Teses / dissertações sobre o tema "Propulseur Hall"
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Coche, Philippe. "Modélisation cinétique d’un propulseur à effet Hall". Toulouse 3, 2013. http://thesesups.ups-tlse.fr/1995/.
Texto completo da fonteHall effect thrusters are used for station-keeping of satellites in geostationary orbit. The originality of this kind of thruster is the use of a magnetic field which traps the electrons and creates a high electric field region. In this region, the ions are accelerated and extracted from the plasma to provide a thrust. Electron transport across the magnetic field lines is a major issue in predicting the thruster performance. Several transport mechanisms as collision phenomena and plasma turbulence have been identified to play a role but their exact contribution is still not clear. Based on two numerical particle models ("Particle-In-Cell"), composed of an explicit and implicit trajectory-tracking schemes, this work thesis aims at analyzing the proceeding of a discharge in order to isolate the transport mechanisms of electrons. It also aims at providing a better understanding of the plasma turbulence on the discharge behavior. We emphasize the strong unstationnary character of the discharge. We also study a particular transport mechanism, governed by turbulence and volumic collisions, using a particle-test numerical model
Perez, Luna Jaime. "Modélisation et diagnostics d'un propulseur à effet Hall". Toulouse 3, 2008. http://www.theses.fr/2008TOU30155.
Texto completo da fonteOne of the greatest challenges in space exploration is to develop spacecrafts capable of covering great distances with little fuel. Electric thrusters, among which is the Hall effect thruster, are capable of this thanks to their high exhaust velocity. During my PhD, I have tried to understand the physics involved in these thrusters, by means of numerical models and accurate diagnostics. My hosting group has been working on hybrid modeling of these thrusters for about ten years. However, the electron fluid description in such models is still a challenge. One of the problems of the fluid model is the difficulty of solving the fluid equations in 2D. This first problem has been overcome by using a new algorithm. This algorithm makes it now easier to study thrusters with complex magnetic fields. The second problem concerns electron transport which is not well understood. A deep study of a fully particle model in the axial and azimuthal directions has shown that an azimuthal electric field wave, present in the thruster, enhances the electron transport. Also, I have developed a new method to extract the electric field and ionization term profiles from laser spectroscopy measurements. The comparison between these results and those obtained with our hybrid model shows the limit of the electron transport description used until now. This comparison has also shown a possible path to follow in order to correctly describe the electron transport in hybrid models for Hall effect thrusters
Dubois, Loic. "Etudes expérimentales du concept de propulseur de Hall double étage". Thesis, Toulouse 3, 2018. http://www.theses.fr/2018TOU30320/document.
Texto completo da fonteIn Hall thrusters, the same physical phenomenon is used both to generate the plasma and to accelerate ions. Furthermore, only a single operating point is experimentally observed. The double stage Hall thruster (DSHT) design could allow a separate control of ionization (thrust) and ions acceleration (ISP) to make the system more versatile. The work carried out during this PhD aims to experimentally demonstrate the relevance and the feasibility of this concept. Firstly, a new design of DSHT, called ID-HALL, was proposed and a new prototype was built. It combines the concentric cylinder configuration of a single stage Hall thruster with a magnetized inductively coupled RF plasma source (ICP) whose coil is placed inside the inner cylinder. The ICP source was improved in terms of power coupling efficiency by adding ferrite parts and by decreasing the heating RF frequency. The ICP source used in the ID-HALL thruster was then characterized independently of the thruster using argon and xenon and varying pressure. The experimental setup has allowed to measure the spatial variations of the electron density and temperature. Finally, the thruster was mounted in its vacuum chamber and preliminary measures (voltage-current characteristics, RPA measurements) were led. At the same time, simulations using a two-dimensional hybrid model were performed in single and double stage. A versatile operation for voltages lower than 150 V was highlighted. An emphasis will be given to demonstrate that the current density (given by the ion flux probe) and the ions energy (given by the RPA) might be significantly decoupled
Chung, To Sang Marc. "Transport électronique et émission secondaire électronique dans un propulseur de Hall". Electronic Thesis or Diss., Université de Toulouse (2023-....), 2024. http://www.theses.fr/2024TLSES077.
Texto completo da fonteThe boom in satellite space activities has led to the development of numerous electric thruster technologies. Among these, the Hall current thruster is attracting growing interest due to its cost, thrust and specific impulse characteristics. Although this technology has been around for at least fifty years, simulating and understanding its operation remains out of reach. The dynamics of charged particles in the ExB cross-field configuration are rich in instabilities whose role in thruster operation has not yet reached scientific consensus. In this thesis, we propose to take up the "Particle-in-cell" (PIC) approach, which consists in tracking the individual trajectories of charged particles in phase space subjected to an electric field that is a solution of Poisson's equation and calculated on a computational grid. In its explicit version, this numerical method has to meet space and time step constraints that harden with increasing electron density. In three spatial dimensions, the classical PIC algorithm cannot be applied to real thruster conditions. A recent approach, called "Sparse-PIC", circumvents this problem by means of sparse grid methods. It is based on the principle of cancelling grid errors when combining coarse-mesh sub-grids to represent the solution on the fine-mesh grid. The computational performance obtained with the code implemented during the thesis has enabled us to apply this new approach to an ExB cross-field configuration in a reduced Hall thruster model
Sary, Gaétan. "Modélisation d'une cathode creuse pour propulseur à plasma". Thesis, Toulouse 3, 2016. http://www.theses.fr/2016TOU30182/document.
