showed no significant difference among pure and overlap patients. No significant difference was found between patients with overlap (138 patients—36%) and pure SLE (244 patients—64%) through the use of these criteria, with the exception of the SLICC criteria (ACR: 80.4% vs. 81.6%; SLICC: 97.4% vs. 92.6%, p = 0.035; EULAR/ACR 2019: 91.4% vs. 89.6%). Patients with an overlap syndrome were significantly older (55 vs. 50 years, p = 0.001), more likely to suffer from interstitial lung disease (ILD: 20% vs. 11%, p = 0.0343) and less frequently showed class III/IV lupus nephritis (7% vs. 14%, p = 0.029) when compared with their pure lupus counterparts. Conclusion: All investigated criteria regarding sensitivity were similar to the original publication’s findings. The sensitivity of the EULAR/ACR 2019 classification criterion in cases with overlap syndrome proved excellent, with results very similar to patients afflicted with pure SLE. In the presence of an overlap syndrome, we found significantly fewer patients with lupus nephritis III/IV but no differences in other typical lupus organ manifestation beyond the kidney, whereas we found a higher proportion of ILD in patients with an overlap, indicating that the presence of an overlap syndrome significantly influences the observed clinical picture in real-world conditions.

Background Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a life-threatening multisystem autoimmune disease that is more severe in patients of African ancestry and children, yet pediatric SLE on the African continent has been understudied. This study describes a cohort of pediatric SLE (PULSE) patients in South Africa. Methods Patients with a diagnosis of SLE (1997 American College of Rheumatology criteria) diagnosed prior to age 19 years in Cape Town, South Africa, were enrolled in this cross-sectional study from September 2013 to December 2014. Information on clinical and serological characteristics was extracted from medical records. Results were compared to a well-described North American pediatric SLE cohort. Results Seventy-two South African patients were enrolled in the study; mean age 11.5 years; 82% were girls. The racial distribution was 68% Coloured, 24% Black, 5% White and 3% Asian/Indian. Most patients presented with severe lupus nephritis documented by renal biopsy (61%). Of patients with lupus nephritis, 63% presented with International Society of Nephrology/Renal Pathology Society class III or IV. Patients in the PULSE cohort were more likely to be treated with cyclophosphamide, methotrexate and azathioprine. The PULSE cohort had high disease activity at diagnosis (mean Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Disease Activity Index-2K (SLEDAI-2K) 20.6). The SLEDAI-2K at enrolment in the PULSE cohort (5.0) did not differ from the North American pediatric SLE cohort (4.8). Sixty-three per cent of the PULSE cohort had end organ damage with Systemic Lupus International Collaborating Clinics Damage Index (SLICC-DI) score >0 (mean SLICC-DI 1.9), compared to 23% in a previously reported US cohort. Within the PULSE cohort, nine (13%) developed end-stage renal disease with six (8%) requiring transplant, strikingly higher than North American peers (transplant rate <1%). Conclusions The PULSE cohort had highly active multiorgan disease at diagnosis and significant disease damage at enrolment in the South African registry. South African patients have severe lupus nephritis and poor renal outcomes compared to North American peers. Our study revealed a severe disease phenotype in the PULSE cohort resulting in poor outcomes in this high-risk population.

Background:Lupus nephritis (LN) is one of the most serious organic manifestations of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Ethnicity can contribute to disparities in the prevalence and disease activity of LN.Objectives:To assess the prevalence of LN in Brazilian patients with SLE and to determine factors associated with LN activity across the country.Methods:This cross-sectional study (GSK Study 207353) was carried out through face-to-face interviews and review of medical records (12-month study period). Adult patients with SLE (American College of Rheumatology [ACR] criteria, 1997) were included. Five SLE reference teaching centres were selected: North (NO), Northeast (NE), Midwest (CO), Southeast (SE), and South (SU). Patients with another disease whose morbidity surpassed SLE were excluded. LN was defined as reported in the medical record or history of confirmed renal biopsy; disease activity by pre-defined changes in SLE Disease Activity Index (SLEDAI) or the patient’s kidney disease during the study. Activity was assessed during (T0), 6 months before (T6), and 12 months before (T12) the interview. Systemic Lupus International Collaborating Clinics/ACR Damage Index score mapped damage accrual. Two pairings were performed, aiming to discriminate factors associated with LN and its activity, respectively. Matching technique was used to select similar individuals based on propensity scores, obtained from a logistic regression model. A bootstrapping method explored characteristic variables associated with the risk of progressing to LN.Results:Overall, 300 Brazilian patients with SLE were included in the study. Two groups were paired: LN group (N=150) and non-LN group (N = 141). The prevalence of LN in the paired sample (N=291) was 51.5%, with a disparity between centres (p<0.001; Figure 1A). Most patients were female (LN: 92.7%; non-LN: 94.3%) and the mean (standard deviation [SD]) age for the LN and non-LN groups was 39.46 (11.86) and 43.96 (12.18), respectively. History of serositis was associated with the presence of LN (42 [28.0%] vs 21 [14.9%] non-LN; p=0.010). Type IV histological class predominated in both groups, with no disparity between centres. Social disparities were noted between groups. Non-active workers prevailed among the LN group (115 [76.7%] vs 98 [69.5%] for non-LN, p=0.024).When pairing for disease activity at T12, 73 (50.3%) patients with LN (N=145) had active disease. There was regional disparity in terms of disease activity (Figure 1B), with a predominance of active LN in the NO (28 [68.3%]) and SU (16 [55.2%], p=0.026). Type IV histological class was the component most associated with active LN (active: 32 [43.8%]; non-active: 11 [15.3%], p<0.001). Variation in SLEDAI during the study period discriminated between active and non-active LN. The mean (SD) SLEDAI score at T12 was substantially higher in those with active LN compared with non-active LN (7.18 [4.83] vs 2.47 [4.63], p<0.001). As for the pattern of care, corticosteroids users prevailed in those with active LN (62 [84.9%] vs 45 [62.5%] for non-active LN, p=0.004). There was no disparity in the use of immunosuppressants, with the exception of cyclophosphamide use, noted among 16 (21.9%) patients with active LN and 6 (8.3%) patients with non-active LN (p=0.041). Psychotropic or anticonvulsant use was higher in patients with non-active LN (32 [44.4%] vs 17 [23.3%] patients with active LN, p=0.012). Consultation with a neurologist was verified in 15 (20.8%) patients with non-active LN and 6 (8.2%) with active LN (p=0.055). Hospitalisation occurred in 17 patients with non-active (23.6%) and active (23.3%) LN.Conclusion:Disparities in the prevalence of LN and its activity were evident between the regions across Brazil, highlighting differences in clinical factors, regional factors, and patterns of care.Funding:GSKFigure 1.Prevalence of A) LN among regional centres, comparing them to disease activity profile and prescriptive practice, and B) Active and non-active LN according to prescriptive practiceCQ, chloroquine; HCQ, hydroxychloroquine*At T12Acknowledgements:Medical writing assistance was provided by Helen Taylor, Fishawack Indicia Ltd., UK, part of Fishawack Health, and was funded by GSK.Disclosure of Interests:Mirhelen Abreu Grant/research support from: GSK, Amgen, Biogen, Libbs, Odirlei Monticielo Speakers bureau: GSK, AbbVie, UCB, Roche, Novartis, Consultant of: GSK, AbbVie, Janssen, Vander Fernandes Speakers bureau: Janssen, Novartis, Roche, AbbVie, Pfizer, Grant/research support from: Novartis, GSK, Pfizer, Alexandre Cristovão Maiorano: None declared, Fernando dos Santos Beserra: None declared, Flavia Lamarao Employee of: GSK, Nathalie David Shareholder of: GSK, Employee of: GSK, Bruna de Veras Employee of: GSK, Blanca Bica: None declared, Domingos Sávio Nunes de Lima Grant/research support from: GSK, Marta Maria das Chagas Medeiros: None declared

The major aim of the present study is to find connections between global-mindedness and some important factors such as gender and level of proficiency. To this end, 182 language learners, 92 females and 90 males, participated in the study. These students were selected and categorized based on one-stage cluster sampling from 16 branches of different language centers, namely Safiran, Shoukoh, and Kish. The main phase of the study was conducted through the use of Google Docs platform that provides the researchers with the well-organized data. Language learners were asked to answer all the demographic information by considering their anonymity during the process of data collection. The result of the study, through t-test, showed that there was a significant difference between male and female language learners regarding their level of global-mindedness. The result also showed that the level of proficiency of the female language learners does not influence their level of global-mindedness. References Byram, M., Zarate, G., & Neuner, G. (1997). Sociocultural competence in languagelearning and teaching: Studies towards a common European framework of reference forlanguage learning and teaching. Strasbourg, France: Council of Europe. Deardorff, D. K. (2011). Assessing intercultural competence. New Directions forInstitutional Research, 149, 65–79. DeMello, M. A. (2011). The impact of study tours in developing global-mindedness amongPK-12 educators in Southeastern Massachusetts (Doctoral dissertation, NortheasternUniversity, Boston) Duckworth, R. L., Levy, L. W., & Levy, J. (2005). Present and future teachers of theworld’s children How internationally-minded are they?. Journal of Research inInternational Education, 4(3), 279–311. Earley, P. C. and Ang, S. (2003). Cultural Intelligence: An Analysis of IndividualInteractions Across Cultures. Palo Alto (CA): Stanford University Press. Fantini, A. E. (2009), Assessing Intercultural Competence: Issues and Tools. In Deardorff,D. K. (ed.), The SAGE Handbook of Intercultural Competence. Thousand Oaks (CA):Sage, 456–476. FitzGerald, H. (2003). How Different Are We? Spoken Discourse in InterculturalCommunication. Clevedon – Buffalo – Toronto – Sydney: Multilingual Matters Ltd. Gaudelli, W. (2003). World class: Teaching and learning in global times. Mahwah, NJ:Erlbaum. Giddens, A. (1991) Modernity and Self-Identity. Cambridge: Polity. Gillian, K. J. (1995). A measure of global-mindedness at the University of NorthernColorado: An assessment of students, faculty, and administrators (Doctoral dissertation,University of Northern Colorado, 1995). Dissertation Abstracts International, 5,08. Hett, E. J. (1993). The development of an instrument to measure global-mindedness(Doctoral dissertation, University of San Diego). Hill, I. (2007). International education as developed by the International BaccalaureateOrganization. The SAGE handbook of research in international education, 25–37. Johnson, J. P., Lenartowicz, T., & Apud, S. (2006). Cross-cultural competence ininternational business: Toward a definition and a model. Journal of International BusinessStudies, 37(4), 525–543. Kehl, K., & Morris, J. (2007). Differences in global mindedness between short-term andsemester-long study abroad participants at selected private universities. Frontiers: TheInterdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad, 15(1), 67–79. Lakoff, R. (1973). Language and woman's place. Language in society, 2(01), 45–79. Muller, G. C. (2012). Exploring characteristics of international schools that promoteinternational-mindedness (Doctoral dissertation, Teachers College, Columbia University). Olsen, M.E., Lodwick, D.G., & Dunlap, R.E. (1992). Viewing the World Ecologically.Boulder: Westview. Sampson, D. L., & Smith, H. P. (1957). A scale to measure world-minded attitudes. TheJournal of Social Psychology, 45(1), 99–106. Sercu, L. e.a. (2005). Foreign Language Teachers and Intercultural Competence. AnInternational investigation. Clevedon–Buffalo–Toronto: Multilingual Matters Ltd. Smallman, S. C., & Brown, K. (2011). Introduction to international & global studies.Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. Wardhaugh, R. (1992). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. USA: Blackwell PublishersLtd. Zhai, L., & Scheer, S. (2004). Global perspectives and attitudes toward cultural diversityamong summer agriculture students at the Ohio State University. Journal of AgriculturalEducation, 45(2), 39–51.

With the shift of the instruction from the traditional Face-to-face instruction to online, there is a need to develop a valid and reliable instrument that is responsive to the current demands of instruction. Hence, the objective of the study was to develop and evaluate the psychometric properties of the Faculty Evaluation for Online Teaching (FEOT) among University Students. A descriptive methodological study was used and a convenience sample of 2985 students were employed. The 20-item FEOT confirmed the four-factor loadings following the domains in the Denison Framework for Teaching. The factor loadings of the items were between 0.619 to 0.791 while the CFA model revealed a x2/df = 2.35, root mean square error of approximation= 0.071, comparative fit index= 0.962, goodness of fit index=0.957, Tucker-Lewis index= 0.956, incremental fit index= 0.962, and standard root mean square residual= 0.023. The overall Cronbach's alpha of the instrument was 0.923 while the sub-domains have Cronbach’s alpha of 0.906 for Planning and Preparation, 0.942 for Classroom Environment, 0.929 for Instruction and 0.921 for Professional Responsibilities indicating high reliability and the item-total correlations ranges from 0.764 to 0.868. At the item level, 60.60% of the ratings had a CVI of greater than 0.78. The FEOT was shown to be valid and reliable in assessing the competencies of faculty members in an online environment.References Akram, M. & Zepeda, S. (2015). Development and Validation of a Teacher Self- assessment Instrument. Journal of Research and Reflections in Education, 9(2), 134-148.Berk, R. A. (2013). Face-to-face versus online course evaluations: A “consumer's guide” to seven strategies. Journal of Online Teaching and Learning, 9(1), 140-148.Burns, N. & Grove, S.K. (2009). The practice of nursing research appraisal, synthesis, and generation of evidence (6th ed.). SaundersCicchetti, D. V., & Sparrow, S. A. (1981). Developing criteria for establishing interrater reliability of specific items: Applications to assessment of adaptive behavior. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 86(2), 127–137.Costello, A. B., & Osborne, J. W. (2003). Exploring best practices in Factor Analysis: Four mistakes applied researchers make. Paper presented at the Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association.Creasman, P. A. (2012). Considerations in online course design. The IDEA Center. http://www.theideacenter.org/ sites/default/files/idea_paper_52.pdfDanielson, C. (2007). Enhancing Professional Practice: A Framework for Teaching. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD).Eskey, M. T., & Schulte, M. (2012). Comparing attitudes of online instructors and online college students: Quantitative results for training, evaluation and administration. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, 15(5).Ferketich, S. (1991). Focus on psychometrics. Aspects of item analysis. Research in Nursing & Health, 14(2), 165–168.Fleiss, J. (1981). Statistical methods for rates and proportions. John Wiley& SonsGordon, G. & Partington, P. (1993). Quality in Higher Education: Overview and Update. USDU Briefing Paper Three. Sheffield: Universities Staff Development UnitGözüm, S., Tuzcu, A., & Kirca, N. (2016). Validity and Reliability of the Turkish Version of the Nurse Cultural Competence Scale. Journalof Transcultural Nursing, 27(5), 487-495Grant, J. S., & Davis, L. L. (1997). Selection and use of content experts for instrument development. Research in Nursing & Health, 20(3),269–274. https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1098-240x(199706)20:3<269::aid-nur9>3.0.co;2-gHathorn, L., & Hathorn, J. (2010). Evaluation of online course websites: Is teaching online a tug-of-war? Journal of Educational Computing Research, 42(2), 197-217 https://doi.org/10.2190/EC.42.2.dKline, R. B. (2016). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (4th ed.). The Guilford Press.Lee, C. J. (2007). Academic help seeking: Theory and strategies for nursing faculty. Journal of Nursing Education, 46(10), 468-475. https://doi.org/10.3928/01484834-20071001-07Li, H.C. & Lopez, V. (2007). Development and validation of a short form of the Chinese Version of the State Anxiety Scale for Children. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 44(4): 566-73Madernach, B. J., Donnelli, E., Dailey, A., Schulte, M. (2005). A Faculty Evaluation Model for Online Instructors: Mentoring and Evaluation in the Online Classroom. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, 8(3). https://www.learntechlib.org/p/193203/Marzano, R. J., Frontier, T., & Livingston, D. (2011). Effective supervision: Supporting the art and science of teaching. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD).Ngoma, S. (2011). Improving teacher effectiveness: an examination of a pay for performance plan for boosting student academic achievement in Charlotte-Mecklenburg Schools. http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED518815.pdf.Oducado, R. M. & Soriano, G. (2021). Shifting the Education Paradigm amid the COVID-19 Pandemic: Nursing Students’ Attitude to ELearning. Africa Journal of Nursing and Midwifery, 23(1), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.25159/2520-5293/8090Polit, D & Beck, C. (2006). The Content Validity Index: Are You Sure You Know What’s Being Reported? Critique and Recommendations. Research in Nursing & Health. 29, 489-497. https://doi.org/10.1002/nur.20147Polit, D. F., Beck, C. T., & Owen, S. V. (2007). Is the CVI an acceptable indicator of content validity? Appraisal and recommendations. Research in Nursing & Health, 30, 459-467. https://doi.org/10.1002/nur.20199Rothman, T., Romeo, L., Brennan, M., & Mitchell, D. (2011). Criteria for assessing student satisfaction with online courses. International Journal for e-Learning Security, 1(1-2), 27-32.Schulte, M. (2009). Efficient evaluation of online course facilitation: The “quick check” policy measure. The Journal of Continuing Higher Education, 57, 110-116Soriano, G. & Aquino, M, G. (2017). Characteristics of a Good Clinical Teacher as Perceived by Nursing Students and Faculty Members in a Philippine University College of Nursing. International Journal of Nursing Science, 7(4), 96-101Soriano, G. P., & Calong Calong, K. (2019). Construct validity and reliability of caring nurse patient interaction scale-nurse among Filipino nurses. International Journal of Caring Sciences, 12(2), 1017-1022.Stronge, J. H. (2010). Teacher effectiveness = student achievement: What the research says. Eye On EducationTabachnick, B.G. & Fidell, L S. (2007). Using Multivariate Statistics (5th ed.) Pearson Education. Inc.Tobin, T. J. (2004). Best practices for administrative evaluation of online faculty. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, 7(2).Walsh, D. & Maffei, M. (1994). Never in a class by themselves: an examination of behaviors affecting the student-professor relationship. Journal on Excellence in College Teaching, 5, 23-49.Waltz, C. Strickland, O. & Lenz, E. (2005). Measurement in nursing and health research (3rd ed.). Springer Publishing Co.