Texto completo da fonteA hollow cathode is a critical component of plasma thrusters. In a plasma thruster, a propellant gas is ionized in a discharge chamber and accelerated out of it so as to generate thrust. In Hall thrusters in particular, the ionization of the gas is caused by an intense electron current (from a few to hundred amps) which flows through the discharge chamber. The hollow cathode is the device which is responsible for providing the discharge current. This key element is often idealized in thruster numerical models and its physical behavior is rarely studied for its own sake. Yet, developing high power Hall thrusters, designed to propel in the long run every type of space mission, requires new hollow cathodes able to supply an intense electron current (over 100 A) over a duration on the order of ten thousand hours. So far, designing new cathodes proved difficult because of the lack of model capable of predicting the performance of a cathode based on its design. In this work, we build up a predictive model of a hollow cathode capable of simulating the physics relevant to the operation of the cathode. In the end, we aim at using this model to associate design characteristics of the cathode to key aspects of the cathode performance during operation. Our goal with this model is to guide the development of future high power hollow cathodes. We will first briefly describe the range of application of hollow cathodes related to space propulsion. Then we will give a brief account of the working principles of the cathode and we will set the numerical models available in the literature prior to this one out. The numerical model developed in this work will then be described. It includes a fluid treatment of the plasma as well as an account of the heat fluxes to the walls which largely control the performance of the cathode. Simulation results will be thoroughly compared to experimental measurements available in the literature and specific aspects of the model will be refined to match up simulation results with the physical reality. For instance, a model that specifically represents the transition region between the internal plasma of the cathode and the plume of the cathode will be described. This model will enable us to highlight plasma instability phenomena which were so far observed experimentally, yet never properly included in hollow cathode models. Using the model just developed, we will analyze the physics of a particular hollow cathode which has been developed by NASA at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, the NSTAR hollow cathode. Then, thanks to the numerical model, we will be able to carry out a parametric study revolving around the design of the NSTAR cathode. This will allow us to bring out the influence of the design on the cathode performance and we will eventually express recommendations regarding the design of future high power cathodes. To conclude, the versatility of the numerical model built up here will also be displayed through simulations of the behavior of a hollow cathode based on an alternate geometry
Chable, Stéphane. "Modélisation numérique d'un propulseur à plasma stationnaire". Toulouse, ENSAE, 2003. http://www.theses.fr/2003ESAE0007.
Texto completo da fonteAlbarède, Luc. "Etudes expérimentales d'un propulseur à effet Hall : comportement stationnaire et dynamique du flux d'électrons". Orléans, 2004. http://www.theses.fr/2004ORLE2070.
Texto completo da fonteCavalier, Jordan. "Modèles cinétiques et caractérisation expérimentale des fluctuations électrostatiques dans un propulseur à effet Hall". Thesis, Université de Lorraine, 2013. http://www.theses.fr/2013LORR0130/document.
Texto completo da fonteThe study of turbulent phenomena that grow at the exit plane of the Hall thruster is required to modelize the anomalous transport (in contrast to the diffusion transport) of electrons across the magnetic field lines. The dispersion relations of two instabilities that can be responsible for this transport have been mesured at millimetric scales by mean of the collective light scattering diagnostic. The aim of the thesis is to describe them theoretically as well as experimentally, improving the understanding of the Hall thruster transport. In the thesis, an instability that propagates principally azimuthally is caracterized as the ExB electron drift instability and an analytical model that describes the experimental frequency is derived and validated. In addition, the manuscript presents an original method to unfold the signal of the collective scattering diagnostic from the instrumental function of this mode. Once corrected, the experimental dispersion relations can be adjusted by the frequency given by the analytical model, allowing to measure experimentally and in an original way the electron temperature and density in the energetic ion jet of the Hall thruster plasma. The second instability that is mainly propagating in the axial direction is caracterized as the two-stream instability between the simply and doubly charged ions of the plasma
Ducrocq, Alexandre. "Rôle des instabilités électroniques de dérive dans le transport électronique du propulseur à effet Hall". Phd thesis, Ecole Polytechnique X, 2006. http://pastel.archives-ouvertes.fr/pastel-00002029.
Texto completo da fonteBoniface, Claude. "Modélisation et diagnostic d'un propulseur à effet Hall pour satellites : configuration magnétique et nouveaux concepts". Phd thesis, Université Paul Sabatier - Toulouse III, 2006. http://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-00164160.
Texto completo da fonteL'étude porte sur la modélisation des phénomènes physiques dans le propulseur associée à une étude expérimentale, plus limitée, et destinée à valider ou compléter les modèles. La modélisation est basée sur une description des phénomènes de transport des particules (électrons, ions, neutres) en champs électrique et magnétique croisés. Un modèle développé au CPAT a été complété et utilisé pour chercher les conditions optimales de fonctionnement, en particulier l'étude de la configuration magnétique des moteurs à Effet Hall existants. De plus, nous avons développé un modèle pour étudier de nouveaux concepts de moteurs à Effet Hall, en particulier un moteur à Effet Hall à Double Etage, dans lequel on cherche à contrôler séparément la génération du plasma et l'accélération des ions.
La partie expérimentale a consisté à utiliser des techniques de diagnostics plasma (interférométrie de Fabry-Pérot) permettant de mesurer la distribution du champ électrique dans le système, résultant de la présence du plasma et des tensions appliquées aux électrodes. Les mesures ont été effectuées sur le moyen d'essai PIVOINE installé à Orléans. La confrontation systématique des résultats expérimentaux et de simulation a permis de mieux définir les possibilités et les limites du modèle et d'en améliorer ses capacités prédictives.
Boniface, Claude. "Modélisation et diagnostics d'un propulseur à effet Hall pour satellites : configuration magnétique et nouveaux concepts". Toulouse 3, 2006. http://www.theses.fr/2006TOU30016.
Texto completo da fonteHall Effect Thrusters (HETs) are gridless ion engines where a magnetic field barrier is used to impede the electron motion toward the anode and generate a large electric field that provides collisionless ion acceleration. The thrust is about 100 mN and the specific impulse of HETs is in the range 1600-2000 s (i. E. The velocity of ejected xenon ions is on the order of 16-20 km/s). The thrust and the specific impulse of standard Single Stage HETs are well adapted to the missions of orbit correction and station keeping. The goal here is to model the physical phenomena occurring in such a thruster, and, in correlation with experimental studies, to validate and/or improve the assumptions of the model. The model describes the transport of the electrons, ions, and neutrals in crossed electric and magnetic fields. The model developed at CPAT was extended and used to identify conditions for optimal operation of the thruster, with particular attention to the influence of the magnetic field distribution on the thruster operation. In addition, we developed a model to study new thuster concepts such as a Double Stage Hall Effect Thruster, where ionization and acceleration are accomplished in two stages. The experimental study involved using specific plasma diagnostics (Fabry-Perot Interferometry) in order to measure the electric field distribution in the thruster. Measurements were made at the PIVOINE test facility in Orléans. Systematic comparisons between experimental results and simulations allowed us to define more clearly the limits of the model and to improve its predictive ability
Vilamot, Raphaël. "Optimisation de la configuration magnétique d'un propulseur à effet Hall par résolution du problème magnétostatique inverse". Phd thesis, Toulouse, INPT, 2012. http://oatao.univ-toulouse.fr/14668/1/vilamot.pdf.