CREATING CONSPIRACY BELIEFS: How Our Thoughts Are Shaped by Dolores Albarracín et al. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2022. 308 pages. Paperback; $39.99. ISBN: 9781108965026. *Conspiracy thinking is a prominent topic of discussion in American life today--and Christians, with their concern for truth, should not only be informed about, but contributing to, this discussion. This includes awareness of how scholars in the neuro-psychological and social sciences are contributing to our understanding of the nature of conspiracy thinking. *This book investigates the causes of conspiracy thinking in the United States. Its authors draw their findings from existing social scientific literature on conspiracism, general social psychology research, and six empirical statistical studies conducted during the last two years of the Trump presidency (2019-2021): three cross-sectional online surveys, a longitudinal phone panel survey on "deep state" conspiracy claims, a "manipulation" of fear experiment on the alleged relationship between the COVID-19 virus and 5G technology, and a social media study of Twitter hashtags and "fear words." *This book shares many similarities with previous academic works on conspiracy thinking--for example, Hofstadter (1965), Pipes (1997), Robins and Post (1997), Sunstein and Vermeule (2008), Barkun (2013), and Uscinski and Parent (2014)--but distinguishes itself by relying extensively on recent polling data and statistics instead of interviews, case studies, newspaper op-eds, or conspiracist media. Indeed, the authors consciously dispute psychological works that scrutinize the personality traits and life experiences of conspiracy believers, and political science works that link conspiracy fears to power asymmetries. Such approaches, they contend, insufficiently explain the process through which conspiracy beliefs are spread. They argue, instead, that psychological and political factors are themselves shaped by a mixture of personal, media, and social media contacts. *Their central aim is thus to examine how patterns of media consumption shape conspiracy beliefs, habits that are themselves affected by one's pre-existing feelings of anxiety, which is herein defined as a nonspecific "perception of threat [that] depends on relatively stable psychological motivations of belief defense [the desire to maintain a coherent set of beliefs], belief accuracy [the desire to maintain a realistic view of the world], and social integration [the desire for trust, status, and acceptance within a group], as well as sociopolitical factors and situational factors like communications and media exposure" (p. 163). *When these needs are not met, anxiety rises. But whereas desire for belief accuracy produces, on its own, an increase in critical discernment--and hence a decrease in false conspiracy beliefs--the combination of pre-existing anxiety (e.g., feelings of ostracism) with shared conspiracy narratives increases one's predisposition to believe conspiracy claims. When one's need for closure and community trumps their need for belief accuracy, new information will be interpreted in ways that justify their emotional state and existing beliefs. The emotional turmoil and social discomfort of anxious individuals make them more prone to accept conspiracist interpretations for troubling situations, drawing them into an alternative "media ecosystem." *Assent to conspiracy claims occurs when anxiety is assuaged by theories that offer plausible and unfalsifiable "proofs" of "hidden hand" driving events. Plausibility is achieved when a theory offers the believer historic similarity (similar plots occurred in the past), psychological similarity (the enemy's alleged motive is conceivable), and normative plausibility (other members of one's community share the same belief). The unfalsifiable nature of conspiracy claims lies in their assertion that proofs of a nefarious plot have been hidden or destroyed by the conspirators; such claims dovetail with the believer's existing distrust of authoritative sources of information. The repetition of conspiracist messages by like-minded others (friends, social networks, etc.), and by popular media (e.g., Fox News) reinforces these beliefs. The believer's wounded ego can further elicit schizotypy, paranoia, and narcissism, which serve as means of self-defence against debunkers and skeptics. *The influence of various media is proportional to time spent with, and trust placed in, these sources of information, along with the consumer's prior levels of neuroticism, suspiciousness, and impulsivity. Online media have an additional influence via their use of bots, individually tailored algorithms, and various forms of "information laundering" in reply threads and chatrooms. Heavy media consumption aligns the consumer's view of the world with the one shown in their preferred media. *The prime contribution of this book is its postulation that anxiety precedes conspiracy thinking (rather than the inverse), a psychological explanation for conspiracy belief that does not lead its authors to conclude, as others have, that conspiracism is inherently a form of neurosis. However, its heavy use of statistics, jargon, and unduly complicated flowcharts renders the text onerous, especially for those without statistical training. Given that this is meant to be the book's most 'important new input into the literature, it is also its greatest weakness. *Despite the great efforts made by its authors to produce a detailed empirical study of the effects of media on conspiracy beliefs, the book's conclusions are somewhat underwhelming as they echo the findings of many previous studies and offer few new insights into the topic. For instance, their claim that social interaction is the "proverbial elephant in the room" (pp. xiii, 205) is hardly convincing. The media consumption habits of conspiracy believers are a recurring theme throughout the literature, and none make the claim that conspiracy beliefs develop in an information vacuum. The book's conclusion that anxiety serves as an "intervening mechanism" (p. 87) between conspiracy claims and a person's needs for closure and social integration in not particularly revelatory either. That humans are social animals is an argument as old as Aristotle, and that conspiracy myths help insecure individuals improve their sense of social cohesion is at least as old as Karl Popper's "conspiracy theory of society."1 *The book's statistical data also exhibits several flaws, leading its authors to wrongly conclude, as Hofstadter did in 1965, that the phenomenon of conspiracy thinking is essentially a product of conservative angst2--a claim that has been powerfully disproven by many of Hofstadter's critics. This may be due to the timeframe of the authors' research studies, which were conducted mostly during and after President Trump's first impeachment trial (in 2019-2020), which elicited a massive conservative media backlash. It could also be due to their failure to examine long-term patterns of conspiracy chatter, which would have shown (see Uscinski and Parent, 2014) that conspiracy ideation ebbs and flows along political lines over longer periods of time. Their data also contains some unrepresentative samples, namely, the overrepresentation of low-wage earners, the unemployed, and the highly educated, and the underrepresentation of working-class high school graduates and Hispanics (pp. 243-44). *One could surmise that such flaws are due to an extraordinary historical context (the Trump presidency and COVID-19 restrictions), but they are also likely attributable to the implicit political biases of current social psychological research, which, as Duarte et al. demonstrated,3 is strongly skewed to the political left. This is made evident in the authors' clearly stated opinion that conservative media is the primary cause of conspiracy beliefs and related violence (pp. 224, 169-70) from which its audience--akin to cultists and terrorists--should be deprogrammed with "corrective alternatives" and ridicule (p. 215). This seems to contradict their 'primary claim that anxiety is the underlying cause (and not the product) of conspiracy beliefs, which should presumably be allayed with kinder methods than these. By identifying conspiracy theories as both a product of right-wing media and, simultaneously, as a "type of misinformation" (p. 11), the authors leave themselves open to the charge of circular reasoning. Indeed, their political bias is shown in their frequent use of contested progressive concepts and phrases such as "racialized," "Latinx," "pro-social behavior to reduce [one's] carbon footprint," and by 'connecting peaceable conservative media such as Focus on the Family to the use of gun violence by Edgar Maddison Welch in a Washington pizzeria (p. 219). *The small number of conspiracy theories on which the authors based their surveys is another example of skewed sampling. Most of these represent themes that cause far more anxiety to conservatives than liberals (for example, the "deep state," COVID-19 restrictions, illegal immigration, President Obama's birth certificate), while little attention is given to conspiracy theories that traditionally appeal to the political left (for 'example, JFK, 9/11, GMOs, "BigPharma," CIA malfeasance, Hurricane Katrina) or to progressives' fears about policing, systemic racism, abortion rights, or gender identity, making it all the more likely that their research subjects who displayed conspiracist thinking stood on the right side of the political fence. *Finally, the book spends too much time discussing tangentially pertinent psychological research (for example, the influence of music on pain and imitative suicide) and too little detailing the content and origins of the few conspiracy theories their research is based on (with the exception of the 2016 "Pizzagate" panic). This makes the book difficult for the layperson to follow, when it is compared to academic works such as those of Barkun4 or Uscinski and Parent,5 which are accessible to a nonspecialized audience. Few details are given, for instance, of the Tuskegee syphilis experiments, which are mentioned frequently but never in detail as an example of a genuine government conspiracy (rather than a significant but nonsinister breach of medical ethics). In the end, the book complements the rest of the literature but falls short of providing significant new insights, and is unlikely to elicit interest among laypersons, especially those who hold conspiracy beliefs. * Notes *1Karl R. Popper, Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge (New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1963). *2Richard Hofstadter, The Paranoid Style in American Politics, And Other Essays (New York: Knopf, 1965). *3José L. Duarte et al., "Political Diversity Will Improve Social Psychological Science," Behavioral and Brain Sciences 38 (2015): e130, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X14000430. *4Michael Barkun, A Culture of Conspiracy: Apocalyptic Visions in Contemporary America (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2013). *5Joseph E. Uscinski and Joseph M. Parent, American Conspiracy Theories (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2014). *Reviewed by Michel Jacques Gagné, Champlain College, St. Lambert, QC J4P 3P2. Michel is a historian and author of Thinking Critically about the Kennedy Assassination: Debunking the Myths and Conspiracy Theories (Routledge, 2022).

This article is born from the results of a larger research that aimed to identify the relationship that the teacher establishes between his personal dimensions (identity) and the professional dimensions (teacher identity) in his formation and his practice, through reflection on his daily action. At this moment of the research the objective was to identify and describe the reflexive processes observed on the practical action of the teacher, as well as the paths covered in the formation and constitution of the professional identity. For this, the methodology of writing class diaries was used, mainly based on Zabalza's theoretical framework. The journals were developed by five teachers during three months in a semester, with subsequent reflection of the reports from a script presented to them by the researchers. The data, analyzed by the technique of Content Analysis, according to Bardin, revealed five categories that made explicit on the knowledge of teaching practice, reflexive processes, teacher training and the constitution of their professional identity. The results showed that the methodology used (class diaries) was efficient in order to allow a space for reflection, as a way to build an effective practice that is consistent with the personal issues of the professional. The reflections made by the teachers indicate that they live the complexities of the profession as a great burden to bear having unfinished ideas on coping strategies.ResumoEste artigo nasce dos resultados de uma pesquisa maior que objetivou identificar a relação que o professor estabelece entre suas dimensões pessoais (identidade) e as dimensões profissionais (identidade docente) na sua formação e na sua prática, através da reflexão sobre sua ação diária. Neste momento da pesquisa, o objetivo era identificar e descrever os processos reflexivos observados sobre a ação prática do professor, bem como os caminhos percorridos na formação e constituição da identidade profissional. Para tal foi utilizada a metodologia de redação de diários de aula, embasados, primordialmente, no referencial teórico da Zabalza. Os diários foram desenvolvidos por cinco docentes durante três meses em um semestre letivo, com posterior reflexão dos relatos a partir de um roteiro apresentado a eles pelos pesquisadores. Os dados, analisados pela técnica de Análise de Conteúdo, segundo Bardin, revelaram cinco categorias que explicitaram sobre os saberes da prática docente, os processos reflexivos, a formação do professor e a constituição de sua identidade profissional. Os resultados mostraram que a metodologia utilizada (diários de aula) foi eficiente no sentido de permitir um espaço destinado à reflexão, como forma de construir uma prática eficaz e condizente com as questões pessoais do profissional. As reflexões feitas pelos professores indicam que vivem as complexidades da profissão como uma grande carga a se carregar tendo ideias inacabadas sobre estratégias de enfrentamento das mesmas.ResumenEste artículo nace de los resultados de una investigación mayor que objetivó identificar la relación que el profesor establece entre sus dimensiones personales (identidad) y las dimensiones profesionales (identidad docente) en su formación y en su práctica, a través de la reflexión sobre su acción diaria. En este momento de la investigación el objetivo era identificar y describir los procesos reflexivos observados sobre la acción práctica del profesor, así como los caminos recorridos en la formación y constitución de la identidad profesional. Para ello se utilizó la metodología de redacción de diarios de clase, fundamentados, primordialmente, en el referencial teórico de Zabalza. Los diarios fueron desarrollados por cinco docentes durante tres meses en un semestre lectivo, con posterior reflexión de los relatos a partir de un guión presentado a ellos por los investigadores. Los datos, analizados por la técnica de Análisis de Contenido, según Bardin, revelaron cinco categorías que explicitaron sobre los saberes de la práctica docente, los procesos reflexivos, la formación del profesor y la constitución de su identidad profesional. Los resultados mostraron que la metodología utilizada (diarios de clase) fue eficiente en el sentido de permitir un espacio destinado a la reflexión, como forma de construir una práctica eficaz y acorde con las cuestiones personales del profesional. Las reflexiones hechas por los profesores indican que viven las complejidades de la profesión como una gran carga a llevarse teniendo ideas inconclusas sobre estrategias de enfrentamiento de las mismas.Palavras-chave: Formação de professores, Reflexão, Identidade profissional.Keywords: Teacher training, Reflection, Professional identity.Palabras clave: Formación de profesores, La reflexión, Identidad profesional.ReferencesAGUIAR, M. C. C. Implicações da formação continuada para a construção da identidade profissional. Psicologia da Educação, 23, 155-173, 2006.ARIBONI, S; PERITO, R. Guia Prático para um projeto de pesquisa exploratória experimental descritiva. São Paulo: Unimarco, 2004.BARDIN, L. Análise de conteúdo. Tradução Luís Antero Reto e Augusto Pinheiro. Lisboa: Edições 70, 1977.BOGDAN, R.; BIKLEN, S. K. Investigação qualitativa em educação: uma introdução à teoria e aos métodos. Porto, Portugal: Porto Editora, 1994.BORBA, O. 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Vivências e percepções do estágio pedagógico: contributos para a compreensão da vertente fenomenológica do “Tornar-se professor”. Análise Psicológica, Lisboa, v. 24, n. 1, p. 87-98, jan., 2006.COZER, R. C. A visão da escola sobre a interação com as famílias dos alunos: o cenário das primeiras séries do ensino fundamental. 2003. Dissertação (Mestrado em Educação). Universidade Federal de São Carlos, São Carlos. 2003.DEWEY, J. Cómo pensamos. Barcelona: Paidós, 1989.ENS, R. T.; EYNG, A. M.; GISI, M. L.; RIBAS, M. S. Evasão ou permanência na profissão: políticas educacionais e representações sociais de professores. Rev. Diálogo Educ., Curitiba, v. 14, n. 42, p. 501-523, maio/ago., 2014.ERAUT, M. Schön schock: A case for reframing reflection-in-action? Teachers and teaching, 1(1), 9-22. 1995.FONTANA, R. A. C. Como nos tornamos professoras? Belo Horizonte: Autêntica. 2000.GARCIA, R. L. A formação da professora alfabetizadora: reflexões sobre a prática. São Paulo: Cortez, 1996.JOAQUIM, N. F.; BOAS, A. A. V.; CARRIERI, A. P. Entre o discurso praticado e a realidade percebida no processo de formação docente. Avaliação, 17 (2), 503-528, 2012.JUNGES, K. S.; BEHRENS, M. A.; TORRES, P. L. Desenvolvimento profissional e a prática reflexiva: uma experiência de formação de docentes universitários no nível stricto sensu no paradigma da complexidade. Revista e-Curriculum, 8 (1), 1-20, 2012.LOPES, R. B.; GOMES, C. A. Paz na sala de aula é uma condição para o sucesso escolar: que revela a literatura? Ensaio: avaliação políticas públicas Educação, 20(75), 261-282, 2012.NORONHA, M. M. B.; ASSUNÇÃO, A. A.; OLIVEIRA, D. A. O sofrimento no trabalho docente: o caso das professoras da rede pública de Montes Claros, Minas Gerais. Trabalho, Educação e Saúde, 6 (1), 65-86, 2008.MARCONI, M. A.; LAKATOS, E. M. Técnicas de pesquisa: planejamento e execução de pesquisas, amostragens e técnicas de pesquisa, elaboração, análise e interpretação de dados. 3.ed. São Paulo: Atlas, 1996.NÓVOA, A. 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El diário del profesor: Um recurso para la investigación em el aula. Sevilha: Diáda, 1997.REALI, A. M. M. R.; TANCREDI, R. M. S. P. Interação escola-famílias: concepções de –professores e práticas pedagógicas. In: REALI , A. M. M. R.; MIZUKAMI, M. G. N. (Orgs.), Formação de professores: práticas pedagógicas e escola. São Carlos: EdUFSCar. 2002.REALI, A. M. M. R.; TANCREDI, R. M. S. P. Bringing together school and family lessons from a Brazilian Experience. The School Community Journal. Lincoln (USA), The Academic Development Institute. 14, (2) 105-129. 2004.REALI, A. M. M. R.; TANCREDI, R. M. S. P. A importância do que se aprende na escola: A parceria escola-famílias em perspectiva. Paidéia, 15(31), 239-247, 2005.RODGERS, C. Defining Reflection: Another Look at John Dewey and Reflective Thinking. Teachers College Record, Volume 104, Number 4, June, pp. 842–866, 2002.SANTOS, G. B. Os professores e seus mecanismos de fuga e enfrentamento. Trabalho, Educação e Saúde, 7(2), 285-304, 2009.SARAIVA, L. A.; WAGNER, A. A Relação Família-Escola sob a ótica de Professores e Pais de crianças que frequentam o Ensino Fundamental. Ensaio: avaliação políticas públicas Educação, 21(81), 739-772, 2013.SCHÖN, D.A. Educando o profissional reflexivo: um novo design para o ensino e a aprendizagem. Porto Alegre: Artes. Médicas, 2000.SCHÖN, D. A. Formar professores como profissionais reflexivos. In: NÓVOA, A. (org.). Os professores e a sua formação. Lisboa, Portugal: Publicações dom Quixote, p. 77-91. 1992.SCHÖN, D. A. The reflective practitioner: how professionals think in action. New York: Basic Books, 1983.SILVEIRA, L. M. O. B. A Relação Família-Escola: uma parceria possível? In: WAGNER, A. et al. Desafios Psicossociais da Família Contemporânea: pesquisas e reflexões. Porto Alegre: Artmed, p. 181-190, 2011.SIVIERI-PEREIRA, H. de O. 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We present a connection between two seemingly disparate fields: VC-theory and graph theory. This connection yields natural correspondences between fundamental concepts in VC-theory, such as shattering and VC-dimension, and well-studied concepts of graph theory related to connectivity, combinatorial optimization, forbidden subgraphs, and others.In one direction, we use this connection to derive results in graph theory. Our main tool is a generalization of the Sauer-Shelah Lemma (Pajor, 1985; Bollobás and Radcliffe, 1995; Dress, 1997; Holzman and Aharoni). Using this tool we obtain a series of inequalities and equalities related to properties of orientations of a graph. Some of these results appear to be new, for others we give new and simple proofs.In the other direction, we present new illustrative examples of shattering-extremal systems - a class of set-systems in VC-theory whose understanding is considered by some authors to be incomplete Bollobás and Radcliffe, 1995; Greco, 1998; Rónyai and Mészáros, 2011). These examples are derived from properties of orientations related to distances and flows in networks.