Texto completo da fonteGarnier, Yvan. "Pulvérisation ionique de matériaux céramiques dans le cadre de la caractérisation d'un propulseur à effet hall". Toulouse, ENSAE, 1999. http://www.theses.fr/1999ESAE0023.
Texto completo da fonteRossi, Alberto. "Développement d'outils d'optimisation dédiés aux circuits magnétiques des propulseurs à effet Hall". Phd thesis, Toulouse, INPT, 2017. http://oatao.univ-toulouse.fr/19234/1/ROSSI_Alberto_public.pdf.
Texto completo da fonteGawron, Damien. "Phénomènes de transport ionique dans le plasma d’un propulseur à effet Hall à forte puissance : étude par spectroscopie laser". Orléans, 2007. http://www.theses.fr/2007ORLE2061.
Texto completo da fonteBogopolsky, Guillaume. "Exploration des méthodes pour la simulation numérique des propulseurs à effet Hall". Electronic Thesis or Diss., Université de Toulouse (2023-....), 2025. http://www.theses.fr/2025TLSEP015.
Texto completo da fonteIn the last fifteen years, the number of satellites orbiting Earth has shown an exponential increase. The high cost of space launches has driven manufacturers towards more efficient propulsion technologies, such as electric thrusters. Hall thrusters belong to this category, and have shown remarkable efficiency and life time for orbital transfers, orbital station-keeping and space exploration applications. However, their physics is not yet fully understood, such as the abnormal erosion of the ceramic material at the thruster's exit plane, and the various instabilities that appear across a range of frequencies, including rotating spokes, breathing modes, sheath instabilities and electron drift instabilities. Notably, they prevent a simple modeling of the thrusters and thus a simple scaling of the technology in order to reach higher thrust and optimize efficiency, which has to be done empirically.Given these challenges, computer simulations have emerged as a crucial tool for advancing our understanding and predicting the behavior of Hall thrusters. To this end, CERFACS, in collaboration with Safran Aircraft Engines and the Laboratoire de Physique des Plasmas, has been developing the AVIP code since 2016. AVIP is a massively parallelized simulation tool that employs an unstructured grid and supports both Lagrangian (Particle-in-Cell, or PIC) and Eulerian (fluid) approaches, offering flexibility in modeling different aspects of the thruster's plasma dynamics. Initial results using AVIP enabled detailed studies of the azimuthal instabilities characteristic of Hall thrusters.The primary objective of this thesis was to investigate and finalize a version of AVIP that can perform high-fidelity simulations of Hall thrusters with a balance between computational cost and precision, leveraging both PIC and fluid models. We have explicited the implementation details of the required elements for such as solver in a parallel unstructured framework based on the industry standard solver AVBP, and detailed the numerical and optimization challenges that arise. Then, its capacity to perform plasma computation is evaluated on a 1D benchmark setup and a 2D setup representative of a Hall thruster and showing traces of the Electron Cyclotron Drift Instability. Then, a Penning discharge is computed in the context of an international benchmark using the PIC method in order to verify our ability to capture spoke instabilities and setup a reference case for future fluid simulations
Croes, Vivien. "Plasma discharge 2D modeling of a Hall thruster". Thesis, Université Paris-Saclay (ComUE), 2017. http://www.theses.fr/2017SACLX060/document.
Texto completo da fonteAs space applications are increasingly crucial in our daily life, satellite operating costs need to be decreased. This can be achieved through the use of cost efficient electric propulsion systems. One of the most successful and competitive electric propulsion system is the Hall effect thruster, but this system is characterized by its complexity and remains poorly understood. Indeed some key questions, concerning electron anomalous transport or plasma/wall interactions, are still to be answered.Answers to both questions are based on kinetic mechanisms, and thus cannot be solved with fluid models. Furthermore the temporal and geometrical scales of these mechanisms make them difficult to be experimentally measured. Consequently we chose, in order to answer those questions, to develop a bi-dimensional fully kinetic simulation tool.Using a simplified simulation of the Hall effect thruster, we observed the importance of the azimuthal electron drift instability for anomalous cross-field electron transport. Then, using a realistic model of a Hall effect thruster, we were able to study the effects of plasma/wall interactions on the plasma discharge characteristics, as well as to quantify the coupled effects of secondary electron emission and electron drift instability on the anomalous transport. Through parametric study of secondary electron emission, three plasma discharge regimes were identified. Finally the impact of alternative propellants was studied
Tsikata, Sedina. "Fluctuations de densité électronique à petite échelle dans un propulseur à effet Hall, investigué par la méthode de diffusion collective". Phd thesis, Ecole Polytechnique X, 2009. http://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-00484027.
Texto completo da fonteGuglielmi, Alexandre. "Propulseur à courant de Hall double étage à source RF inductive : étude expérimentale du fonctionnement et des instabilités basses fréquences". Thesis, Toulouse 3, 2020. http://www.theses.fr/2020TOU30243.
Texto completo da fonteUnlike chemical thrusters, electric Hall current thrusters are small motors used for station keeping, orbiting, and interplanetary missions. Often characterized by low thrusts, they have the advantage of having a very high ejection speed and specific impulse. The principle is based on the ionization of a rare gas (Xe, Kr) by a potential difference applied through a magnetic barrier. The locally weaker electronic conductivity in the barrier leads to the creation of an electric field in this region. The ions are then subjected to this field and are therefore accelerated to speeds which may exceed several tens of km/s. The electric field at this barrier is then responsible for the acceleration of the ions and therefore, simultaneously, for the thrust and the specific impulse. In order to modify independently these two parameters, a double stage Hall thruster (ID-Hall, Inductive Double stage HALL thruster)) has been developed. The first stage is the ionization stage, consisting of an independent plasma source (ICP source), and the second stage is the acceleration region with the magnetic barrier. Using different diagnostics (ionic flux probe, retarding potential analyzer, high speed camera, current-voltage probes, segmented anode, etc.) and a numerical model (HALLIS), we were able to characterize the plasma, its instabilities, and thruster performance. Despite the singular magnetic mapping of this thruster, the characteristics in single stage operation are comparable to those of conventional Hall current thrusters. In dual-stage operation, the RF source significantly affects the transport of electrons in the thruster. In addition, other double-stage results show that at low discharge voltages, the discharge current is lower than at single stage. The energy of the extracted ions is higher in double stage and the ion current decreases with increasing RF power but remains close to the ion current in single stage. This study was carried out in Xenon and Argon. Low-frequency oscillations of large amplitudes (Breathing Mode) were observed experimentally, analyzed by time-resolved probe and compared to results obtained by the model. Other azimuthal instabilities (Rotating Spokes) have also been identified as well as studied electrically and by imaging. As soon as the source is active, at low RF power, these previous instabilities are strongly attenuated, while at higher power, other azimuthal instabilities appear (Striations). These azimutals instabilities were also studied around the source alone, by imaging in different gases and using a PIC-MCC model
Charoy, Thomas. "Numerical study of electron transport in Hall thrusters". Thesis, Institut polytechnique de Paris, 2020. http://www.theses.fr/2020IPPAX046.