This essay is a section of a larger study funded in part by a Culinary Research Award from Radcliffe College 'to document Sayer's social concerns by analyzing each of his major cookbooks and specifying the dietary characteristics of each'. The three books were, as explained in the essay, directed at different audiences, and Joyce Toomre believes that a systematic comparison of them as regards range of recipes, variety of ingredients, methods of preparation and language of instruction will throw light, from an unusual angle, on the class structure of mid-Victorian society. The present essay, after introductory material, carries out such a comparison for soups.

Dans le lexique des anthropologues, le mot identité est apparu bien plus tard que le mot culture. Mais depuis quelques décennies, alors que divers anthropologues se sont presque vantés de soumettre à une forte critique et même de rejeter leur ancien concept de culture, l'identité a acquis un usage de plus en plus étendu et prépondérant, parallèlement à ce qui s'est passé dans d'autres sciences humaines et sociales, ainsi que dans le langage de la politique et des médias. Nombreux sont ceux dans les sciences sociales qui s'accordent pour dire que le concept d'identité a commencé à s'affirmer à partir des années soixante du siècle dernier. Il est habituel de placer le point de départ dans les travaux du psychologue Erik Erikson (1950 ; 1968), qui considérait l'adolescence comme la période de la vie la plus caractérisée par des problèmes d'identité personnelle. Cette reconstruction est devenue un lieu commun des sciences humaines et sociales du XXe siècle, et pour cette raison, elle nécessite quelques ajustements. Par exemple, le sociologue américain Robert E. Park (1939) utilisait déjà, à la fin des années 1930, le terme identité, en rapport avec ceux d'unité, d'intégrité, de continuité, pour décrire la manière dont les communautés et les familles se maintiennent dans le temps et l'espace. En ce qui concerne l'anthropologie, un examen rapide permet de constater que l'identité a déjà été utilisée dans les années 1920 par Bronislaw Malinowski d'une manière qui n'était pas du tout sporadique. Dans ses textes sur les Trobriandais – comme par exemple La vie sexuelle des Sauvages du Nord-Ouest de la Mélanésie (1930) – il parle de l'identité du dala, ou matrilignage, en référence à la « substance » biologique dont il est fait, une substance qui se transmet de génération en génération dans la lignée maternelle. Ce n’est peut-être pas par hasard que le terme identité fut ensuite appliqué par Raymond Firth, dans We, the Tikopia (1936), pour affirmer la continuité dans le temps du clan, et que Siegfried Nadel dans The Foundations of Social Anthropology (1949) parle explicitement de l’identité des groupes sociaux grâce auxquels une société s’articule. La monographie The Nuer (1940) d'Edward E. Evans-Pritchard confirme que l’on a fait de l’identité un usage continu et, en apparence, sans problèmes dans l'anthropologie sociale britannique sous l’influence de Malinowski. Dans ce texte fondamental, l’identité est attribuée aux clans, à chacune des classes d'âge et même à l'ensemble de la culture nuer, que les Nuer considèrent eux-mêmes comme unique, homogène et exclusive, même si le sentiment de la communauté locale était « plus profond que la reconnaissance de l'identité culturelle » (Evans-Pritchard 1975: 176). Par contre, l’autre grand anthropologue britannique, Alfred R. Radcliffe-Brown, qui était particulièrement rigoureux et attentif aux concepts que l'anthropologie devait utiliser (selon M.N. Srinivas, il « prenait grand soin de l'écriture, considérant les mots comme des pierres précieuses » 1973 : 12), il est resté, probablement pour cette raison, étranger au recours au terme d'identité. S’il fait son apparition dans son célèbre essai consacré à la structure sociale de 1940, c’est uniquement lorsqu'il fait référence à l'utilisation approximative de ce concept par Evans-Pritchard. Il soutient que certains anthropologues (y compris Evans-Pritchard) utilisent l’expression « structure sociale » uniquement pour désigner la persistance des groupes sociaux (nations, tribus, clans), qui gardent leur continuité (continuity) et leur identité (identity), malgré la succession de leurs membres (Radcliffe-Brown 1952 : 191). Son utilisation du terme identité ne se justifie ainsi que parce qu’il cite la pensée d'Evans-Pritchard presque textuellement. On a également l’impression que Radcliffe-Brown évite d’adopter le concept d’identité, utilisé par ses collègues et compatriotes, parce que les termes de continuité (continuity), de stabilité (stability), de définition (definiteness), de cohérence (consistency) sont déjà suffisamment précis pour définir une « loi sociologique » inhérente à toute structure sociale (Radcliffe-Brown 1952 : 45). Qu’est-ce que le concept d'identité ajouterait, sinon un attrait presque mystique et surtout une référence plus ou moins subtile à l'idée de substance, avec la signification métaphysique qu’elle implique? Radcliffe-Brown admet que la persistance des groupes dans le temps est une dimension importante et inaliénable de la structure sociale. Mais se focaliser uniquement sur la stabilité donne lieu à une vision trop étroite et unilatérale : la structure sociale comprend quelque chose de plus, qui doit être pris en compte. Si l’on ajoute le principe d’identité à la stabilité, à la cohérence et à la définition, ne risque-t-on pas de détourner l’attention de l’anthropologue de ce qui entre en conflit avec la continuité et la stabilité? Radcliffe-Brown a distingué entre la structure sociale (social structure), sujette à des changements continus, tels que ceux qui se produisent dans tous les organismes, et la forme structurale (structural form), qui « peut rester relativement constante pendant plus ou moins une longue période » (Radcliffe-Brown 1952 : 192). Même la forme structurale – a-t-il ajouté – « peut changer » (may change); et le changement est parfois graduel, presque imperceptible, alors que d’autres fois, il est soudain et violent, comme dans le cas des révolutions ou des conquêtes militaires. Considérant ces deux niveaux, la forme structurale est sans aucun doute le concept qui se prêterait le mieux à être associé à l'identité. Mais l’identité appliquée à la forme structurale ne nous aiderait certainement pas à appréhender avec précision les passages graduels, les glissements imprévus ou, au contraire, certaines « continuités de structure » qui se produisent même dans les changements les plus révolutionnaires (Radcliffe-Brown 1952 : 193). Bref, il est nécessaire de disposer d’une instrumentation beaucoup plus raffinée et calibrée que la notion d’identité, vague et encombrante, pour saisir l’interaction incessante et subtile entre continuité et discontinuité. On sait que Radcliffe-Brown avait l'intention de construire une anthropologie sociale rigoureuse basée sur le modèle des sciences naturelles. Dans cette perspective, l'identité aurait été un facteur de confusion, ainsi qu'un élément qui aurait poussé l'anthropologie naissante vers la philosophie et l'ontologie plutôt que vers la science. Alors que Radcliffe-Brown (décédé en 1955) avait réussi à éviter le problème de l'identité en anthropologie, Lévi-Strauss sera contraint de l'affronter ouvertement dans un séminaire proposé, conçu et organisé par son assistant philosophe Jean-Marie Benoist au Collège de France au milieu des années soixante-dix (1974-1975). Quelle stratégie Lévi-Strauss adopte-t-il pour s'attaquer à ce problème, sans se laisser aller à la « mode » qui, entre-temps, avait repris ce concept (Lévi-Strauss 1977 : 11)? La première étape est une concession : il admet que l’identité est un sujet d’ordre universel, c’est-à-dire qu’elle intéresse toutes les disciplines scientifiques, ainsi que « toutes les sociétés » étudiées par les ethnologues, et donc aussi l’anthropologie « de façon très spéciale » (Lévi-Strauss 1977 : 9). Pour Lévi-Strauss, les résultats suivants sont significatifs: i) aucune des sociétés examinées – même si elles constituent un petit échantillon – ne tient « pour acquise une identité substantielle » (Lévi-Strauss 1977 : 11), c’est-à-dire qu’il ne fait pas partie de leur pensée de concevoir l'identité en tant que substance ou la substance en tant que source et principe d'identité; ii) toutes les branches scientifiques interrogées émettent des doutes sur la notion d'identité et en font le plus souvent l'objet d'une « critique très sévère » (Lévi-Strauss 1977 : 11); iii) il est possible de constater une analogie entre le traitement réservé à l’identité de la part des « sociétés exotiques » examinées et les conceptions apparues dans les disciplines scientifiques (Lévi-Strauss 1977 : 11); iv) cela signifie alors que la « foi » que « nous mettons encore » sur l’identité doit être considérée comme « le reflet d'un état de civilisation », c'est-à-dire comme un produit historique et culturel transitoire, dont la « durée » peut être calculée en « quelques siècles » (Lévi-Strauss 1977 : 11) ; v) que nous assistons à une crise contemporaine de l'identité individuelle, en vertu de laquelle aucun individu ne peut se concevoir comme une « réalité substantielle », réduit qu’il est à une « fonction instable », à un « lieu » et à un « moment » éphémères d’« échanges et de conflits » auxquelles concourent des forces d’ordre naturel et historique (1977 : 11). Ceci fait dire à Lévi-Strauss que « quand on croit atteindre l'identité, on la trouve pulvérisée, en miettes » (in Benoist 1977 : 209), tout en constatant dans le même mouvement que, tant dans les sociétés examinées que dans les sciences interrogées, nous assistons à la négation d'une « identité substantielle » et même à une attitude destructrice qui fait « éclater » l’identité « en une multiplicité d’éléments ». Dans un cas comme dans l'autre, on arrive à « une critique de l’identité », plutôt qu’« à son affirmation pure et simple » (in Benoist et Lévi-Strauss 1977 : 331). Pourtant, nous ne pouvons pas oublier que Lévi-Strauss était parti d'une concession, c’est-à-dire de l'idée que nous ne pouvions pas nous passer du thème de l'identité : c'est quelque chose qui concerne d'une manière ou d'une autre toutes les sociétés, les sociétés exotiques étudiées par les anthropologues et les communautés scientifiques qui se forment dans la civilisation contemporaine. Lévi-Strauss aurait pu développer plus profondément et de manière plus radicale l’argument présenté au point iv), à savoir que l’identité est une croyance (voire une foi), produit d’une période historique de notre civilisation. Mieux encore, étant donné que les autres sociétés d’une part et nos sciences de l’autre « la soumettent à l’action d’une sorte de marteau-pilon », c’est-à-dire qu’elles la font « éclater » (in Benoist 1977 : 309), nous aussi nous pourrions finalement nous en débarrasser. Lévi-Strauss sent bien, cependant, la différence entre sa propre position et celle du public qui a participé au séminaire, beaucoup plus enclin à donner du poids et un sens à l'identité. Pour cette raison, il offre un compromis (un compromis kantien, pourrait-on dire), qui consiste à détacher la notion d’identité de celle de substance et à penser l’identité comme « une sorte de foyer virtuel auquel il nous est indispensable de nous référer pour expliquer un certain nombre de choses, mais sans qu’il ait jamais d’existence réelle » (in Benoist et Lévi-Strauss 1977 : 332). Si nous l’interprétons bien, c'est comme si Lévi-Strauss avait voulu dire à ses collègues anthropologues : « Voulez-vous vraiment utiliser le concept d'identité? » Au moins, sachez que cela ne fait jamais référence à une expérience réelle : c’est peut-être une aspiration, une affirmation, une manière de représenter des choses, auxquelles rien de réel ne correspond. Avec ce compromis, Lévi-Strauss semble finalement attribuer à l'identité une sorte de citoyenneté dans le langage des anthropologues. Cependant, même comme un feu virtuel, où se trouve l'idée d'identité : dans la tête des anthropologues, qui utilisent ce concept pour représenter des sociétés dans leur unité et leur particularité, ou dans la tête des groupes sociaux lorsqu'ils se représentent leur culture? Revenons à l'exemple de Malinowski et des Trobriandais. C'est Malinowski qui interprète le veyola, la substance biologique du matrilignage (dala), en termes d'identité, et établit un lien entre identité et substance. Parler de l'identité du dala, surtout si elle est soutenue par le concept de substance (c'est-à-dire quelque chose qui se perpétue avec le temps et qui est complet en soi, de sorte qu'il ne dépend de rien de ce qui lui est extérieur, selon la définition classique d'Aristote), finit par obscurcir la pensée plus profonde des Trobriandais, c’est-à-dire l’incomplétude structurelle du dala. Il ne suffit pas de naître dans le dala et de recevoir le veyola de la mère. Le veyola n'est pas une substance identitaire, mais une matière sans forme qui doit être modelée par l’intervention du tama ou tomakava, c'est-à-dire « l'étranger », avec lequel la mère est mariée et qui est proprement le modeleur, celui qui aide les enfants de son partenaire à grandir, à prendre un visage, une personnalité, non pas en assumant une identité, mais par une participation progressive à des relations sociales (Weiner 1976). Malgré l’utilisation extensive du terme identité dans leurs descriptions ethnographiques et leurs réflexions théoriques, les anthropologues feraient bien de se demander s’il est vraiment approprié de conserver ce concept dans leur boîte à outils ou s’il ne convient pas de considérer l’identité comme une modalité de représentation historiquement et culturellement connotée. L'auteur de cette entrée a tenté de démontrer que l'identité en tant que telle n'existe pas, sauf en tant que mode de représentation que les anthropologues peuvent rencontrer dans telle ou telle société (Remotti 2010). Toutes les sociétés, dans leur ensemble ou dans leurs éléments constitutifs, ressentent les besoins suivants : stabilité, continuité, permanence, cohérence d’un côté, spécificité, certitude et définissabilité de l’autre. Mais, comme l’a suggéré Radcliffe-Brown, les réponses à ces besoins sont toujours relatives et graduelles, jamais complètes, totales et définitives. Nous pourrions également ajouter que ces besoins sont toujours combinés avec des besoins opposés, ceux du changement et donc de l'ouverture aux autres et au futur (Remotti 1996 : 59-67). Autrement dit, les sociétés ne se limitent pas à être soumises au changement, mais le recherchent et l’organisent en quelque manière. Il peut y avoir des sociétés qui donnent des réponses unilatérales et qui favorisent les besoins de fermeture plutôt que d’ouverture, et d’autres le contraire. Si ce schéma est acceptable, alors on pourrait dire que l'identité – loin d'être un outil d'investigation – apparaît au contraire comme un thème et un terrain important de la recherche anthropologique. En retirant l'identité de leur boîte à outils, prenant ainsi leurs distances par rapport à l'idéologie de l'identité (un véritable mythe de notre temps), les anthropologues ont pour tâche de rechercher quelles sociétés produisent cette idéologie, comment elles construisent leurs représentations identitaires, pour quelles raisons, causes ou buts elles développent leurs croyances (même leur « foi » aveugle et aveuglante) en l’identité. Nous découvrirons alors que nous-mêmes, Occidentaux et modernes, nous avons construit, répandu, exporté et inculqué au monde entier des mythes et des concepts identitaires. Nous l’avons fait à partir de l’État-nation aux frontières rigides et insurpassables, de l’idéologie clairement identitaire qu’est le racisme, et pour terminer de la racialisation de la culture qui exalte les traditions locales ou nationales comme substances intouchables, dont la pureté est invoquée et qu’on entend défendre de toutes les manières contre les menaces extérieures. Passée au niveau du discours social et politique, l'identité révèle tôt toute la violence impliquée dans la coupure des liens et des connexions entre « nous » et les « autres ». Comme le disait Lévi-Strauss (et aussi Hegel avant Lévi-Strauss), à l'identité « ne correspond en réalité aucune expérience » (in Benoist et Lévi-Strauss 1977 : 332). Mais les effets pratiques de cette représentation n'appartiennent pas au monde des idées : ils sont réels, souvent insupportablement réels.

Using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997, we assess the relationship between track placement in high school and long-term postsecondary and occupational outcomes among young adults in the United States. We find that young adults in the college-prep track are most likely to earn a college degree. Young adults in the vocational are more likely than those in the college-prep track to have a vocational premium for short-term earning levels. Otherwise, those in the vocational premium in earnings are eventually eclipsed by the academic premium. We also find that some personal characteristics, such as trace, gender, and social class, intersect with the relationship between track placement and our outcome variables. Our findings have theoretical and practical implications for academic tracking and long-term educational and labor market outcomes.

Technology plays a major role in the delivery of educational services in today’s colleges anduniversities. Gumport and Chun (2005) stated that enrollment in for-credit distance education courseshad more than doubled between 1997 and 2000. Distance education is undergoing rapid growth andexpansion as colleges and universities rush to offer online courses and degrees in a variety of subjectareas. Schrodt and Turman (2005) found students often expect college instructors to incorporate someform of technology into the class design even in traditional non-distance education courses. Althoughmany educators feel that advances in technology will positively change the way classes are taught,Gumport and Chun (2005) indicated that technological improvements do not always measure up toinitial expectations. Regardless of any negative side effects, such as cost or training for faculty,technology continues to advance in society and specifically in the college classroom.

The present study is an attempt to examine the relationship between academic delay of gratification and dispositional orientation variables. Sample for the study includes 60urban students (30 boys and 30 girls) of class XI of a junior college in S.R. Nagar, Hyderabad, Telangana, India. The data for measuring delay of gratification is collected using Academic Delay of Gratification Scale (ADOGS) for college students prepared by HeferBembenutty (1997). Dispositional optimism of the students is measured by collecting data using theRevised Life Orientation Test Scale (LOT-R) for college students prepared by Scheier, Carver and Bridges (1994). For data analysis, Pearson's Product-Moment Correlation coefficient and Point-biserial correlation coefficients are calculated using SPSS ver.20. The significance of the test is calculated for the level of significance ? at 0.01. The findings of the study reveal positive andmoderatelystrong relationship between academic delay of gratificationand dispositional optimism. Boys are found to possess significantly less academic delay of gratification when compared to girls.No role of gender is found on the variable dispositional optimism.

The present study is an attempt to examine the relationship between delay of gratification in academics and emotional intelligence. Sample for the study includes 50 urban students (30 boys and 20 girls) of class IX of a secondary school in New Nagole, Hyderabad, Telangana, India. The data for measuring delay of gratification is collected using <italic>Academic Delay of Gratification Scale (ADOGS)</italic> for college students prepared by Hefer Bembenutty (1997). Emotional intelligence is measured by collecting data using the <italic>Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire</italic> – <italic>Adolescent Short Form (TEIQue-ASF)</italic>, prepared by Petrides, K. V. & Furnham, A. (2006) for adolescents. For data analysis, Pearson’s Product-Moment Correlation coefficient is used. The significance of the test is calculated using critical value table for Pearson’s Product-Moment Correlation for the level of significance α at 0.05. The findings of the study reveal positive but weak relationship between delay of gratification in academics and emotional intelligence. No role of gender is found on the examined variables.

This paper reviews eight highly-rated books on Moral Theology to find a common ground for an ethics education program for undergraduate students. Using James Rest’s four domains of moral functioning as its frame of reference, it examined the substantive contents and determined the extent of their alignment with identified learning outcomes for an undergraduate ethics course. Although they differed in the elements of approach and method, it is evident that in terms of their overall substantive content, the eight books adequately covered what is widely considered as the foundation stones of Catholic morality. Nonetheless, it is clear that their usefulness as “tool, tutor, and guide” for ethics education would largely have to depend on the professional competence, intended outcomes, pedagogical skills/strategies, and personal qualities of the facilitator. References Armstrong, Mary Beth, Edward Ketz & Dwigth Owsenc. Ethics Education in Accounting: Moving Towards Ethical Motivation and Ethical Behavior. Available online at https://doi.org/10.1016/S0748-5751(02)00017-9, 2002. Bebeau, Michael J., Rest, James R. & Narvaez, Darcia. Beyond the Promise: A Perspective on Research in Moral Education. Volume: 28 issue: 4, 1999:18-26 https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X028004018. Bretzke, James T. Select Bibliography on Fundamental Moral Theology, 2014. Available online at https://www2.bc.edu/...bretzke/FundamentalMoralBibliography. Callahan, Daniel. Goals in the Teaching of Ethics. In Callahan, D., Bok, S. (Eds.) Ethics Teaching in Higher Education: 61-80. Part of The Hastings Center Series in Ethics book series. Springer, Boston, MA. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-3138-4_2. (1980). Carino, Michael. Evangelism in a Postmodern World (Part 1) Reaching a Conversational Generation. (2000). Available online at https://bible.org/article/clash-cultures-evangelism-postmodern-world-part-i. Carol Ellam, Terry Stratton, & Denise Gibson Welcoming a New Generation to College: The Millennial Students. Journal of College Admission, n195, 2007. Cavadini, John C. Why Study God? “The Role of Theology at a Catholic University,” in Commonweal, October 2013. Available online at sites.nd.edu/oblation/.../why-study-god-the-role-of-theology-at-a-catholicuniversity/. Cessario, Romanus. O.P. Introduction to Moral Theology, Catholic University of America Press, 2001. Dorran, Robert M., S.J. “A New Project in Systematic Theology,” Theological Studies 2015, Vol. 76(2): 244-246. Gula, Richard M. Reason Informed by Faith: Foundations of Catholic Morality. New York: Paulist Press, 1989. Jimenez-David, Rina. (2016). A "teen-pregnancy crisis," Philippine Daily Inquirer, July 01 2016. Available online at inquirer.net. Klinker, JoAnn & Hackman, Donald G. “An Analysis of Principals’ Ethical Decision Making Using Rest’s Four Component Model of Moral Behavior,” Journal of School Leadership, Vol. 14 July 2004, 434-448. Kulm, Gerald, Roseman, JoEllen & Treistman. Michelle. “A Benchmarks-Based Approach to Textbook Evaluation,”2004 Available online at www.project2061.org/publications/textbook/.../approach.htm Kurtines, William M. Gewirtz, Jacob L & Lamb, Sharon (Eds.) The College Experience and Moral Development from Handbook of Moral Behavior and Development: Volume 2.2014. Lasco, Gideon. “Pagkakanya-kanya” Philippine Daily Inquirer, April 5, 2018.Available online at inquirer.net. Loewenberg Ball, D. “Bridging Practices: Intertwining Content and Pedagogy inTeaching and Learning to Teach,” (2000). Available online at journalss.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0022487100051003013 Mattison, William, C., III. Introducing Moral Theology. Brazos Press, 2008. May, William E. An Introduction to Moral Theology. Second Edition. (Huntington, Indiana: Our Sunday Visitor Publishing Division, 1983. Myyry, Liisa, “Components of Morality: A Professional Ethics Perspective on Moral Motivation, Moral Sensitivity, Moral Reasoning and Related Constructs among University Students,” in Social Psychology Studies 9. Department of Psychology, University of Helsinki. Nucci, Larry, & Narvaez, Darcia. ((Eds.). Handbook of Moral and Character Education. New York: Routledge, 2008 O’Reilly, Kevin E. OP, “University Education Construed in the Light of Faith. A Review,” Edited by the Dominicans of the English Province. Vol. 98, No. 1076, 373-386. July 2017 https://doi.org/10.1111/nbfr.12046. Ozar, David .T. Learning Outcomes for Ethics across the Curriculum Programs. 2001. Available online at https://www.uvu.edu/.../Learning%20Outcomes%20for%20Ethics%20Across%20the. Pesche, Karl H., SVD. Christian Ethics: General Moral Theology in the Light of Vatican II. Manila: Divine Word Publications, 1996. Pieper, J. Z.T. & Vermeer, P. “Religious Consciousness of Dutch Youth: Consequences for Religious Education,” in Journal of Empirical Theology, 2011: 14, 2, 56. Pinckaers, Servais, O.P. The Sources of Christian Ethics. Translated by Sr. Mary Thomas Noble, O.P.Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press. 3rd Edition, 1995. Prummer, Dominic M. Handbook of Moral Theology. Roman Catholic Books, 1995. Radcliffe, Timothy, O.P. What is the Point of Being a Christian? New York: Burns and Oates, 2005. Ratzinger, Joseph. Principles of Catholic Theology. San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1987. Rest, James R. “A Psychologist Looks at the Teaching of Ethics, “in Moral Development and Moral Education. Hastings Center Report, 12:29-36. February 1982. https://doi.org/10.2307/3560621. Sanks, T.Howland, S.J. “A Church That Can and Cannot Change: The Dynamics of Tradition,” in Theological Studies, 2015, Vol. 76 (2): 298-299. Schweigert Francis J. “Moral Formation in Four Essential Components: Sensitivity, Judgment, Motivation, and Character. In: Business Ethics Education and the Pragmatic Pursuit of the Good. Advances in Business Ethics Research,” in A Journal of Business Ethics Book Series), Vol. 6. 2016. Springer, Cham.DOI https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-33402-8_10 Sharkey, Stephen. “A Critical Review of Some Best Selling Textbooks in Catholic Social Teaching. In The Catholic Social Science Review, Vol. IX: 2004: 317-337. Sommers, Christina H. “Are we living in a moral stone age?” in Imprimis, 1998. Available online at https://books.google.com.ph/books?isbn=0295800763 Strauss, William & Howe, Neil. Millennials Rising: The Next Great Generation (New York: Vintage Original, 2000). Vermeer, Paul & Van der Ven, Johanne. “Students' Moral Consciousness," in Journal of Empirical Theology 15 (2002): 57. Villegas, Diana. The Christian Path in a Pluralistic World and the Study of Spirituality (Maryland: Lexington Books, 2012).

Abstract Background and Aims Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) is associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular morbidity and cardiovascular mortality. The risk of cardiovascular events is 1.3–2.7 times higher in SLE patients than in the general population, and even higher in patients with lupus nephritis (LN). Traditional risk factors as well as SLE-specific and treatment-related factors all contribute to the increased risk of cardiovascular disease. The primary aim of the present study was to evaluate cardiovascular risk factors, morbidity and mortality in patients with LN. Method This is a retrospective study of patients over the age of 16, with LN proved by kidney biopsy and followed up in our department over a period of 17 years. The diagnosis of lupus was made according to criteria of The American College of Rheumatology revised in 1997. Demographic, clinical and para-clinical data were collected from medical observations. Results We collected 155 women and 19 men with a sex ratio F / H of 8.2. The mean age at the time of the discovery of LN was 32.6 years [15-45 years]. Overall median follow-up time was 81.2 months. Renal symptomatology was dominated by proteinuria noted in all patients with an average proteinuria at 3.3 g / 24h, associated to a nephrotic syndrome in 68% of patients, hematuria was present in 69% of patients and renal failure was present in half of cases with an average serum creatinine of 110 µmol / l. At the time of diagnosis of LN, hypertension was noted in 48.9% of cases, diabetes in 2.8% of cases and obesity in 57.4% of cases with an index average body mass of 28.5 Kg / m2. Smoking was reported in 17.2% of the cases. The average cholesterol level was 5,5±2,1 mmol/l, the average triglycerid level was 2,5±1,1 mmol/. Antiphospholipid syndrome was found in 14.9% of cases. We performed 243 renal biopsies with 174 initial and 69 iterative biopsies. The histological lesions were polymorphic dominated by LN class IV (54.3%), arteriolosclerosis was observed in 47.7% and lesions of thrombotic microangiopathy in 29.8%. Corticosteroid therapy was prescribed in all patients combined with immunosuppressive therapy in 54.6% of cases. The overall survival of the patients at 10 years was 85%. During follow-up, cardiovascular complications found in our series were mainly strokes (6.3%) and coronary insufficiency (5.2%) and transient ischemic attack (6.9%). After a univariate analysis, the additional cardiovascular risk factors identified in our study were antiphospholipid syndrome (p = 0.01), renal failure (p = 0.01), long-term corticosteroid therapy (p = 0.009), the chronicity of the disease (evolution of lupus&gt; 10 years) (p = 0.014), proliferative forms (p=0.001), arteriolosclerosis (p=0.0002) and lesions of thrombotic microangiopathy (p=0.018). Survival in patients without cardiovascular risk factors was better (96% vs 88%). Conclusion In conclusion, in addition to traditional risk factors SLE patients have several disease related risk factors that explain increase cardiovascular disease. A careful control for this risk factors is essential to continuously improve survival in SLE.