Texto completo da fonteIn the last decade, the number of satellites orbiting around Earth has grown exponentially. Thanks to their low propellant consumption, more and more electric thrusters are now used aboard these satellites, with the Hall thrusters being one of the most efficient. From the diversity of applications stems the need of widening the thruster power capabilities. However, due to a lack of knowledge on Hall thruster physics, this scaling is currently done empirically, which limits the efficiency of the newly developed thrusters and increases the development time and cost. To overcome this issue, numerical models can be used but a deeper understanding on key phenomena is still needed, more specifically on the electron anomalous transport which should be self-consistently accounted for to properly capture the discharge behaviour.As this transport is related to the azimuthal electron drift instability, an existing 2D Particle-In-Cell code was further developed to simulate this azimuthal direction along with the axial direction in which the ions are accelerated, producing the thrust. Prior to analyse the discharge behaviour, this code has been verified on a benchmark case, with 6 other PIC codes developed in different international research groups. This simplified case was later used to stress-test previous analytical developments to approximate the instability-enhanced electron-ion friction force which represents the contribution of the azimuthal instabilities to the anomalous transport. Then, the neutral dynamics has been included to capture the full self-consistent behaviour of the discharge. We used an artificial scaling technique, increasing the vacuum permittivity, to relax the PIC stability constraints and speed-up the simulations. Thanks to an efficient code parallelisation, we managed to reduce this scaling factor to a small value, hence simulating a case close to reality. The electron-ion friction force was found to be the main contributor to the anomalous transport throughout the whole low-frequency breathing mode oscillations. Finally, the complex interaction between the breathing mode, the ion-transit time instabilities and the azimuthal electron drift instabilities has been studied, with the formation of long-wavelength structures associated with an enhanced anomalous transport
Grimaud, Lou. "Magnetic shielding topology applied to low power Hall thrusters". Thesis, Orléans, 2018. http://www.theses.fr/2018ORLE2046/document.
Texto completo da fonteHall thrusters are one of the most used rocket electric propulsion technology. They combine moderate specific impulse with high thrust to power ratio which makes them ideal for a wide range of practical commercial and scientific applications. One of their limitations is the erosion of the thruster walls which reduces their lifespan.The magnetic shielding topology is a proposed solution to prolong the lifespan. It is implemented on a small200W Hall thruster.In this thesis the scaling of classical unshielded Hall thrusters down to 200 and 100W is discussed. A 200W low power magnetically shielded Hall thruster is compared with an identically sized unshielded one. The ion behavior inside the thruster is measured and significant differences are found across the discharge channel.Both thrusters are tested with classical BN-SiO2 and graphite walls. The magnetically shielded thruster is not sensitive to the material change while the discharge current increase by 25% in the unshielded one. The result is a maximum efficiency of 38% for boron nitride in the unshielded thruster but only 31% with graphite.The shielded thruster achieves a significantly lower efficiency with only 25% efficiency with both materials.Analysis of the experimental results as well as simulations of the thrusters reveal that the performance difference is mostly caused by low propellant utilization. This low propellant utilization comes from the fact that the ionization region doesn’t cover all of the discharge channel. A new magnetically shielded thruster is designed to solve this issue
Bourgeois, Guillaume. "Influence de la topologie magnétique, de la cathode et de la section du canal sur l'accélération des ions dans un propulseur à effet Hall". Thesis, Orléans, 2012. http://www.theses.fr/2012ORLE2032.
Texto completo da fonteElectric propulsion systems are more and more often used for trajectory correction of satellites and may soon be used for orbit transfer. These devices represent a great alternative to classic chemical propulsion devices thanks to their high efficiency and propellant mass savings. Hall effect thruster provide thrust by the acceleration of xenon or krypton ions in a magnetized confined plasma. The study presented in this manuscript mainly addresses characteristics of ion and atom acceleration in a Hall effect thruster. Influence of channel width, magnetic topology and cathode parameters on ion acceleration efficiency is investigated. Ways to optimize thruster architecture are suggested that may be particularly relevant for low power thrusters, such as widening thruster channel and increasing magnetic field amplitude near channel walls. Influence of cathode position with respect to the thruster channel exit plane and its potential with respect to ground on ion beam deviation has been revealed with two thrusters. Low frequency time evolution of the accelerating electric field was measured using lock-in photon counting system. Results strongly suggest that the atom temperature plays a crucial role in low frequency time evolution of the whole plasma discharge. Measurement of performances as a function of the magnetic field demonstrated that numeric parameters are compulsory to carry on a relevant parametric study. These parameters would summarize the 2D information of magnetic topology. Weak influence of magnetic topology revealed that thrust measurement precision needs to be increased by at least one order of magnitude if one wants to reach a better understanding of plasma confinement in a Hall effect thruster
Sadouni, Sarah. "Modélisation fluide du transport et des instabilités dans des sources plasma froid magnétisé". Thesis, Toulouse 3, 2020. http://www.theses.fr/2020TOU30014.
Texto completo da fonteIt is well known from experiments that magnetized low-temperature plasmas in devices such as Hall thrusters and ion sources often show the emergence of instabilities that can cause anomalous transport phenomena and strongly affect the device operation. In this thesis we investigate the possibilities to simulate these instabilities self-consistently by fluid modeling. This is of great potential interest for engineering. We used a quasineutral fluid code developed at the LAPLACE laboratory, called MAGNIS (MAGnetized Ion Source), solving a set of fluid equations for electrons and ions in a 2D domain perpendicular to the magnetic field lines. It was found that in many cases of practical interest, MAGNIS simulations show plasma instabilities and fluctuations. A first goal of this thesis is to understand the origin of the instabilities observed in MAGNIS and make sure that they are a physical result and not numerical artifacts. For this purpose, we carried out a detailed linear stability analysis based on dispersion relations, from which analytical growth rates and frequencies were successfully compared with those measured in MAGNIS simulations for simple configurations forced to remain in a linear regime. We then identified these linear unstable modes and their responsible mechanisms (involving parameters such as the density gradient, electric and magnetic fields and inertia), known from the literature, that are likely to occur in these fluid simulations. Subsequently, we simulated the nonlinear evolution and saturation of the instabilities and quantified the anomalous transport generated in different cases relevant to ion sources, depending on various key parameters of the system (electric and magnetic fields and electron temperature). Finally, we highlighted several limitations of MAGNIS, and more generally of fluid models, due to the physical approximations made (quasineutrality, absence of kinetic effects). We showed that the fluid modes are sometimes most unstable at infinitely small scales for which the theory is no longer valid and which cannot be resolved numerically. We proposed, and tested in MAGNIS, ways to overcome this problem by introducing effective diffusion terms representing small scale processes (non-neutrality, Larmor radius)
Dannenmayer, Käthe. "Scaling laws and electron properties in Hall effect thrusters". Phd thesis, Université d'Orléans, 2012. http://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-00797732.
Texto completo da fonteRenaud, Denis. "Caractérisation du propulseur PEGASES : diagnostics du filtre magnétique et du faisceau : optimisation de la géométrie". Thesis, Orléans, 2016. http://www.theses.fr/2016ORLE2018/document.
Texto completo da fonteThe PEGASES ion thruster differs from standard electric propulsion technologies through its use of electronegative gases, such as SF₆, as a propellant. Its operation relies on the trapping of electrons using a magnetic field and the creation of a plasma dominated by positive and negative ions. These ions are alternately accelerated to produce thrust, and later undergo a recombination to ensure beam neutrality. This thruster eliminates the need for an electron-producing neutralizer, which is a standard feature in other sources such as the Hall thruster. This thesis is divided into three parts. The first describes the development and implementation of a new EXB probe for the study of the ion beam properties, the identification of the beam chemical composition and the verification of the presence of negative and positive ion species. The second part concerns the design and application of a new laser photodetachment diagnostic for the measurement of the negative ion fraction. Lastly, a new ion-ion thruster with a circular geometry, known as AIPE, has been designed, constructed and successfully tested. This prototype eliminates the plasma asymmetry present in PEGASES and reveals the importance of the magnetic filter to source operation
Vaudolon, Julien. "Electric field determination and magnetic topology optimization in Hall thrusters". Thesis, Orléans, 2015. http://www.theses.fr/2015ORLE2026/document.
Texto completo da fonteElectric propulsion is facing new challenges. Recently, the launch of "all-electric" satellites has marked the debut of a new era. Going all-electric now appears as an interesting alternative to conventional systems for telecom operators. A laser spectroscopy technique was used during this research to investigate the ion velocity distribution dynamics. The different methods for determining the electric field in Hall thrusters were exposed. Two unstable ion regimes were identified and examined. Measurement uncertainties using electrostatic probes were assessed. Planar probed have been designed and tested. A thorough investigation of the influence of the magnetic field parameters on the performance of Hall thrusters was performed. The wall-less Hall thruster design was presented, and preliminary experiments have revealed its interest for the electric propulsion community
Sanogo, Satafa. "Conception optimale de circuits magnétiques dédiés à la propulsion spatiale électrique par des méthodes d'optimisation topologique". Thesis, Toulouse 3, 2016. http://www.theses.fr/2016TOU30015/document.
Texto completo da fonteIn this work, we present theoretical and numerical optimization method for designing magnetic circuits for Hall effect thrusters. These design problems are very difficult inverse ones that we formulate under the form of topology optimization problems. Then, the obtained problems are non convex subject to Maxwell equations like constraints. Some original approaches have been proposed to solve efficiently these topology optimization problems. These approaches are based on the material density model called SIMP approach (Solid Isotropic Material with Penalization) which is a variante of the homogenization method. The results in my thesis allowed to provide optimization source code named ATOP (Algorithm To Optimize Propulsion) unsung in parallel two scientific computing softwares namely Matlab and FEMM (Finite Element Method Magnetics). In ATOP, we use both local optimization algorithms based on sensitivity analysis of the design problem; and global optimization algorithms mainly of type Branch and Bound based on Interval Arithmetic analysis. ATOP will help to optimize both the topological shape of the magnetic circuits and the time and cost of production (design process) of new generations of electrical thrusters
Diop-Ngom, Fatou. "Source de particules neutres monocinétiques : diagnostics spécifiques et étude physique d'une source de Hall en plasma d'argon ou en mixture xénon-argon". Thesis, Orléans, 2015. http://www.theses.fr/2015ORLE2025/document.
Texto completo da fonteSince the 50s, electric propulsion has improved in order to establish itself on space propulsion field. The Hall Effect Thruster (HET) are mainly used for trajectory correction or satellites orbit maintaining. The HET provide high current densities and low energy ion beam that making it a good candidate for other applications such as microelectronics or surface treatments. Xenon propellant is most commonly used due to its high atomic mass and its low ionization energy. However, the high cost and difficult supply of xenon, leads to looking for alternative propellant for HET operation. In this context, this PhD thesis had as goal the development of a functional Argon low power source. Argon discharge ignition is not immediate, that why a progressive approach which involves gas mixture discharges was adopted. The Xe-Ar discharge gives very interesting results for the understanding of physical mechanisms governing HET. The characterization of Xe II ions velocity (Laser Induced Fluorescence) associated to the energy analysis by RPA have provided access to useful information on ionization and acceleration areas. An original time resolved RPA technique, based on an ultra-fast discharge interruption or on the discharge current oscillations, has been developed. This technique allows the identification and the quantification of different species present in the ion beam. Thanks to the discharge Xe-Ar study, a pure argon discharge could be initiated and characterized for the first time in a low power HET
Vial, Vanessa. "Etudes physiques et paramétriques de propulseurs plasma pour applications spatiales". Orléans, 2004. http://www.theses.fr/2004ORLE2061.
Texto completo da fontePrioul, Mathieu. "Etude expérimentale des propulseurs de type Hall : processus collisionnels, comportement dynamique, micro-instabilités et phénomènes de transport". Orléans, 2002. http://www.theses.fr/2002ORLE2058.