The Harry Potter (HP) Fan Fiction (FF) phenomenon offers an opportunity to explore the nature of fame and the work of fans (including the second author, a participant observer) in creating and circulating cultural products within fan communities. Matt Hills comments (xi) that “fandom is not simply a ‘thing’ that can be picked over analytically. It is also always performative; by which I mean that it is an identity which is (dis-)claimed, and which performs cultural work”. This paper explores the cultural work of fandom in relation to FF and fame. The global HP phenomenon – in which FF lists are a small part – has made creator J K Rowling richer than the Queen of England, according to the 2003 ‘Sunday Times Rich List’. The books (five so far) and the films (three) continue to accelerate the growth in Rowling’s fortune, which quadrupled from 2001-3: an incredible success for an author unknown before the publication of Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone in 1997. Even the on-screen HP lead actor, Daniel Radcliffe, is now Britain’s second wealthiest teenager (after England’s Prince Harry). There are other globally successful books, such as the Lord of the Rings trilogy, and the Narnia collection, but neither of these series has experienced the momentum of the HP rise to fame. (See Endnote for an indication of the scale of fan involvement with HP FF, compared with Lord of the Rings.) Contemporary ‘Fame’ has been critically defined in relation to the western mass media’s requirement for ‘entertaining’ content, and the production and circulation of celebrity as opposed to ‘hard news’(Turner, Bonner and Marshall). The current perception is that an army of publicists and spin doctors are usually necessary, but not sufficient, to create and nurture global fame. Yet the HP phenomenon started out with no greater publicity investment than that garnered by any other promising first novelist: and given the status of HP as children’s publishing, it was probably less hyped than equivalent adult-audience publications. So are there particular characteristics of HP and his creator that predisposed the series and its author to become famous? And how does the fame status relate to fans’ incorporation of these cultural materials into their lives? Accepting that it is no more possible to predict the future fame of an author or (fictional) character than it is to predict the future financial success of a book, film or album, there is a range of features of the HP phenomenon that, in hindsight, helped accelerate the fame momentum, creating what has become in hindsight an unparalleled global media property. J K Rowling’s personal story – in the hands of her publicity machine – itself constituted a magical myth: the struggling single mother writing away (in longhand) in a Scottish café, snatching odd moments to construct the first book while her infant daughter slept. (Comparatively little attention was paid by the marketers to the author’s professional training and status as a teacher, or to Rowling’s own admission that the first book, and the outline for the series, took five years to write.) Rowling’s name itself, with no self-evident gender attribution, was also indicative of ambiguity and mystery. The back-story to HP, therefore, became one of a quintessentially romantic endeavour – the struggle to write against the odds. Publicity relating to the ‘starving in a garret’ background is not sufficient to explain the HP/Rowling grip on the popular imagination, however. Instead it is arguable that the growth of HP fame and fandom is directly related to the growth of the Internet and to the middle class readers’ Internet access. If the production of celebrity is a major project of the conventional mass media, the HP phenomenon is a harbinger of the hyper-fame that can be generated through the combined efforts of the mass media and online fan communities. The implication of this – evident in new online viral marketing techniques (Kirby), is that publicists need to pique cyber-interest as well as work with the mass media in the construction of celebrity. As the cheer-leaders for online viral marketing make the argument, the technique “provides the missing link between the [bottom-up] word-of-mouth approach and the top-down, advertainment approach”. Which is not to say that the initial HP success was a function of online viral marketing: rather, the marketers learned their trade by analysing the magnifier impact that the online fan communities had upon the exponential growth of the HP phenomenon. This cyber-impact is based both on enhanced connectivity – the bottom-up, word-of-mouth dynamic, and on the individual’s need to assume an identity (albeit fluid) to participate effectively in online community. Critiquing the notion that the computer is an identity machine, Streeter focuses upon (649) “identities that people have brought to computers from the culture at large”. He does not deal in any depth with FF, but suggests (651) that “what the Internet is and will come to be, then, is partly a matter of who we expect to be when we sit down to use it”. What happens when fans sit down to use the Internet, and is there a particular reason why the Internet should be of importance to the rise and rise of HP fame? From the point of view of one of us, HP was born at more or less the same time as she was. Eleven years old in the first book, published in 1997, Potter’s putative birth year might be set in 1986 – in line with many of the original HP readership, and the publisher’s target market. At the point that this cohort was first spellbound by Potter, 1998-9, they were also on the brink of discovering the Internet. In Australia and many western nations, over half of (two-parent) families with school-aged children were online by the end of 2000 (ABS). Potter would notionally have been 14: his fans a little younger but well primed for the ‘teeny-bopper’ years. Arguably, the only thing more famous than HP for that age-group, at that time, was the Internet itself. As knowledge of the Internet grew stories about it constituted both news and entertainment and circulated widely in the mass media: the uncertainty concerning new media, and their impact upon existing social structures, has – over time – precipitated a succession of moral panics … Established commercial media are not noted for their generosity to competitors, and it is unsurprising that many of the moral panics circulating about pornography on the Net, Internet stalking, Web addiction, hate sites etc are promulgated in the older media. (Green xxvii) Although the mass media may have successfully scared the impressionable, the Internet was not solely constructed as a site of moral panic. Prior to the general pervasiveness of the Internet in domestic space, P. David Marshall discusses multiple constructions of the computer – seen by parents as an educational tool which could help future-proof their children; but which their children were more like to conceptualise as a games machine, or (this was the greater fear) use for hacking. As the computer was to become a site for the battle ground between education, entertainment and power, so too the Internet was poised to be colonised by teenagers for a variety of purposes their parents would have preferred to prevent: chat, pornography, game-playing (among others). Fan communities thrive on the power of the individual fan to project themselves and their fan identity as part of an ongoing conversation. Further, in constructing the reasons behind what has happened in the HP narrative, and in speculating what is to come, fans are presenting themselves as identities with whom others might agree (positive affirmation) or disagree (offering the chance for engagement through exchange). The genuinely insightful fans, who apparently predict the plots before they’re published, may even be credited in their communities with inspiring J K Rowling’s muse. (The FF mythology is that J K Rowling dare not look at the FF sites in case she finds herself influenced.) Nancy Baym, commenting on a soap opera fan Usenet group (Usenet was an early 1990s precursor to discussion groups) notes that: The viewers’ relationship with characters, the viewers’ understanding of socioemotional experience, and soap opera’s narrative structure, in which moments of maximal suspense are always followed by temporal gaps, work together to ensure that fans will use the gaps during and between shows to discuss with one another possible outcomes and possible interpretations of what has been seen. (143) In HP terms the The Philosopher’s Stone constructed a fan knowledge that J K Rowling’s project entailed at least seven books (one for each year at Hogwarts School) and this offered plentiful opportunities to speculate upon the future direction and evolution of the HP characters. With each speculation, each posting, the individual fan can refine and extend their identity as a member of the FF community. The temporal gaps between the books and the films – coupled with the expanding possibilities of Internet communication – mean that fans can feel both creative and connected while circulating the cultural materials derived from their engagement with the HP ‘canon’. Canon is used to describe the HP oeuvre as approved by Rowling, her publishers, and her copyright assignees (for example, Warner Bros). In contrast, ‘fanon’ is the name used by fans to refer the body of work that results from their creative/subversive interactions with the core texts, such as “slash” (homo-erotic/romance) fiction. Differentiation between the two terms acknowledges the likelihood that J K Rowling or her assignees might not approve of fanon. The constructed identities of fans who deal solely with canon differ significantly from those who are engaged in fanon. The implicit (romantic) or explicit (full-action descriptions) sexualisation of HP FF is part of a complex identity play on behalf of both the writers and readers of FF. Further, given that the online communities are often nurtured and enriched by offline face to face exchanges with other participants, what an individual is prepared to read or not to read, or write or not write, says as much about that person’s public persona as does another’s overt consumption of pornography; or diet of art house films, in contrast to someone else’s enthusiasm for Friends. Hearn, Mandeville and Anthony argue that a “central assertion of postmodern views of consumption is that social identity can be interpreted as a function of consumption” (106), and few would disagree with them: herein lies the power of the brand. Noting that consumer culture centrally focuses upon harnessing ‘the desire to desire’, Streeter’s work (654, on the opening up of Internet connectivity) suggests a continuum from ‘desire provoked’; through anticipation, ‘excitement based on what people imagined would happen’; to a sense of ‘possibility’. All this was made more tantalising in terms of the ‘unpredictability’ of how cyberspace would eventually resolve itself (657). Thus a progression is posited from desire through to the thrill of comparing future possibilities with eventual outcomes. These forces clearly influence the HP FF phenomenon, where a section of HP fans have become impatient with the pace of the ‘official’/canon HP text. J K Rowling’s writing has slowed down to the point that Harry’s initial readership has overtaken him by several years. He’s about to enter his sixth year (of seven) at secondary school – his erstwhile-contemporaries have already left school or are about to graduate to University. HP is yet to have ‘a relationship’: his fans are engaged in some well-informed speculation as to a range of sexual possibilities which would likely take J K Rowling some light years from her marketers’ core readership. So the story is progressing more slowly than many fans would choose and with less spice than many would like (from the evidence of the web, at least). As indicated in the Endnote, the productivity of the fans, as they ‘fill in the gaps’ while waiting for the official narrative to resume, is prodigious. It may be that as the fans outstrip HP in their own social and emotional development they find his reactions in later books increasingly unbelievable, and/or out of character with the HP they felt they knew. Thus they develop an alternative ‘Harry’ in fanon. Some FF authors identify in advance which books they accept as canon, and which they have decided to ignore. For example, popular FF author Midnight Blue gives the setting of her evolving FF The Mirror of Maybe as “after Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire and as an alternative to the events detailed in Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, [this] is a Slash story involving Harry Potter and Severus Snape”. Some fans, tired of waiting for Rowling to get Harry grown up, ‘are doin’ it for themselves’. Alternatively, it may be that as they get older the first groups of HP fans are unwilling to relinquish their investment in the HP phenomenon, but are equally unwilling to align themselves uncritically with the anodyne story of the canon. Harry Potter, as Warner Bros licensed him, may be OK for pre-teens, but less cool for the older adolescent. The range of identities that can be constructed using the many online HP FF genres, however, permits wide scope for FF members to identify with dissident constructions of the HP narrative and helps to add to the momentum with which his fame increases. Latterly there is evidence that custodians of canon may be making subtle overtures to creators of fanon. Here, the viral marketers have a particular challenge – to embrace the huge market represented by fanon, while not disturbing those whose HP fandom is based upon the purity of canon. Some elements of fanon feel their discourses have been recognised within the evolving approved narrative . This sense within the fan community – that the holders of the canon have complimented them through an intertextual reference – is much prized and builds the momentum of the fame engagement (as has been demonstrated by Watson, with respect to the band ‘phish’). Specifically, Harry/Draco slash fans have delighted in the hint of a blown kiss from Draco Malfoy to Harry (as Draco sends Harry an origami bird/graffiti message in a Defence against the Dark Arts Class in Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban) as an acknowledgement of their cultural contribution to the development of the HP phenomenon. Streeter credits Raymond’s essay ‘The Cathedral and the Bazaar’ as offering a model for the incorporation of voluntary labour into the marketplace. Although Streeter’s example concerns the Open Source movement, derived from hacker culture, it has parallels with the prodigious creativity (and productivity) of the HP FF communities. Discussing the decision by Netscape to throw open the source code of its software in 1998, allowing those who use it to modify and improve it, Streeter comments that (659) “the core trope is to portray Linux-style software development like a bazaar, a real-life competitive marketplace”. The bazaar features a world of competing, yet complementary, small traders each displaying their skills and their wares for evaluation in terms of the product on offer. In contrast, “Microsoft-style software production is portrayed as hierarchical and centralised – and thus inefficient – like a cathedral”. Raymond identifies “ego satisfaction and reputation among other [peers]” as a specific socio-emotional benefit for volunteer participants (in Open Source development), going on to note: “Voluntary cultures that work this way are not actually uncommon [… for example] science fiction fandom, which unlike hackerdom has long explicitly recognized ‘egoboo’ (ego-boosting, or the enhancement of one’s reputation among other fans) as the basic drive behind volunteer activity”. This may also be a prime mover for FF engagement. Where fans have outgrown the anodyne canon they get added value through using the raw materials of the HP stories to construct fanon: establishing and building individual identities and communities through HP consumption practices in parallel with, but different from, those deemed acceptable for younger, more innocent, fans. The fame implicit in HP fandom is not only that of HP, the HP lead actor Daniel Radcliffe and HP’s creator J K Rowling; for some fans the famed ‘state or quality of being widely honoured and acclaimed’ can be realised through their participation in online fan culture – fans become famous and recognised within their own community for the quality of their work and the generosity of their sharing with others. The cultural capital circulated on the FF sites is both canon and fanon, a matter of some anxiety for the corporations that typically buy into and foster these mega-media products. As Jim Ward, Vice-President of Marketing for Lucasfilm comments about Star Wars fans (cited in Murray 11): “We love our fans. We want them to have fun. But if in fact someone is using our characters to create a story unto itself, that’s not in the spirit of what we think fandom is about. Fandom is about celebrating the story the way it is.” Slash fans would beg to differ, and for many FF readers and writers, the joy of engagement, and a significant engine for the growth of HP fame, is partly located in the creativity offered for readers and writers to fill in the gaps. Endnote HP FF ranges from posts on general FF sites (such as fanfiction.net >> books, where HP has 147,067 stories [on 4,490 pages of hotlinks] posted, compared with its nearest ‘rival’ Lord of the rings: with 33,189 FF stories). General FF sites exclude adult content, much of which is corralled into 18+ FF sites, such as Restrictedsection.org, set up when core material was expelled from general sites. As an example of one adult site, the Potter Slash Archive is selective (unlike fanfiction.net, for example) which means that only stories liked by the site team are displayed. Authors submitting work are asked to abide by a list of ‘compulsory parameters’, but ‘warnings’ fall under the category of ‘optional parameters’: “Please put a warning if your story contains content that may be offensive to some authors [sic], such as m/m sex, graphic sex or violence, violent sex, character death, major angst, BDSM, non-con (rape) etc”. Adult-content FF readers/writers embrace a range of unexpected genres – such as Twincest (incest within either of the two sets of twin characters in HP) and Weasleycest (incest within the Weasley clan) – in addition to mainstream romance/homo-erotica pairings, such as that between Harry Potter and Draco Malfoy. (NB: within the time frame 16 August – 4 October, Harry Potter FF writers had posted an additional 9,196 stories on the fanfiction.net site alone.) References ABS. 8147.0 Use of the Internet by Householders, Australia. http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/ e8ae5488b598839cca25682000131612/ ae8e67619446db22ca2568a9001393f8!OpenDocument, 2001, 2001>. Baym, Nancy. “The Emergence of Community in Computer-Mediated Communication.” CyberSociety: Computer-Mediated Communication and Community. Ed. S. Jones. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1995. 138-63. Blue, Midnight. “The Mirror of Maybe.” http://www.greyblue.net/MidnightBlue/Mirror/default.htm>. Coates, Laura. “Muggle Kids Battle for Domain Name Rights. Irish Computer. http://www.irishcomputer.com/domaingame2.html>. Fanfiction.net. “Category: Books” http://www.fanfiction.net/cat/202/>. Green, Lelia. Technoculture: From Alphabet to Cybersex. Sydney: Allen & Unwin. Hearn, Greg, Tom Mandeville and David Anthony. The Communication Superhighway: Social and Economic Change in the Digital Age. Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1997. Hills, Matt. Fan Cultures. London: Routledge, 2002. Houghton Mifflin. “Potlatch.” Encyclopedia of North American Indians. http://college.hmco.com/history/readerscomp/naind/html/ na_030900_potlatch.htm>. Kirby, Justin. “Brand Papers: Getting the Bug.” Brand Strategy July-August 2004. http://www.dmc.co.uk/pdf/BrandStrategy07-0804.pdf>. Marshall, P. David. “Technophobia: Video Games, Computer Hacks and Cybernetics.” Media International Australia 85 (Nov. 1997): 70-8. Murray, Simone. “Celebrating the Story the Way It Is: Cultural Studies, Corporate Media and the Contested Utility of Fandom.” Continuum 18.1 (2004): 7-25. Raymond, Eric S. The Cathedral and the Bazaar. 2000. http://www.catb.org/~esr/writings/cathedral-bazaar/cathedral-bazaar/ar01s11.html>. Streeter, Thomas. The Romantic Self and the Politics of Internet Commercialization. Cultural Studies 17.5 (2003): 648-68. Turner, Graeme, Frances Bonner, and P. David Marshall. Fame Games: The Production of Celebrity in Australia. Melbourne: Cambridge UP. Watson, Nessim. “Why We Argue about Virtual Community: A Case Study of the Phish.net Fan Community.” Virtual Culture: Identity and Communication in Cybersociety. Ed. Steven G. Jones. London: Sage, 1997. 102-32. Citation reference for this article MLA Style Green, Lelia, and Carmen Guinery. "Harry Potter and the Fan Fiction Phenomenon." M/C Journal 7.5 (2004). echo date('d M. Y'); ?> <http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0411/14-green.php>. APA Style Green, L., and C. Guinery. (Nov. 2004) "Harry Potter and the Fan Fiction Phenomenon," M/C Journal, 7(5). Retrieved echo date('d M. Y'); ?> from <http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0411/14-green.php>.

With each passing year the number of students worldwide who participate in overseas educational programs of study continues to increase. This number has recently approached 100 million students who have chosen to leave their homes to study in a country or province other than their own. These experiences, traditionally referred to by Americans as "study abroad," include a wide assortment of program options in which students are enrolled in a formal academic context at the same time that they have, at least in principle, the opportunity to participate in the daily experience of living in a culture other than their own. Not surprisingly, the vast majority of those who participate in education abroad programs are international students who come to study in the United States (Desruisseaux 1996: A64). However, within the European Union, some 80,000 students have taken part in exchanges of various types (see Coleman, this volume). At the same time, the number of American students who elect to include study abroad as an integral part of their undergraduate program is rapidly rising. While the total number of American students who participate in these programs still represents only 1% of the enrollment in higher education, the number who make study abroad a part of their college experience has increased in the course of the last decade. Recent figures indicate that in 1995-1996 (the last year for which reliable figures are currently available) that almost 90,000 American students participated in a wide variety of educational experiences throughout the world - an increase of almost 6% since the prior year. (Desruisseaux 1997: A42-46). As all those who deal with study abroad programs know, there are numerous compelling reasons to encourage students to participate in a study abroad experience. The personal and academic benefits of these experiences have been dealt with in-depth elsewhere (e.g., Baron and Smith 1987; Byram 1988; Coleman and Rouxeville 1993; Carlson, Burn et al. 1990; Dalichow and Teichler 1986; Goodwin and Nacht 1988; Inkster 1993; Johnson and Edelstein 1993; Koester 1985; Laubscher, 1994; Teichler and Steube 1991) and will not be explored here. Rather, this volume of Frontiers will focus exclusively on one of the most pervasive arguments in favor of study abroad - the opportunity to acquire high levels of proficiency in a another language. As Goodwin and Nacht (1988:16) stated in their comprehensive review of education abroad programs "the mastery of a modern language has traditionally been perceived as the most direct educational benefit of study abroad." Indeed, with the exception of the approximately 20,000 American students who in the recent past have chosen to study in English-speaking countries (Desruisseaux. 1997, A45), those American students who elect to study in non-Anglophone countries (largely concentrated in Western Europe but including as well Japan, China, Russia, Latin America, various parts of Africa and the mid- and far East) do so for the opportunity to learn a language and culture other than their own. For these students, increased language and cultural proficiency become one of the paramount reasons for studying abroad. It is the experiences of students such as these that constitute the basis for the seven articles which follow. Complementary but distinct, they fall naturally into several different general categories. The introductory article, "Methodological Considerations in Data Collection for Language Learning in a Study Abroad Context," by Thom Huebner, discusses the wide array of variables and possible research approaches and techniques that need to be considered in conducting research that investigates the linguistic impact of study abroad experiences. Huebner offers not only a framework for evaluating, assessing and measuring the effectiveness of study abroad but also for integrating and interpreting the diversity of research which appears in this volume. The following two chapters, "An Overview of Issues and Research in Language Learning in a Study Abroad Setting" by Barbara F. Freed and "Sociolinguistics and Language Learning in a Study Abroad Context" by Vera Regan are examples of some of the research options outlined by Huebner. Freed offers a broad overview of much of the current literature which explores the growth of language proficiency among students who have spent a period of time abroad and includes a descriptive linguistic profile of students who have "studied abroad." In deference to the chapters which follow in this specially-edited volume, Freed tends to emphasize research conducted by American scholars and of those, research that is more quantitative in nature. Regan, by contrast, devotes her discussion to the growing body of literature which explores the development of sociolinguistic competence among students who have had out-of-country experiences. The next series of three articles, "Student Perspectives on Language Learning in a Study Abroad Context" by Valerie Pellegrino, "On the Nature of Immersion During Study Abroad: Some Participant Perspectives" by Sharon Wilkinson and "Literacy and Language Learning in a Study Abroad Context" by Rebecca Kline address the topic from a different but related perspective. By contrast to the preceding two articles which focus on precise qualities and/or linguistic features in the language of students who have been abroad, these three authors address the topic of language learning by meticulously investigating the study abroad experience and setting themselves, portrayed primarily in the students' own voices and from their own perspectives. Their goal is to look closely at what actually happens during study abroad in an attempt to elucidate the types of social interactions students have in the study abroad setting, how students interpret these interactions and how they, in turn, may affect their learning. Pellegrino provides a comprehensive overview of qualitative and introspective research, emphasizing individual student perceptions of the value of "in-class" learning as compared to learning which takes place in the native speech community. The work she discusses, emerging from ethnographic, journal, diary and interview data, offers new insights which enriches the study abroad literature. Important among these, as Pellegrino is careful to emphasize, is the value derived from understanding student perceptions and the impact they ultimately have on the actual language learning experience. Wilkinson's approach, similar to Pellegrino's, results in unsuspected findings about the nature of the "immersion" experience itself and a related series of myths about study abroad to which many of us have innocently subscribed. Kline, utilizing a similar qualitative approach to gathering data, addresses a neglected area in the study abroad research-that of literacy. Rather than focusing on the "product" of reading as it has traditionally been understood within the formal language classroom, Kline expands our knowledge by urging an exploration of "literacy as social practice." In so doing, she reveals the benefits of looking at process rather than product as she explores the lives of readers. The final article in this volume "Language Learning and Study Abroad: The European Perspective," by James Coleman, concentrates on the background and rapidly growing literature on exchanges within the European perspective. Coleman provides American readers with a rich and detailed discussion of the European context and a valuably different perspective on the general topic. Not surprisingly, there are complementary overlaps within these chapters as individual authors provide background information and validate their research approaches. Such overlaps serve to highlight some of the crucial issues and contribute to a thematic unity to the volume. Among the recurrent themes that readers will encounter, the following might be listed: 1. a growing recognition of the highly complex nature of the study abroad experience, the significance of individual variables in each student's profile and the inherent risks in making unwarranted generalizations 2. the diversity of research approaches that range from strictly quantitative to richly qualitative and the benefits of combining both approaches in efforts to fully describe and understand language learning that occurs in a study abroad setting 3. the danger of relying on measurement devices that are holistic in nature, that include inherent ceiling effects, that are insufficiently refined to assess linguistic growth among more advanced students, resulting in inappropriate conclusions about the relationship between language learning and the study abroad experience 4. the responsibility of searching beyond long-standing but popular assumptions about the nature and value of residence abroad As will be seen in exploring the articles included in this volume, each author has chosen to describe a slightly different aspect of the potential relationship between language learning and study abroad. Consequently, a variety of perspectives are offered on how best to access, assess and interpret the interlocking questions related to the linguistic impact of the experiences students encounter as part of a sojourn abroad. Read as a group, these seven articles provide the most current exploration of the topic, offering the reader an in-depth summary of the extant literature on the language learning that can and does occur in a study abroad context. Barbara F. Freed Carnegie Mellon University