Texto completo da fonteGascon, Nicolas. "Etude de propulseurs plasmiques à effet Hall pour systèmes spatiaux : performances, propriétés des décharges et modélisation hydrodynamique". Aix-Marseille 1, 2000. http://www.theses.fr/2000AIX11059.
Texto completo da fonteROCHE, STEPHANIE. "Analyse par spectroscopie optique d'emission du plasma des propulseurs a effet hall - application a l'erosion des ceramiques". Paris 11, 2001. http://www.theses.fr/2001PA112119.
Texto completo da fonteVillemant, Marc. "Modélisation et caractérisation expérimentale de l’influence de l’émission électronique sur le fonctionnement des propulseurs à courant de Hall". Thesis, Toulouse, ISAE, 2018. http://www.theses.fr/2018ESAE0038.
Texto completo da fonteNowadays, plasma Hall thrusters are used in space industry for satellites orbit rising and satellites attitude control. Nonetheless, the comprehension their physical functioning remains patchy. Several phenomena such as abnormal electron mobility or the thrusters performance dependency to wall material are still not understood. Consequently the current process to improve and qualify Hall thrusters are involving expansive and time-consuming experimental validation which, in the end, does not ensure the release of an operational thruster. Consequently, plasma behaviour in Hall thruster is a key topic of research, which could lead to non-negligible improvement in Hall thruster technology development.This Ph.D. consists in the modelling and characterization of plasma/wall interaction in Hall thrusters and its impact on Hall thruster’s performance. This Ph.D. has focused on the influence of the electron emission under electron impact on Hall thruster’s performances. It has been divided into three parts. Firstly, an experimental investigation has been carried out in order to obtain reference data on materials commonly used as plasma thruster wall (bore nitride and silicon dioxide). A literature review has been made in order to find a theoretical basis fitted to the elaboration of an electron emission model fitting the requirement of a particle in cell simulation of a Hall thruster. In second part, a detailed electron emission model based on this literature review and validated by comparison to experimental data and to a Monte-Carlo model developed in ONERA (called OSMOSEE) has been developed. This model offers the possibility to describe electron emission yield, angular and energy distribution of emitted electrons depending on various physical parameters (e.g. incident electron energy, incident electron angle, impinged material, etc.). Besides, as it is an analytical model, it computes in a reduced time (a few minutes to one hour). In a third and last part, this electron emission model has been implemented in a Particle-In-Cell (PIC) simulation of Hall thruster’s plasma and a parametric study has been carried out in order to characterize the influence of electron emission phenomenon on global plasma behaviour. This parametric study has shown that electron emission has a non-negligible impact on energy balance at plasma/wall interface and on electron distribution function in the plasma, which can’t be considered as Maxwellian
Souza, João Henrique Campos de. "Estudo da Dinâmica de Partículas em um Propulsor a Plasma do tipo Hall com Ímãs Permanentes". reponame:Repositório Institucional da UnB, 2006. http://repositorio.unb.br/handle/10482/8486.
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Desde meados de 2000, o Laboratório de Plasmas do Instituto de Física da Universidade de Brasília (LP) vem desenvolvendo o Projeto PHALL, que tem como objetivos a criação e o estudo de um sistema de propulsão a plasma produzido por corrente Hall, baseado nos Stationary Plasma Thrusters (SPT). A diferença entre os SPT¿s convencionais e o desenvolvido no LP é a fonte do campo magnético: dois anéis de ímãs permanentes de raios diferentes e coaxiais substituem os eletroímãs. A intenção dessa permuta é obviamente reduzir o consumo de energia elétrica do propulsor, e, consequentemente aumentar a vida útil desse sistema. No entanto, o problema físico do propulsor PHALL ainda não foi formalmente estabelecido. Fatores importantes para a compreensão e melhoria do funcionamento dessa tecnologia, como a identificação do tipo de descarga e do campo de força predominante na formação e na aceleração do plasma para cada regime de operação ainda não foram investigados. Os objetivos deste trabalho são justamente formular o problema da produção e do movimento dos íons e elétrons e propor um entendimento mais abrangente para a aceleração dos íons, sugerindo ter o campo elétrico papel fundamental na ejeção do plasma. Descrevemos as evidências experimentais dessa hipótese e discorremos sobre suas conseqüências para a compreensão do funcionamento do propulsor. _________________________________________________________________________________ ABSTRACT
Since 2000, The Plasma Laboratory of the Physics Institute of the University of Brasília (LP) has developed the Project PHALL, with the objectives to develop and study a plasma propulsion system, based on the Stationary Plasma Thrusters (SPT). The main difference between the conventional SPT and the thruster developed in LP is the source of the magnetic field: two coaxial permanent magnet rings with different radii substitute the electromagnets. The intention of this substitution is obviously to reduce the energy consumption of the thruster and, consequently, increase the period of usage of the system. However, the problem of the thruster has not been formally established. An important factor for the comprehension and improvement of this technology, like the identification of the type of the electric discharge and the force field predominant in the plasma production and acceleration for each of the operation regimes has not been investigated. The aims of this work are to establish the problem of the plasma production and the ion and electron motions and propose a more extensive comprehension of the ion acceleration mechanism, in which the electric field has a fundamental role on the plasma ejection. We describe the experimental evidences of this hypothesis and its consequences for the understanding of the propulsion system.
Carvalho, Guilherme Morais de. "Medida da temperatura de íons em um propulsor a plasma do tipo hall via espectroscopia óptica". reponame:Repositório Institucional da UnB, 2008. http://repositorio.unb.br/handle/10482/5171.