The plausibility of a ‘celebrity-artist’ is met with scepticism, suspicion and/or outright disdain amongst those who guard the traditions surrounding the exclusionary world of ‘High Art’. As a construct unique to the advent of media culture, the vapid and transient nature associated with contemporary celebrity negates the high-minded notion of genius retrospectively applied to a ‘hero-artist’ such as Michelangelo or Rembrandt. (Chris Rojek’s categories are useful in illustrating this difference. While the celebrity of earlier artists was based on talent, and thus, ‘achieved celebrity’, current media-generated celebrity, or what Rojek terms ‘celetoid’, is transient and artificially generated.) For media-celebrity is an immediately accessible veneer, a stopgap in our moments of boredom, and a point of ‘other’ against which we situate our desires, not expected to provide anything more or less significant than mass-entertainment. This contradicts or otherwise undermines the anticipation that Art express the ‘profound’, possess ‘essence’ if not ‘beauty’, or be part of the politically-motivated avant-garde. The two-dimensional world of ‘media-ted culture’ (a term I use to describe the manner in which the media mediates culture, as opposed to mass culture which presupposes a top-down construction of culture denying the free-play of signs and free-will of cultural consumption), with its attribute capitalist underpinnings, complicates the depth and emancipatory potential of Art, and, by extension, appears to threaten the entire elitist infrastructure of the Artworld by association to or blending with ‘mass culture’. In addition to a general malaise fuelled by the troublesome notion of a ‘Culture Industry’, these ideological Artworld constants maintain their position in the post-postmodern Nineties as the curmudgeonly core of criticism, particularly that scripted within the realm of the ‘popular’ media, aimed at contemporary art and its celebrity occupants. In his text Art and Celebrity, John Walker discusses the career trajectory of British-born artist Damien Hirst remarking that some critics “regard him as a frivolous clown whose showmanship robs art of its dignity” and further, “think his work has contributed to the dumbing down, coarsening and vulgarisation of British culture” (Walker 247). The relationship of the character of the artist to the form of his artworks, I will assert, is not an organic occurrence but a media-ted one. As an artist whose media-persona appeared to be driven by fame and the excesses and lifestyle it afforded, and who created work which seemed to reflect a rather disinterested, dispirited and dismissive attitude similar to that persona, Hirst finds himself in the conundrum of having become an artist whose financial success and art historical dilemma is his relationship to those self-same processes he utilized to achieve success at the start of his career. I will briefly sketch the mechanisms which led to Hirst’s definition within the purview of the popular, and follow by suggesting an art historical repositioning of his work. Damien Hirst currently enjoys a peaceful, rural existence as the third highest-paid British artist alive today, having sky-rocketed to success in the Nineties as the ‘founder’ of the loose-knit group known as ‘young British art’. A product of the can-do attitude associated with Thatcherism and encouraged by his teachers, particularly the American-born Conceptualist Michael Craig-Martin, Hirst actively participated within the endorsement of his works and those of his London-based Goldsmith College classmates. Freeze, his first attempt at curation, has taken on mythic status in defining the group, and its professional gloss — particularly within its marketing strategy — is viewed as the precursor to an artistic disposition far more interested in fame and fortune, than form. (For a full discussion of Freeze, from a particularly Marxist perspective, see Stallabrass. His rebranding of ‘young British art’ into ‘High Art Lite’ sums up his position quite precisely. For a more light-hearted approach, see Collings.) As he progressed in his career during the early Nineties, and in conjunction with the promotional savvy of his dealer Jay Jopling, Hirst received frequent mention in specialist and popular media alike, quickly becoming known as young British art’s enfant-terrible. His lewd public behaviour, when collapsed as a single performance with his Art, was construed as a media-friendly spectacle which actively sought to attract the voyeuristic gaze of popular culture. This ploy appeared to work. Due to the familiarity granted by extensive media coverage, his images were subsequently co-opted within a number of marketplaces, ranging from film to advertising. For the first time in Britain an unusual cultural twist placed the world of High Art, embodied within the media-ted-performance-installation piece ‘Damien Hirst’, squarely within the realm of everyday experience. The ubiquity of his forms prompted friend/author Gordon Burn to pronounce that Britain was now under the influence of “a new intangible poetry becoming part of modern life” (Burn 10), or, in other words, had entered ‘Hirstworld’. Although the collapsing of work and artist within the realm of ‘modern life’ has art historical precedents, most obviously within the oeuvre of Andy Warhol, Hirst created a juxtaposition within his personality which largely undermined notions of what constituted the ‘Artist’. In contrast with Warhol’s eclectic ‘artsy’ public persona, Hirst presented himself as an average ‘Northern lad’: rowdy, temperamental, beer-swilling. His antics were part of the common cultural vernacular and when viewed in conjunction with the supposed media-friendly nature of his works, as Rosie Millard reflects, “Even if they hated it, people felt like they could have an opinion, because they understood what was going on” (Millard 21). Yet what did the public really understand, and how did they come to understand it? While a higher than normal attendance at the Sensation exhibit was regarded as an indicator of the success of young British art, the vast majority of the non-specialist audience commenting on these works based their assessment and interpretation of them on the exposure granted them by the mass media. The media-tion of yBa, particularly in the flagrant reporting of the artists’ statements and antics, flattened complexities or intertextual meanings into a by-line, which was meant to capture the imagination of a new audience for contemporary art in an easily consumable form. Although specialist criticism predictably ran the gambit, popular criticism was quite often disparaging or otherwise derogatory, and almost always took a biographical approach to describing the objects. Thus, what the public appeared to ‘understand’ was related much more to the hype and celebrity surrounding the artists, particularly the main protagonist Hirst, than of any issue related to form, appreciation or the history of art. Even more detrimentally, this conflation of art with biography led to many misunderstandings related to form, particularly in the assumption of its intention as ‘shock-art’ (as in Sister Wendy’s statement – see Wroe). An editorial letter printed in The Times points to this problem: “I am sure I am speaking for the general public when I say that these exhibits are not challenging, not clever, not funny and certainly not art” (Taylor 5; italics are mine). Outside of the media attention it garnered, young British art was as incomprehensible to its public as contemporary Art ever had been, even if the personalities of the artists and their motifs were easily recognizable. The notoriously fickle British were suspect of the equation: shark in formaldehyde = art. As Andrew Graham-Dixon notes, “They distrust the modern artist for old-fashioned puritanical reasons, being suspicious of any work of art which appears, to them, to have involved little work. They also suspect modern art of trying to fool them with a spurious jiggery-pokery” (Graham-Dixon 202). And perhaps more significantly, a class system which remained highly stratified continued to be firmly in place in the Nineties and was intensely critical regarding the allotment of government funds. (A well-documented incidence of this is the public outcry that occurred after the Tate purchased a work by Carl Andrew consisting solely of a line of firebrick.) The only thing that seemed shocking to the public was the promotion of the decadent young British artists with their spurious forms and high-fashion lifestyle. Exposure to the allegory of yBa led to the over-riding sentiment: ‘I could make that too, now give me my fame!’ (Incidences of this were rampant in the papers, i.e. members of the ‘working-class’ were shown displaying fish and chips in the gallery, other papers suggested ways to make-your-own Hirst; for one example, see Independent.) Not only did media-ted biography influence public opinion, but it infiltrated specialist art writing as well. Creating a direct link between biography and subject, Burn conflates objects which could be read as expressing an element of alienation with Hirst’s ‘predicament’ as a celebrity figure: “Celebrity is about control and distance; it is about adding space to the space that inevitably exists between human beings and remaining apart from the flock” (Burn 10; clearly co-opting Hirst’s vitrine sculpture of a lamb caught in mid-leap Away From The Flock to highlight this sentiment.) This sort of psychoanalytical approach edges, at best, slightly out of the realm of persona and into that of the personal. Either type of reading is regarded by Julian Stallabrass as possible only because of an intentional ambiguity on the part of the artist which allows the art object to posture as Art. For instance, Hirst provides sweeping generalizations regarding his objects, often associating them to the ‘grand narratives’ of life and death, and is at times even contradictory, employing a vague multi-referentiality which Stallabrass feels heightens the sense of ‘something important going on’. (Stallabrass suggests this is accomplished by utilizing theory without either acknowledgement or political/emancipatory intent in order to provide an illusion of sophistication. Hirst thus presents ‘The Death of the Author’, an art which appears to speak to intertextuality, only to make effectual use of it.) While Stallabrass’s own critique of yBa also conflates the persona of the artist with the artworks, he feels the media-tion of the artists has worked in their favour: “…behaviour and object-making together, fosters a feeling that it must be authentic because of its intimate link with the artist’s self, no matter how sham that self may be” (Stallabrass 247). The success of yBa is, therefore, based on a mythology regarding the persona of the artist, and a misreading of works that are otherwise “[a] combination of Hammer-style schlock and high-art minimalist rigour” (Stallabrass 26). Both of these critiques point to the central issue in an assessment of yBa (and a perennial problem for contemporary art in general): the possibilities of interpretation. In yBa in particular, interpretation has become a problem based on the conflation of the persona of the artist with their works, which I would attest is part of a larger problem regarding the confusion surrounding the relationship between the aesthetic and the spectacle, and the difficulties each term represents in popular and academic discourse alike. In the instance of Damien Hirst, the outcome of this confusion is an inability to accurately historicize the objects which comprise his oeuvre, additionally denying its aesthetic potential and dismissing the climate in which it was created. Unarguably, Hirst’s art contemplates the experience of life: as a cultural phenomenon in its contemplation of spectacular society, and as a tenuous state of embodiment, of the conditions in which we experience a state of ‘alive’. His objects (as signs or texts) provide a means to consider the dynamics in which human beings experience aesthetics, as well as providing an experience of that experience: systems which emphasize the sentient experience of phenomenology. The significance of the legacy of Hirst’s art (and of yBa generally) has already begun to be written in relation to its interaction with the media: as “conceptual work in visually accessible and spectacular form” (Stallabrass 4). While it would be disingenuous to suggest that Hirst has not capitalized or intentionally pandered to the media attention he received, it would be equally naïve to presume that his effort is purely a charade, or a mass-manipulation. The conflation of a media-ted biography with form negates the more significant aspects of Hirst’s work and its various dialogues with visual culture, the viewers in that culture and otherwise, and the history of visual objects, while simultaneously undermining the relative value of the image within contemporary society generally by association to capitalism and art-as-production. Perhaps there is a middle-ground between the Death of the Author, and Obsession with the Author? In reconsidering the aesthetic as a dialectical and culturally-bound sentient response resulting from interaction with an art object and experienced beyond the constraints of the beautiful, the importance of the first-hand interaction with art returns, shifting would-be viewers away from the water-cooler and back to the wonder of the art-experience in its many spectacular guises. References Burn, Gordon. “Hirstworld.” The Guardian 31 Aug. 1996: 10. Collings, Matthew. Blimey! From Bohemia to Britpop: The London Artworld from Francis Bacon to Damien Hirst. London: 21 Publishing Ltd., 1997. Graham-Dixon, Andrew. A History of British Art. Los Angeles: U of California P, 202. The Independent. “Review: Damien Hirst: DIY for Enthusiasts.” 18 Sep. 1997: 9. Millard, Rosie. The Tastemakers: UK Art Now. London: Thames and Hudson, 2001. Rojek, Chris. Celebrity. London: Reaktion Books, 2001. Stallabrass, Julian. High Art Lite. London: Verso, 1999. Taylor, Grace. “Unpleasant Sensation.” Magazine Letter. The Times 27 Sep. 1997: 5. Walker, John A. Art and Celebrity. London: Pluto Press, 2003. Wroe, Martin. “Sister Wendy Puts Boot into Damien.” The Guardian 12 May 1996. Citation reference for this article MLA Style LeBlanc, Carrie. "Stop Press!: Sister Wendy Refers to the Work of Celebrity-Artist Damien Hirst as 'Gossip Shock-Horror Art'!." M/C Journal 7.5 (2004). echo date('d M. Y'); ?> <http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0411/13-leblanc.php>. APA Style LeBlanc, C. (Nov. 2004) "Stop Press!: Sister Wendy Refers to the Work of Celebrity-Artist Damien Hirst as 'Gossip Shock-Horror Art'!," M/C Journal, 7(5). Retrieved echo date('d M. Y'); ?> from <http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0411/13-leblanc.php>.