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A espectroscopia é uma das técnicas mais empregadas para o estudo de plasmas principalmente por se tratar de um método não intrusivo. Outras técnicas de diagnóstico de plasmas com sondas emissivas e analisadores de energia, realizam as medidas mas interferem nas configurações de campo bem como no próprio plasma, esfriando-o e promovendo recombinação de íons. Por outro lado, dados obtidos por espectroscopia permitem a caracterização de inúmeros fenômenos físicos tais como a temperatura de íons e composição do plasma. Dados de densidade de plasma, distribuição de velocidades e direção do fluxo do plasma são baseados no alargamento das linhas espectrais que são medidos diretamente com espectroscopia óptica. É possível também, utilizando técnicas de espectroscopia, medir efeitos como Stark e Zeeman bem como sua contribuição para o perfil da linha espectral obtida experimentalmente. Neste projeto desenvolveu-se um sistema de diagnóstico baseado em espectroscopia óptica aplicado a um propulsor a plasma por efeito Hall, PHALL- 01, do laboratório de plasma do IF-UnB. Foram realizadas tomadas de dados do espectro em toda região do visível (3000 a 8000 °A). Posteriormente verificou-se os picos mais persistentes classificando-os afim de se obter a composição do plasma. Realizou-se a medida do alargamento Doppler para o cálculo da temperatura de íons. Caracterizou-se também o plasma do PHALL-01 de forma a se estabelecer um regime estável e ideal de operação para que se estime a aplicabilidade deste tipo de propulsor e sua qualificação espacial. _______________________________________________________________________________________ ABSTRACT
Spectroscopy is one of the most used techniques concerning the study of plasma, owning particulary to the fact that it is a non-intrusive method. Others plasma diagnostic techniques with emissive probe and energy analyzers perform the desired measurement but interfere in the field configuration as well as in plasma itself provoking plasma cooling and ions recombination. On the other hand spectroscopy obtained data, allows characterization of many physical features such ions temperature and plasma composition. Density plasma data, velocity distribution and plasma flux direction are based on spectral lines broaden witch are measured directly from optical spectroscopy. By using spectroscopy techniques it is also possible to measure effects such as Stark and Zeeman’s as well as their contribution to experimental obtained spectral line profile. In this project it was developed an optical spectroscopy based system applied to the Plasma Hall Thruster PHALL-01 of UnB’s Plasma Laboratory. Data acquisition took place through the entire visible range (3000 to 8000 °A). Following, it was carried out a verification and subsequent classification of the most often appearing peaks for means of obtaining plasma composition. Doppler enlargement measurements were applied in order to calculate ions temperature. The PHALL-01’s plasma was also characterized so as to establish an ideal stable operation regime to estimate the applicability of this kind of thruster as well as its spatial qualification.
Moraes, Brunno Silva. "Estudo de algumas aquisições orbitais usando um propulsor a plasma do tipo hall com imãs permanentes". reponame:Repositório Institucional da UnB, 2008. http://repositorio.unb.br/handle/10482/2145.
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Este trabalho tem como objeto a dinâmica da aquisição de órbitas por satélites artificiais que foram equipados com propulsores a plasma do tipo Hall. Esses dispositivos são responsáveis pela transformação da energia elétrica utilizada na ionização do gás em energia cinética para a aceleração do plasma que provê empuxo ao satélite. Desde meados de 2002, o Laboratório de Plasmas do Instituto de Física da Universidade de Brasília desenvolve o protótipo derivado dos propulsores de deriva fechada - hoje chamados Stationary Plasma Thrusters (SPT) - que utiliza ímas permanentes para a geração dos campos magnéticos internos e o efeito hall para ejeção dos íons de propelente. A aplicabilidade desse propulsor em manobras de transferência de órbitas é numericamente investigada a partir de propostas de manobras orbitais com baixo empuxo. São realizadas simulações numéricas da transferência de satélites de pequeno, médio e grande porte de órbitas baixas (LEO) para órbita geossíncrona, da remoção orbital de satélites geoestacionários e da alteração de inclinação orbital visando à órbita equatorial. O trabalho visa a indicadores numéricos da viabilidade do uso do propulsor Hall com imãs permanentes em algumas aquisições orbitais. O projeto PHall é desenvolvido pelo LP-IFUnB em colaboração com o grupo de Automação e Controle da Engenharia Mecânica, com o Laboratório Associado de Plasma do INPE e com a FEG-UNESP. ________________________________________________________________________________________ ABSTRACT
This work aims at momentum for the acquisition of orbits of artificial satellites equipped with a Hall thruster. These devices are responsible for the transformation of the electricity used in the gas ionization in kinetic energy for the acceleration of the plasma that provides thrust to the satellite. Since mid-2002, the Plasma Laboratory of the Institute of Physics of the University of Brasilia develop the prototype derivative of the closed drift plasma thrusters - nowadays called Stationary Plasma Thrusters (SPT) - which uses permanent magnets for the generation of internal magnetic fields and the Hall effect for ion propellant ejection. The Hall thruster’s applicability in orbit transfer maneuvers is numerically investigated from proposals for orbital maneuvers with low thrust. There are performed numerical simulations of the transfer of satellites with small, medium and large size from low orbits (LEO) to geosinchronous orbit, de-orbit of geostationary satellites and changes of the orbital inclination seeking the equatorial orbit. The work aims to numerical indicators of the viability of the use of Hall thruster with permanent magnets in some orbital acquisitions. The PHall project is developed by LP-IFUnB in collaboration with the group of Automation and Control of Mechanical Engineering (UnB), with the Associate Laboratory of Plasma INPE and the FEG-UNESP.
Jolivet, Laurent. "Étude de l'influence de l'émission électronique secondaire sur le phénomène de gaine et application aux propulseurs de satellite à effet Hall". Toulouse, ENSAE, 2000. http://www.theses.fr/2000ESAE0020.
Texto completo da fontePôssa, Gabriela Cunha. "Desenvolvimento de um sistema de detecção de instabilidades de plasma para um propulsor a plasma do tipo hall". reponame:Repositório Institucional da UnB, 2009. http://repositorio.unb.br/handle/10482/4090.
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O Laboratório de Plasmas do Instituto de Física da Universidade de Brasília (LP) vem trabalhando desde 2002 com o Projeto PHALL, que consiste no desenvolvimento e caracterização de um sistema de propulsão a plasma por efeito Hall, indicado para controle de atitude de satélites e missões espaciais de longa duração. O grande diferencial deste propulsor consiste na utilização de ímas permanentes para geração do campo magnético e confinamento dos elétrons para formação da corrente Hall, o que faz com que o consumo energético do propulsor seja reduzido, tornando-se mais promissor para a capacitação espacial. Um dos fenômenos que pode influenciar significativamente no desempenho de propulsores a plasma é a ocorrência de instabilidades. Neste trabalho analisamos as possíveis instabilidades que podem ocorrer no interior do canal de aceleração através de um desenvolvimento teórico e propomos a utilização de um sistema para detecção das mesmas a partir de uma sonda detectora de RF (rádio freqüência). _________________________________________________________________________________________ ABSTRACT
The Plasma Laboratory of UnB has been developing a Hall Thruster since 2002. The project consists on the construction and charactrerization of a plasma propulsion engine based on the Hall Effect. This thrusting system is designed to be used in satellite attitude control and long term space missions. A great advantage of this kind of thruster is the production of a steady state magnetic field by permanent magnets providing electral trapping and Hall Current generation within a significant decrease on the energy used and thus turning this thruster into a good option when it comes to space usage. One of the phenomena that may significantly interfere in the device’s performance is the occurrence of instabilities. In this work, we trated the theory of instabilities that can occur inside the Hall channel and, in order to better understand the oscillations that occur during the thruster’s operation we propose the use of a instability detection system based on a RF (radio frequency) detection probe.