IntroductionCulinary education in Ireland has long been influenced by culinary education being delivered in catering colleges in the United Kingdom (UK). Institutionalised culinary education started in Britain through the sponsorship of guild conglomerates (Lawson and Silver). The City & Guilds of London Institute for the Advancement of Technical Education opened its central institution in 1884. Culinary education in Ireland began in Kevin Street Technical School in the late 1880s. This consisted of evening courses in plain cookery. Dublin’s leading chefs and waiters of the time participated in developing courses in French culinary classics and these courses ran in Parnell Square Vocational School from 1926 (Mac Con Iomaire “The Changing”). St Mary’s College of Domestic Science was purpose built and opened in 1941 in Cathal Brugha Street. This was renamed the Dublin College of Catering in the 1950s. The Council for Education, Recruitment and Training for the Hotel Industry (CERT) was set up in 1963 and ran cookery courses using the City & Guilds of London examinations as its benchmark. In 1982, when the National Craft Curriculum Certification Board (NCCCB) was established, CERT began carrying out their own examinations. This allowed Irish catering education to set its own standards, establish its own criteria and award its own certificates, roles which were previously carried out by City & Guilds of London (Corr). CERT awarded its first certificates in professional cookery in 1989. The training role of CERT was taken over by Fáilte Ireland, the State tourism board, in 2003. Changing Trends in Cookery and Culinary Textbooks at DIT The Dublin College of Catering which became part of the Dublin Institute of Technology (DIT) is the flagship of catering education in Ireland (Mac Con Iomaire “The Changing”). The first DIT culinary award, was introduced in 1984 Certificate in Diet Cookery, later renamed Higher Certificate in Health and Nutrition for the Culinary Arts. On the 19th of July 1992 the Dublin Institute of Technology Act was enacted into law. This Act enabled DIT to provide vocational and technical education and training for the economic, technological, scientific, commercial, industrial, social and cultural development of the State (Ireland 1992). In 1998, DIT was granted degree awarding powers by the Irish state, enabling it to make major awards at Higher Certificate, Ordinary Bachelor Degree, Honors Bachelor Degree, Masters and PhD levels (Levels six to ten in the National Framework of Qualifications), as well as a range of minor, special purpose and supplemental awards (National NQAI). It was not until 1999, when a primary degree in Culinary Arts was sanctioned by the Department of Education in Ireland (Duff, The Story), that a more diverse range of textbooks was recommended based on a new liberal/vocational educational philosophy. DITs School of Culinary Arts currently offers: Higher Certificates Health and Nutrition for the Culinary Arts; Higher Certificate in Culinary Arts (Professional Culinary Practice); BSc (Ord) in Baking and Pastry Arts Management; BA (Hons) in Culinary Arts; BSc (Hons) Bar Management and Entrepreneurship; BSc (Hons) in Culinary Entrepreneurship; and, MSc in Culinary Innovation and Food Product Development. From 1942 to 1970, haute cuisine, or classical French cuisine was the most influential cooking trend in Irish cuisine and this is reflected in the culinary textbooks of that era. Haute cuisine has been influenced by many influential writers/chefs such as Francois La Varenne, Antoine Carême, Auguste Escoffier, Ferand Point, Paul Bocuse, Anton Mosiman, Albert and Michel Roux to name but a few. The period from 1947 to 1974 can be viewed as a “golden age” of haute cuisine in Ireland, as more award-winning world-class restaurants traded in Dublin during this period than at any other time in history (Mac Con Iomaire “The Changing”). Hotels and restaurants were run in the Escoffier partie system style which is a system of hierarchy among kitchen staff and areas of the kitchens specialising in cooking particular parts of the menu i.e sauces (saucier), fish (poissonnier), larder (garde manger), vegetable (legumier) and pastry (patissier). In the late 1960s, Escoffier-styled restaurants were considered overstaffed and were no longer financially viable. Restaurants began to be run by chef-proprietors, using plate rather than silver service. Nouvelle cuisine began in the 1970s and this became a modern form of haute cuisine (Gillespie). The rise in chef-proprietor run restaurants in Ireland reflected the same characteristics of the nouvelle cuisine movement. Culinary textbooks such as Practical Professional Cookery, La Technique, The Complete Guide to Modern Cooking, The Art of the Garde Mange and Patisserie interpreted nouvelle cuisine techniques and plated dishes. In 1977, the DIT began delivering courses in City & Guilds Advanced Kitchen & Larder 706/3 and Pastry 706/3, the only college in Ireland to do so at the time. Many graduates from these courses became the future Irish culinary lecturers, chef-proprietors, and culinary leaders. The next two decades saw a rise in fusion cooking, nouvelle cuisine, and a return to French classical cooking. Numerous Irish chefs were returning to Ireland having worked with Michelin starred chefs and opening new restaurants in the vein of classical French cooking, such as Kevin Thornton (Wine Epergne & Thorntons). These chefs were, in turn, influencing culinary training in DIT with a return to classical French cooking. New Classical French culinary textbooks such as New Classical Cuisine, The Modern Patisserie, The French Professional Pastry Series and Advanced Practical Cookery were being used in DIT In the last 15 years, science in cooking has become the current trend in culinary education in DIT. This is acknowledged by the increased number of culinary science textbooks and modules in molecular gastronomy offered in DIT. This also coincided with the launch of the BA (Hons) in Culinary Arts in DIT moving culinary education from a technical to a liberal education. Books such as The Science of Cooking, On Food and Cooking, The Fat Duck Cookbook and Modern Gastronomy now appear on recommended textbooks for culinary students.For the purpose of this article, practical classes held at DIT will be broken down as follows: hot kitchen class, larder classes, and pastry classes. These classes had recommended textbooks for each area. These can be broken down into three sections: hot kitche, larder, and pastry. This table identifies that the textbooks used in culinary education at DIT reflected the trends in cookery at the time they were being used. Hot Kitchen Larder Pastry Le Guide Culinaire. 1921. Le Guide Culinaire. 1921. The International Confectioner. 1968. Le Repertoire De La Cuisine. 1914. The Larder Chef, Classical Food Preparation and Presentation. 1969. Patisserie. 1971. All in the Cooking, Books 1&2. 1943 The Art of the Garde Manger. 1973. The Modern Patissier. 1986 Larousse Gastronomique. 1961. New Classic Cuisine. 1989. Professional French Pastry Series. 1987. Practical Cookery. 1962. The Curious Cook. 1990. Complete Pastrywork Techniques. 1991. Practical Professional Cookery. 1972. On Food and Cooking. The Science and Lore of the Kitchen. 1991. On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen. 1991 La Technique. 1976. Advanced Practical Cookery. 1995. Desserts: A Lifelong Passion. 1994. Escoffier: The Complete Guide to the Art of Modern Cookery. 1979. The Science of Cooking. 2000. Culinary Artistry. Dornenburg, 1996. Professional Cookery: The Process Approach. 1985. Garde Manger, The Art and Craft of the Cold Kitchen. 2004. Grande Finales: The Art of the Plated Dessert. 1997. On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen. 1991. The Science of Cooking. 2000. Fat Duck Cookbook. 2009. Modern Gastronomy. 2010. Tab.1. DIT Culinary Textbooks.1942–1960 During the first half of the 20th century, senior staff working in Dublin hotels, restaurants and clubs were predominately foreign born and trained. The two decades following World War II could be viewed as the “golden age” of haute cuisine in Dublin as many award-wining restaurants traded in the city at this time (Mac Con Iomaire “The Emergence”). Culinary education in DIT in 1942 saw the use of Escoffier’s Le Guide Culinaire as the defining textbook (Bowe). This was first published in 1903 and translated into English in 1907. In 1979 Cracknell and Kaufmann published a more comprehensive and update edited version under the title The Complete Guide to the Art of Modern Cookery by Escoffier for use in culinary colleges. This demonstrated that Escoffier’s work had withstood the test of the decades and was still relevant. Le Repertoire de La Cuisine by Louis Saulnier, a student of Escoffier, presented the fundamentals of French classical cookery. Le Repertoire was inspired by the work of Escoffier and contains thousands of classical recipes presented in a brief format that can be clearly understood by chefs and cooks. Le Repertoire remains an important part of any DIT culinary student’s textbook list. All in the Cooking by Josephine Marnell, Nora Breathnach, Ann Mairtin and Mor Murnaghan (1946) was one of the first cookbooks to be published in Ireland (Cashmann). This book was a domestic science cooking book written by lecturers in the Cathal Brugha Street College. There is a combination of classical French recipes and Irish recipes throughout the book. 1960s It was not until the 1960s that reference book Larousse Gastronomique and new textbooks such as Practical Cookery, The Larder Chef and International Confectionary made their way into DIT culinary education. These books still focused on classical French cooking but used lighter sauces and reflected more modern cooking equipment and techniques. Also, this period was the first time that specific books for larder and pastry work were introduced into the DIT culinary education system (Bowe). Larousse Gastronomique, which used Le Guide Culinaire as a basis (James), was first published in 1938 and translated into English in 1961. Practical Cookery, which is still used in DIT culinary education, is now in its 12th edition. Each edition has built on the previous, however, there is now criticism that some of the content is dated (Richards). Practical Cookery has established itself as a key textbook in culinary education both in Ireland and England. Practical Cookery recipes were laid out in easy to follow steps and food commodities were discussed briefly. The Larder Chef was first published in 1969 and is currently in its 4th edition. This book focuses on classical French larder techniques, butchery and fishmongery but recognises current trends and fashions in food presentation. The International Confectioner is no longer in print but is still used as a reference for basic recipes in pastry classes (Campbell). The Modern Patissier demonstrated more updated techniques and methods than were used in The International Confectioner. The Modern Patissier is still used as a reference book in DIT. 1970s The 1970s saw the decline in haute cuisine in Ireland, as it was in the process of being replaced by nouvelle cuisine. Irish chefs were being influenced by the works of chefs such as Paul Boucuse, Roger Verge, Michel Guerard, Raymond Olivier, Jean & Pierre Troisgros, Alain Senderens, Jacques Maniere, Jean Delaveine and Michel Guerard who advanced the uncomplicated natural presentation in food. Henri Gault claims that it was his manifesto published in October 1973 in Gault-Millau magazine which unleashed the movement called La Nouvelle Cuisine Française (Gault). In nouvelle cuisine, dishes in Carème and Escoffier’s style were rejected as over-rich and complicated. The principles underpinning this new movement focused on the freshness of ingredients, and lightness and harmony in all components and accompaniments, as well as basic and simple cooking methods and types of presentation. This was not, however, a complete overthrowing of the past, but a moving forward in the long-term process of cuisine development, utilising the very best from each evolution (Cousins). Books such as Practical Professional Cookery, The Art of the Garde Manger and Patisserie reflected this new lighter approach to cookery. Patisserie was first published in 1971, is now in its second edition, and continues to be used in DIT culinary education. This book became an essential textbook in pastrywork, and covers the entire syllabus of City & Guilds and CERT (now Fáilte Ireland). Patisserie covered all basic pastry recipes and techniques, while the second edition (in 1993) included new modern recipes, modern pastry equipment, commodities, and food hygiene regulations reflecting the changing catering environment. The Art of the Garde Manger is an American book highlighting the artistry, creativity, and cooking sensitivity need to be a successful Garde Manger (the larder chef who prepares cold preparation in a partie system kitchen). It reflected the dynamic changes occurring in the culinary world but recognised the importance of understanding basic French culinary principles. It is no longer used in DIT culinary education. La Technique is a guide to classical French preparation (Escoffier’s methods and techniques) using detailed pictures and notes. This book remains a very useful guide and reference for culinary students. Practical Professional Cookery also became an important textbook as it was written with the student and chef/lecturer in mind, as it provides a wider range of recipes and detailed information to assist in understanding the tasks at hand. It is based on classical French cooking and compliments Practical Cookery as a textbook, however, its recipes are for ten portions as opposed to four portions in Practical Cookery. Again this book was written with the City & Guilds examinations in mind. 1980s During the mid-1980s, many young Irish chefs and waiters emigrated. They returned in the late-1980s and early-1990s having gained vast experience of nouvelle and fusion cuisine in London, Paris, New York, California and elsewhere (Mac Con Iomaire, “The Changing”). These energetic, well-trained professionals began opening chef-proprietor restaurants around Dublin, providing invaluable training and positions for up-and-coming young chefs, waiters and culinary college graduates. The 1980s saw a return to French classical cookery textbook such as Professional Cookery: The Process Approach, New Classic Cuisine and the Professional French Pastry series, because educators saw the need for students to learn the basics of French cookery. Professional Cookery: The Process Approach was written by Daniel Stevenson who was, at the time, a senior lecturer in Food and Beverage Operations at Oxford Polytechnic in England. Again, this book was written for students with an emphasis on the cookery techniques and the practices of professional cookery. The Complete Guide to Modern Cooking by Escoffier continued to be used. This book is used by cooks and chefs as a reference for ingredients in dishes rather than a recipe book, as it does not go into detail in the methods as it is assumed the cook/chef would have the required experience to know the method of production. Le Guide Culinaire was only used on advanced City & Guilds courses in DIT during this decade (Bowe). New Classic Cuisine by the classically French trained chefs, Albert and Michel Roux (Gayot), is a classical French cuisine cookbook used as a reference by DIT culinary educators at the time because of the influence the Roux brothers were having over the English fine dining scene. The Professional French Pastry Series is a range of four volumes of pastry books: Vol. 1 Doughs, Batters and Meringues; Vol. 2 Creams, Confections and Finished Desserts; Vol. 3 Petit Four, Chocolate, Frozen Desserts and Sugar Work; and Vol. 4 Decorations, Borders and Letters, Marzipan, Modern Desserts. These books about classical French pastry making were used on the advanced pastry courses at DIT as learners needed a basic knowledge of pastry making to use them. 1990s Ireland in the late 1990s became a very prosperous and thriving European nation; the phenomena that became known as the “celtic tiger” was in full swing (Mac Con Iomaire “The Changing”). The Irish dining public were being treated to a resurgence of traditional Irish cuisine using fresh wholesome food (Hughes). The Irish population was considered more well-educated and well travelled than previous generations and culinary students were now becoming interested in the science of cooking. In 1996, the BA (Hons) in Culinary Arts program at DIT was first mooted (Hegarty). Finally, in 1999, a primary degree in Culinary Arts was sanctioned by the Department of Education underpinned by a new liberal/vocational philosophy in education (Duff). Teaching culinary arts in the past had been through a vocational education focus whereby students were taught skills for industry which were narrow, restrictive, and constraining, without the necessary knowledge to articulate the acquired skill. The reading list for culinary students reflected this new liberal education in culinary arts as Harold McGee’s books The Curious Cook and On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen explored and explained the science of cooking. On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen proposed that “science can make cooking more interesting by connecting it with the basic workings of the natural world” (Vega 373). Advanced Practical Cookery was written for City & Guilds students. In DIT this book was used by advanced culinary students sitting Fáilte Ireland examinations, and the second year of the new BA (Hons) in Culinary Arts. Culinary Artistry encouraged chefs to explore the creative process of culinary composition as it explored the intersection of food, imagination, and taste (Dornenburg). This book encouraged chefs to develop their own style of cuisine using fresh seasonal ingredients, and was used for advanced students but is no longer a set text. Chefs were being encouraged to show their artistic traits, and none more so than pastry chefs. Grande Finale: The Art of Plated Desserts encouraged advanced students to identify different “schools” of pastry in relation to the world of art and design. The concept of the recipes used in this book were built on the original spectacular pieces montées created by Antoine Carême. 2000–2013 After nouvelle cuisine, recent developments have included interest in various fusion cuisines, such as Asia-Pacific, and in molecular gastronomy. Molecular gastronomists strive to find perfect recipes using scientific methods of investigation (Blanck). Hervè This experimentation with recipes and his introduction to Nicholos Kurti led them to create a food discipline they called “molecular gastronomy”. In 1998, a number of creative chefs began experimenting with the incorporation of ingredients and techniques normally used in mass food production in order to arrive at previously unattainable culinary creations. This “new cooking” (Vega 373) required a knowledge of chemical reactions and physico-chemical phenomena in relation to food, as well as specialist tools, which were created by these early explorers. It has been suggested that molecular gastronomy is “science-based cooking” (Vega 375) and that this concept refers to conscious application of the principles and tools from food science and other disciplines for the development of new dishes particularly in the context of classical cuisine (Vega). The Science of Cooking assists students in understanding the chemistry and physics of cooking. This book takes traditional French techniques and recipes and refutes some of the claims and methods used in traditional recipes. Garde Manger: The Art and Craft of the Cold Kitchen is used for the advanced larder modules at DIT. This book builds on basic skills in the Larder Chef book. Molecular gastronomy as a subject area was developed in 2009 in DIT, the first of its kind in Ireland. The Fat Duck Cookbook and Modern Gastronomy underpin the theoretical aspects of the module. This module is taught to 4th year BA (Hons) in Culinary Arts students who already have three years experience in culinary education and the culinary industry, and also to MSc Culinary Innovation and Food Product Development students. Conclusion Escoffier, the master of French classical cuisine, still influences culinary textbooks to this day. His basic approach to cooking is considered essential to teaching culinary students, allowing them to embrace the core skills and competencies required to work in the professional environment. Teaching of culinary arts at DIT has moved vocational education to a more liberal basis, and it is imperative that the chosen textbooks reflect this development. This liberal education gives the students a broader understanding of cooking, hospitality management, food science, gastronomy, health and safety, oenology, and food product development. To date there is no practical culinary textbook written specifically for Irish culinary education, particularly within this new liberal/vocational paradigm. There is clearly a need for a new textbook which combines the best of Escoffier’s classical French techniques with the more modern molecular gastronomy techniques popularised by Ferran Adria. References Adria, Ferran. Modern Gastronomy A to Z: A Scientific and Gastronomic Lexicon. London: CRC P, 2010. Barker, William. The Modern Patissier. London: Hutchinson, 1974. Barham, Peter. The Science of Cooking. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 2000. Bilheux, Roland, Alain Escoffier, Daniel Herve, and Jean-Maire Pouradier. Special and Decorative Breads. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1987. Blanck, J. "Molecular Gastronomy: Overview of a Controversial Food Science Discipline." Journal of Agricultural and Food Information 8.3 (2007): 77-85. Blumenthal, Heston. The Fat Duck Cookbook. London: Bloomsbury, 2001. Bode, Willi, and M.J. Leto. The Larder Chef. Oxford: Butter-Heinemann, 1969. Bowe, James. Personal Communication with Author. Dublin. 7 Apr. 2013. Boyle, Tish, and Timothy Moriarty. Grand Finales, The Art of the Plated Dessert. New York: John Wiley, 1997. Campbell, Anthony. Personal Communication with Author. Dublin, 10 Apr. 2013. Cashman, Dorothy. "An Exploratory Study of Irish Cookbooks." Unpublished M.Sc Thesis. Dublin: Dublin Institute of Technology, 2009. Ceserani, Victor, Ronald Kinton, and David Foskett. Practical Cookery. London: Hodder & Stoughton Educational, 1962. Ceserani, Victor, and David Foskett. Advanced Practical Cookery. London: Hodder & Stoughton Educational, 1995. Corr, Frank. Hotels in Ireland. Dublin: Jemma, 1987. Cousins, John, Kevin Gorman, and Marc Stierand. "Molecular Gastronomy: Cuisine Innovation or Modern Day Alchemy?" International Journal of Hospitality Management 22.3 (2009): 399–415. Cracknell, Harry Louis, and Ronald Kaufmann. Practical Professional Cookery. London: MacMillan, 1972. Cracknell, Harry Louis, and Ronald Kaufmann. Escoffier: The Complete Guide to the Art of Modern Cookery. New York: John Wiley, 1979. Dornenburg, Andrew, and Karen Page. Culinary Artistry. New York: John Wiley, 1996. Duff, Tom, Joseph Hegarty, and Matt Hussey. The Story of the Dublin Institute of Technology. Dublin: Blackhall, 2000. Escoffier, Auguste. Le Guide Culinaire. France: Flammarion, 1921. Escoffier, Auguste. The Complete Guide to the Art of Modern Cookery. Ed. Crachnell, Harry, and Ronald Kaufmann. New York: John Wiley, 1986. Gault, Henri. Nouvelle Cuisine, Cooks and Other People: Proceedings of the Oxford Symposium on Food and Cookery 1995. Devon: Prospect, 1996. 123-7. Gayot, Andre, and Mary, Evans. "The Best of London." Gault Millau (1996): 379. Gillespie, Cailein. "Gastrosophy and Nouvelle Cuisine: Entrepreneurial Fashion and Fiction." British Food Journal 96.10 (1994): 19-23. Gisslen, Wayne. Professional Cooking. Hoboken: John Wiley, 2011. Hanneman, Leonard. Patisserie. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1971. Hegarty, Joseph. Standing the Heat. New York: Haworth P, 2004. Hsu, Kathy. "Global Tourism Higher Education Past, Present and Future." Journal of Teaching in Travel and Tourism 5.1/2/3 (2006): 251-267 Hughes, Mairtin. Ireland. Victoria: Lonely Planet, 2000. Ireland. Irish Statute Book: Dublin Institute of Technology Act 1992. Dublin: Stationery Office, 1992. James, Ken. Escoffier: The King of Chefs. Hambledon: Cambridge UP, 2002. Lawson, John, and Harold, Silver. Social History of Education in England. London: Methuen, 1973. Lehmann, Gilly. "English Cookery Books in the 18th Century." The Oxford Companion to Food. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1999. 227-9. Marnell, Josephine, Nora Breathnach, Ann Martin, and Mor Murnaghan. All in the Cooking Book 1 & 2. Dublin: Educational Company of Ireland, 1946. Mac Con Iomaire, Máirtín. "The Changing Geography and Fortunes of Dublin's Haute Cuisine Restaurants, 1958-2008." Food, Culture and Society: An International Journal of Multidisiplinary Research 14.4 (2011): 525-45. ---. "Chef Liam Kavanagh (1926-2011)." Gastronomica: The Journal of Food and Culture 12.2 (2012): 4-6. ---. "The Emergence, Development and Influence of French Haute Cuisine on Public Dining in Dublin Restaurants 1900-2000: An Oral History". PhD. Thesis. Dublin: Dublin Institute of Technology, 2009. McGee, Harold. The Curious Cook: More Kitchen Science and Lore. New York: Hungry Minds, 1990. ---. On Food and Cooking the Science and Lore of the Kitchen. London: Harper Collins, 1991. Montague, Prosper. Larousse Gastronomique. New York: Crown, 1961. National Qualification Authority of Ireland. "Review by the National Qualifications Authority of Ireland (NQAI) of the Effectiveness of the Quality Assurance Procedures of the Dublin Institute of Technology." 2010. 18 Feb. 2012 ‹http://www.dit.ie/media/documents/services/qualityassurance/terms_of_ref.doc› Nicolello, Ildo. Complete Pastrywork Techniques. London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1991. Pepin, Jacques. La Technique. New York: Black Dog & Leventhal, 1976. Richards, Peter. "Practical Cookery." 9th Ed. Caterer and Hotelkeeper (2001). 18 Feb. 2012 ‹http://www.catererandhotelkeeper.co.uk/Articles/30/7/2001/31923/practical-cookery-ninth-edition-victor-ceserani-ronald-kinton-and-david-foskett.htm›. Roux, Albert, and Michel Roux. New Classic Cuisine. New York: Little, Brown, 1989. Roux, Michel. Desserts: A Lifelong Passion. London: Conran Octopus, 1994. Saulnier, Louis. Le Repertoire De La Cuisine. London: Leon Jaeggi, 1914. Sonnenschmidt, Fredric, and John Nicholas. The Art of the Garde Manger. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1973. Spang, Rebecca. The Invention of the Restaurant: Paris and Modern Gastronomic Culture. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 2000. Stevenson, Daniel. Professional Cookery the Process Approach. London: Hutchinson, 1985. The Culinary Institute of America. Garde Manger: The Art and Craft of the Cold Kitchen. Hoboken: New Jersey, 2004. Vega, Cesar, and Job, Ubbink. "Molecular Gastronomy: A Food Fad or Science Supporting Innovation Cuisine?". Trends in Food Science & Technology 19 (2008): 372-82. Wilfred, Fance, and Michael Small. The New International Confectioner: Confectionary, Cakes, Pastries, Desserts, Ices and Savouries. 1968.

Engagement in any capacity with mainstream media since mid-2001 has meant immersion in the cross-platform, multimedia phenomenon of Harry Potter: Muggle outcast; boy wizard; corporate franchise. Consumers even casually perusing contemporary popular culture could be forgiven for suspecting they have entered a MÃbius loop in which Harry Potter-related media products and merchandise are ubiquitous: books; magazine cover stories; newspaper articles; websites; television specials; hastily assembled author biographies; advertisements on broadcast and pay television; children's merchandising; and theme park attractions. Each of these media commodities has been anchored in and cross-promoted by America Online-Time Warner's (AOL-TW) first instalment in a projected seven-film sequence—Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone.1 The marketing campaign has gradually escalated in the three years elapsing between AOL-TW subsidiary Warner Bros' purchase from J.K. Rowling of the film and merchandising rights to the first two Harry Potter books, and the November 2001 world premiere of the film (Sherber 55). As current AOL-TW CEO Richard Parsons accurately forecast, "You're not going to be able to go anywhere without knowing about it. This could be a bigger franchise than Star Wars" (Auletta 50). Yet, AOL-TW's promotional strategy did not limit itself to creating mere awareness of the film's release. Rather, its tactic was to create an all-encompassing environment structured around the immense value of the Harry Potter brand—a "brand cocoon" which consumers do not so much enter and exit as choose to exist within (Klein 2002). In twenty-first-century mass marketing, the art is to target affluent consumers willing to direct their informational, entertainment, and consumption practices increasingly within the "walled garden" of a single conglomerate's content offerings (Auletta 55). Such an idealised modern consumer avidly samples the diversified product range of the parent conglomerate, but does so specifically by consuming multiple products derived from essentially the same content reservoir. Provided a match between consumer desire and brand can be achieved with sufficient accuracy and demographic breadth, the commercial returns are obvious: branded consumers pay multiple times for only marginally differentiated products. The Brand-Conglomerate Nexus Recyclable content has always been embraced by media industries, as cultural commodities such as early films of stage variety acts, Hollywood studio-era literary adaptations, and movie soundtrack LPs attest. For much of the twentieth century, the governing dynamic of content recycling was sequential, in that a content package (be it a novel, stage production or film) would succeed in its home medium and then, depending upon its success and potential for translation across formats, could be repackaged in a subsequent medium. Successful content repackaging may re-energise demand for earlier formatting of the same content (as film adaptations of literary bestsellers reliably increase sales of the originating novel). Yet the cultural industries providing risk capital to back content repackaging formerly required solid evidence that content had achieved immense success in its first medium before contemplating reformulations into new media. The cultural industries radically restructured in the last decades of the twentieth century to produce the multi-format phenomenon of which Harry Potter is the current apotheosis: multiple product lines in numerous corporate divisions are promoted simultaneously, the synchronicity of product release being crucial to the success of the franchise as a whole. The release of individual products may be staggered, but the goal is for products to be available simultaneously so that they work in aggregate to drive consumer awareness of the umbrella brand. Such streaming of content across parallel media formats is in many ways the logical culmination of broader late-twentieth-century developments. Digital technology has functionally integrated what were once discrete media operating platforms, and major media conglomerates have acquired subsidiaries in virtually all media formats on a global scale. Nevertheless, it remains true that the commercial risks inherent in producing, distributing and promoting a cross-format media phenomenon are vastly greater than the formerly dominant sequential approach, massively escalating financial losses should the elusive consumer-brand fit fail to materialise. A key to media corporations' seemingly quixotic willingness to expose themselves to such risk is perhaps best provided by Michael Harkavy, Warner Bros' vice-president of worldwide licensing, in his comments on Warner Music Group's soundtrack for the first Harry Potter film: It will be music for the child in us all, something we hope to take around the world that will take us to the next level of synergy between consumer products, the [AOL-TW cable channel] Cartoon Network, our music, film, and home video groups—building a longtime franchise for Harry as a team effort. (Traiman 51) The relationship between AOL-TW and the superbrand Harry Potter is essentially symbiotic. AOL-TW, as the world's largest media conglomerate, has the resources to exploit fully economies of scale in production and distribution of products in the vast Harry Potter franchise. Similarly, AOL-TW is pre-eminently placed to exploit the economies of scope afforded by its substantial holdings in every form of content delivery, allowing cross-subsidisation of the various divisions and, crucially, cross-promotion of the Harry Potter brand in an endless web of corporate self-referentiality. Yet it is less frequently acknowledged that AOL-TW needs the Harry Potter brand as much as the global commercialisation of Harry Potter requires AOL-TW. The conglomerate seeks a commercially protean megabrand capable of streaming across all its media formats to drive operating synergies between what have historically been distinct commercial divisions ("Welcome"; Pulley; Auletta 55). In light of AOL-TW's record US$54.2b losses in the first quarter of 2002, the long-term viability of the Harry Potter franchise is, if anything, still more crucial to the conglomerate's health than was envisaged at the time of its dot.com-fuelled January 2000 merger (Goldberg 23; "AOL" 35). AOL-TW's Richard Parsons conceptualises Harry Potter specifically as an asset "driving synergy both ways", neatly encapsulating the symbiotic interdependence between AOL-TW and its star franchise: "we use the different platforms to drive the movie, and the movie to drive business across the platforms" ("Harry Potter" 61). Characteristics of the Harry Potter Brand AOL-TW's enthusiasm to mesh its corporate identity with the Harry Potter brand stems in the first instance from demonstrated consumer loyalty to the Harry Potter character: J.K. Rowling's four books have sold in excess of 100m copies in 47 countries and have been translated into 47 languages.2 In addition, the brand has shown a promising tendency towards demographic bracket-creep, attracting loyal adult readers in sufficient numbers to prompt UK publisher Bloomsbury to diversify into adult-targeted editions. As alluring for AOL-TW as this synchronic brand growth is, the real goldmine inheres in the brand's potential for diachronic growth. From her first outlines of the concept, Rowling conceived of the Potter story as a seven-part series, which from a marketing perspective ensures the broadscale re-promotion of the Harry Potter brand on an almost annual basis throughout the current decade. This moreover assists re-release of the first film on an approximately five-year basis to new audiences previously too young to fall within its demographic catchment—the exact strategy of "classic" rebranding which has underwritten rival studio Disney's fortunes.3 Complementing this brand extension is the potential to grow child consumers through the brand as Harry Potter sequels are produced. Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone director Chris Columbus spruiks enthusiastically that "the beauty of making these books into films is that with each one, Harry is a year older, so [child actor] Daniel [Radcliffe] can remain Harry as long as we keep making them" (Manelis 111). Such comments suggest the benefits of luring child consumers through the brand as they mature, harnessing their intense loyalty to the child cast and, through the cast, to the brand itself. The over-riding need to be everything to everyone—exciting to new consumers entering the brand for the first time, comfortingly familiar to already seasoned consumers returning for a repeat hit—helps explain the retro-futuristic feel of the first film's production design. Part 1950s suburban Hitchcock, Part Dickensian London, part Cluny-tapestry medievalism, part public school high-Victorianism, Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone strives for a commercially serviceable timelessness, in so doing reinforcing just how very twenty-first-century its conception actually is. In franchise terms, this conscious drive towards retro-futurism fuels Harry Potter's "toyetic potential" (Siegel, "Toys" 19). The ease with which the books' complex plots and mise-en-scene lend themselves to subsidiary rights sales and licensed merchandising in part explains Harry Potter's appeal to commercial media. AOL-TW executives in their public comments have consistently stayed on-message in emphasising "magic" as the brand's key aspirational characteristic, and certainly scenes such as the arrival at Hogwarts, the Quidditch match, the hatching of Hagrid's dragon and the final hunt through the school's dungeons serve as brilliant advertisements for AOL-TW's visual effects divisions. Yet the film exploits many of these "magic" scenes to introduce key tropes of its merchandising programme—Bertie Bott's Every Flavour Beans, chocolate frogs, Hogwarts house colours, the sorting hat, Scabbers the rat, Hedwig, the Remembrall—such that it resembles a series of home shopping advertisements with unusually high production values. It is this railroading of the film's narrative into opportunities for consumerist display which leads film critic Cynthia Fuchs to dub the Diagon Alley shopping scene "the film's cagiest moment, at once a familiar activity for school kid viewers and an apt metaphor for what this movie is all about—consumption, of everything in sight." More telling than the normalising of shopping as filmic activity in Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone is the eclipse of the book's checks on commodity fetishism: its very British sensitivity to class snubs for the large and impecunious Weasley family; the puzzled contempt Hogwarts initiates display for Muggle money; the gentle ribbing at children's obsession with branded sports goods. The casual browser in the Warner Bros store confronted with a plastic, light-up version of the Nimbus 2000 Quidditch broomstick understands that even the most avid authorial commitment to delimiting spin-off merchandise can try the media conglomerate's hand only so far. Constructing the Harry Potter Franchise The film Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone constitutes the indispensable brand anchor for AOL-TW's intricate publicity and sales strategy around Harry Potter. Because content recycling within global media conglomerates is increasingly lead by film studio divisions, the opening weekend box office taking for a brand-anchoring film is crucial to the success of the broader franchise and, by extension, to the corporation as a whole. Critic Thomas Schatz's observation that the film's opening serves as "the "launch site" for its franchise development, establishing its value in all other media markets" (83) highlights the precariousness of such multi-party financial investment all hinging upon first weekend takings. The fact that Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone broke (then standing) box office records with its 16 November 2001 three-day weekend openings in the US and the UK, garnering US$93.2m and GBP16m respectively, constituted the crucial first stage in AOL-TW's brand strategy (Collins 9; Fierman and Jensen 26). But it formed only an initial phase, as subsequent content recycling and cross-promotion was then structured to radiate outwards from this commercial epicentre. Three categories of recycled AOL-TW Harry Potter content are discernible, although they are frequently overlapping and not necessarily sequential. The first category, most closely tied to the film itself, are instances of reused digital content, specifically in the advance publicity trailer viewable on the official website, and downloads of movie clips, film stills and music samples from the film and its soundtrack.4 Secondly, at one remove from the film itself, is AOL-TW's licensing of film "characters, names and related indicia" to secondary manufacturers, creating tie-in merchandise designed to cross-promote the Harry Potter brand and stoke consumer investment (both emotional and financial) in the phenomenon.5 This campaign phase was itself tactically designed with two waves of merchandising release: a September 2000 launch of book-related merchandise (with no use of film-related Harry Potter indicia permitted); and a second, better selling February 2001 release of ancillary products sporting Harry Potter film logos and visual branding which coincided with and reinforced the marketing push specifically around the film's forthcoming release (Sherber 55; Siegel, "From Hype" 24; Lyman and Barnes C1; Martin 5). Finally, and most crucial to the long-term strategy of the parent conglomerate, Harry Potter branding was used to drive consumer take up of AOL-TW products not generally associated with the Harry Potter brand, as a means of luring consumers out of their established technological or informational comfort zones. Hence, the official Harry Potter website is laced with far from accidental offers to trial Internet service provider AOL; TimeWarner magazines Entertainment Weekly, People, and Time ran extensive taster stories about the film and its loyal fan culture (Jensen 56-57; Fierman and Jensen 26-28; "Magic Kingdom" 132-36; Corliss 136; Dickinson 115); AOL-TW's Moviefone bookings service advertised pre-release Harry Potter tickets on its website; and Warner Bros Movie World theme park on the Gold Coast in Australia heavily promoted its Harry Potter Movie Magic Experience. Investment in a content brand on the scale of AOL-TW's outlay of US$1.4m for Harry Potter must not only drive substantial business across every platform of the converged media conglomerate by providing premium content (Grover 66). It must, crucially for the long run, also drive take up and on-going subscriptions to the delivery services owned by the parent corporation. Energising such all-encompassing strategising is the corporate nirvana of seamless synergy: between content and distribution; between the Harry Potter and AOL-TW brands; between conglomerate and consumer. Notes 1. The film, like the first of J.K. Rowling's books, is titled Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone in the "metaphysics-averse" US ("Harry Potter" 61). 2. Publishing statistics sourced from Horn and Jones (59), Manelis (110) and Bloomsbury Publishing's Harry Potter website: http://www.bloomsburymagazine.com/harryp.... 3. Interestingly, Disney tangentially acknowledged the extent to which AOL-TW has appropriated Disney's own content recycling strategies. In a film trailer for the Pixar/Disney animated collaboration Monsters, Inc. which screened in Australia and the US before Harry Potter sessions, two monsters play a game of charades to which the answer is transparently "Harry Potter." In the way of such homages from one media giant to another, it nevertheless subtly directs the audience to the Disney product screening in an adjacent cinema. 4. The official Harry Potter film website is http://harrypotter.warnerbros.com. The official site for the soundtrack to Harry Potter and the Philosopher's/Sorcerer's Stone is: http://www.harrypottersoundtrack.com. 5. J.K. Rowling." A page and a half of non-negotiable "Harry Potter Terms of Use" further spells out prohibitions on use or modification of site content without the explicit (and unlikely) consent of AOL-TW (refer: http://harrypotter.warnerbros.com/cmp/te...). References "AOL losses 'sort of a deep disappointment'." Weekend Australian 18-19 May 2002: 35. Auletta, Ken. "Leviathan." New Yorker 29 Oct. 2001: 50-56, 58-61. Collins, Luke. "Harry Potter's Magical $178m Opening." Australian Financial Review 20 Nov. 2001: 9. Corliss, Richard. "Wizardry without Magic." Time 19 Nov. 2001: 136. Dickinson, Amy. "Why Movies make Readers." Time 10 Dec. 2001: 115. Fierman, Daniel, and Jeff Jensen. "Potter of Gold: J.K. Rowling's Beloved Wiz Kid hits Screensand Breaks Records." Entertainment Weekly 30 Nov. 2001: 26-28. Fuchs, Cynthia. "The Harry Hype." PopPolitics.com 19 Nov. 2001: n.pag. Online. Internet. 8 Mar. 2002. Available <http://www.poppolitics.com/articles/2001-11-19-harry.shtml>. Goldberg, Andy. 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Links http://www.bloomsburymagazine.com/harrypotter/muggles http://www.harrypottersoundtrack.com http://harrypotter.warnerbros.com http://www.poppolitics.com/articles/2001-11-19-harry.shtml http://www.abc.net.au/rn/talks/8:30/mediarpt/stories/s445871.htm http://harrypotter.warnerbros.com/cmp/terms.html Citation reference for this article MLA Style Murray, Simone. "Harry Potter, Inc." M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 5.4 (2002). [your date of access] < http://www.media-culture.org.au/mc/0208/recycling.php>. Chicago Style Murray, Simone, "Harry Potter, Inc." M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 5, no. 4 (2002), < http://www.media-culture.org.au/mc/0208/recycling.php> ([your date of access]). APA Style Murray, Simone. (2002) Harry Potter, Inc.. M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 5(4). < http://www.media-culture.org.au/mc/0208/recycling.php> ([your date of access]).