Guerrini, Gilles. "Etude expérimentale des phénomènes de décharge et propagation d'ondes dans les propulseurs ioniques à dérive d'électrons en cycle fermé". Aix-Marseille 1, 1997. http://www.theses.fr/1997AIX11021.
Texto completo da fontePigeon, Valentin. "Laser induced fluorescence study of plasma-insulator wall interaction involving secondary electron emission". Thesis, Aix-Marseille, 2019. http://www.theses.fr/2019AIXM0307.
Texto completo da fonteIn Hall-effect ion thrusters, the interaction between the plasma and the ceramic walls has an impact on the devices’ lifetime and performances. This is partially due to the secondary electron emission (SEE), a phenomenon that may cool down the plasma, resulting in a lower ionization rate, and may trigger turbulence and instabilities. For these reasons, it is necessary to understand the plasma-ceramic wall interaction and evaluate the impact of the SEE. This study mainly focuses on plasma sheaths – the fundamental mechanism involved in plasma-wall interaction – standing in front of Hall thrusters’ ceramics. Those sheaths are compared to other materials’ ones used in plasma devices, and the influence of the SEE on them is studied. The experimental part of the study mainly relies on the laser induced fluorescence diagnostic that allows to probe plasma sheaths in a non-intrusive way. The sheaths’ structure, the ion density variations and the ion distribution functions’ shape are presented and discussed. It is shown that the sheath is material dependent and that the thrusters’ ceramics’ SEE is lower than for the other studied ceramics, which is coherent with previous measurements. Also, a peak in the ion density is observed near the sheath entrance, a result not captured by the classical sheath theory. These experimental results are compared with a 1D kinetic sheath model and kinetic simulations that use the SEE yields found in the literature. Finally, the first step of highly emissive plasma sheath measured with laser induced fluorescence is presented
Potrivitu, George-Cristian. "Low–voltage External Discharge Plasma Thruster and Hollow Cathodes Plasma Plume Diagnostics Utilising Electrostatic Probes and Retarding Potential Analyser". Thesis, 2016. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:ltu:diva-59796.
Texto completo da fonteLa présente thèse est le résultat d'une période de recherche à l'Institut des Sciences Spatiales et Astronautiques de l'Agence Spatiale Japonaise, ISAS / JAXA qui a suivi la voie des diagnostics du plasma de la plume de propulseurs électriques spatiaux. Au cours des études expérimentales, deux cathodes creuses à fort courant et un prototype innovant d'un propulseur basse tension à décharge externe de plasma (XPT) avaient leurs faisceaux de plasma diagnostiqués en utilisant des sondes électrostatiques et un analyseur à potentiel retardé. La plume d’un propulseur à effet Hall et d’une cathode creuse est définie comme un plasma quasi-neutre non-magnétisé qui est principalement formé de particules neutres, d’électrons, d’ions monovalents et bivalents. Les techniques de diagnostic du plasma fournissent des informations, via des observations pratiques, afin de bien comprendre la dynamique des composants de la plume mentionnés ci-dessus, les processus physiques qui se déroulent dans la plume et leurs effets sur une sonde spatiale, par exemple. La maîtrise de ces aspects du plasma de la plume généré par les propulseurs électriques spatiaux renforce les processus de conception de ce type de propulsion, ce qui conduit à des dispositifs hautement efficaces. Tout d'abord, l'introduction donne un aperçu sur les principes fondamentaux de cathodes creuses et de propulseurs à effet Hall, et une brève présentation des techniques de diagnostic du plasma utilisées lors de la recherche : sondes de Langmuir simples et doubles, des sondes émissives et d’analyseur à potentiel retardé. Ensuite, les principes fondamentaux de diagnostic de la plume sont représentés de manière exhaustive, d’abord la théorie cinétique classique du plasma, les fonctions de distribution en énergie et pour terminer une vue d'ensemble de la théorie de la collecte de charge par des sondes cylindriques. Par la suite, les particularités des diverses techniques d'analyse sont exposées pour les sondes de Langmuir, les sondes émissives et RPA, en mettant l'accent sur leurs avantages et leurs inconvénients. Les montages expérimentaux pour les procédures de diagnostic de la plume-plasma de cathodes et du XPT sont ensuite décrits. La logique expérimentale, les schémas électriques ainsi qu'une présentation de la conception et de la fabrication de chaque sonde sont largement discutés. Les résultats expérimentaux pour les cathodes creuses sont exposés de façon à présenter la différence entre plusieurs méthodes d'analyse de données appliquées aux données brutes. Une discussion s’ensuit, basée sur les résultats afin d'identifier efficacement les mécanismes qui ont produits les propriétés électroniques observées. Pour la première fois, la plume d'un propulseur à décharge externe de plasma a été diagnostiquée en utilisant des sondes de Langmuir doubles. La thèse met en évidence les principaux résultats obtenus pour le diagnostic en champ lointain de la plume-plasma du XPT. Les résultats expérimentaux pour les positions sur l'axe du propulseur et le cartes 2D de la plume pour plusieurs distances axiales loin de l’anode offrent une base pour de futures mesures, un terme de comparaison et une base de données pour appuyer les codes numériques. Les résultats sont discutés et sont rapportés aux données de performances du propulseur obtenus lors des essais précédents. La thèse comprend des analyses de la cohérence entre les données expérimentales et les résultats de simulation numérique, et les incertitudes des paramètres mesurés du plasma associées à chaque procédure d'analyse des données sont évaluées pour chaque ensemble de données. Enfin, les conclusions soulignent les principaux aspects de la recherche et une poursuite des travaux sur les techniques de diagnostic de plasma pour les cathodes creuses et le XPT est suggérée.