Teses / dissertações sobre o tema "Jet-steam"

During the case of a hypothetical severe accident in a light water reactor, core damage may occur and molten fuel may interact with water resulting in explosive interactions. A Fuel-Coolant Interactions (FCI) consists of many complex phenomena whose characteristics determine the energetics of the interactions. The fuel melt initially undergoes fragmentation after contact with the coolant which subsequently increases the melt surface area exposed to coolant and causes rapid heat transfer. A substantial amount of research has been done to understand the phenomenology of FCI, still there are gaps to be filled in terms of the uncertainties in describing the processes such as breakup/fragmentation of melt and droplets. The objective of the present work is to substantiate the understanding in the premixing phase of the FCI process by studying the deformation/pre-fragmentation of melt droplets and also the mechanism of melt jet breakup. The focus of the work is to study the effect of various influential parameters during the premixing phase that determine the intensity of the energetics in terms of steam explosion. The study is based on numerical analysis starting from smaller scale and going to the large scale FCI. Efforts are also taken to evaluate the uncertainties in estimating the steam explosion loads on the reactor scale. The fragmented core is expected to form a porous debris bed. A part of the present work also deals with experimental investigations on the coolability of prototypical debris bed. Initially, the phenomenology of FCI and debris bed coolability is introduced. A review of the state of the art based on previous experimental and theoretical developments is also presented. The study starts with numerical investigation of molten droplet hydrodynamics in a water pool, carried out using the Volume Of Fluid (VOF) method in the CFD code ANSYS FLUENT. This fundamental study is related to single droplets in a preconditioning phase, i.e. deformation/pre-fragmentation prior to steam explosion. The droplet deformation is studied extensively also including the effect of the pressure pulse on its deformation behavior. The effect of material physical properties such as density, surface tension and viscosity are investigated. The work is then extended to 3D analysis as a part of high fidelity simulations, in order to overcome the possible limitations of 2D simulations. The investigation on FCI processes is then continued to the analysis on melt jet fragmentation in a water pool, since this is the crucial phenomenon which creates the melt-coolant pre-mixture, an initial condition for steam explosion. The calculations are carried out assuming non-boiling conditions and the properties of Wood’s metal. The jet fragmentation and breakup pattern are carefully observed at various Weber numbers. Moreover, the effect of physical and material properties such as diameter, velocity, density, surface tension and viscosity on jet breakup length, are investigated. After the fundamental studies, the work was extended to reactor scale FCI energetics. It is mainly oriented on the evaluation of uncertainties in estimating the explosion impact loads on the surrounding structures. The uncertainties include the influential parameters in the FCI process and also the code uncertainties in calculations. The FCI code MC3D is used for the simulations and the PIE (propagation of input errors) method is used for the uncertainty analysis. The last part of the work is about experimental investigations of debris coolability carried out using the POMECO-HT facility at KTH. The focus is on the determination of the effect of the bed’s prototypical characteristics on its coolability, in terms of inhomogeneity with heap like (triangular shape) bed and the radial stratified bed, and also the effect of its multi-dimensionality. For this purpose, four particle beds were constructed: two homogeneous, one with radial stratification and one with triangular shape, respectively. The effectiveness of coolability-enhanced measures such as bottom injection of water and a downcomer (used for natural circulation driven coolability, NCDC) was also investigated. The final chapter includes the summary of the whole work.<br>Under ett svårt haveri i en kärnkraftsreaktor kan en härdsmälta bildas och smältan växelverka på ett explosivt sätt med kylvattnet. En sådan FCI (Fuel-Coolant-Interaction) inbegriper flera fysikaliska processer vilkas förlopp bestämmer hur stor den frigjorda energin blir. Vid kontakt med vattnet fragmenteras först härdsmältan vilket i sin tur leder till att en större yta exponeras för kylvattnet och att värmeöverföringen från smältan snabbt ökar. Mycket forskning har ägnats åt att förstå vad som sker under en FCI men det finns fortfarande luckor att fylla vad beträffar t ex osäkerheter i beskrivningen av fragmentering av såväl smälta som enskilda droppar av smält material. Syftet med detta arbete är främst att underbygga en bättre förståelse av den inledande delen av en FCI genom att studera dels hur enskilda droppar av smält material deformeras och splittras och dels hur en stråle av smält material fragmenteras. Vi studerar särskilt vilka parametrar som mest påverkar den energi som frigörs vid ångexplosionen. Problemet studeras med numerisk analys med början i liten skala och sedan i full skala. Vi söker också uppskatta de laster som explosionen utsätter reaktorns komponenter för. En annan viktig fråga gäller kylbarheten hos den slaggansamling som bildas under reaktorhärden efter en FCI. Slagghögen förväntas ha en porös struktur och en del av avhandlingen redogör för experimentella försök som genomförts för att utvärdera kylbarheten i olika prototypiska slaggformationer. I avhandlingens inledning beskrivs de fysikaliska processerna under en FCI och kylningen av en slaggansamling. Det aktuella kunskapsläget på dessa områden presenteras också utgående från tidigare experimentella och teoretiska studier. Studierna i avhandlingen inleds med numerisk analys av hydrodynamiken för en enskild droppe smälta i en vattentank där VOF-metoden i CFD-programmet ANSYS FLUENT används. Denna grundläggande studie rör en enskild droppe under förstadiet till fragmentering och ångexplosion då droppen deformeras alltmer. Deformationen studeras ingående också med hänsyn tagen till inverkan av en tryckpuls. Inverkan av olika egenskaper hos materialet, som densitet, ytspänning och viskositet studeras också. Arbetet utvidgas sedan till en beskrivning i 3D för att undvika de begränsningar som finns i en 2D-simulering. Studierna av FCI utvidgas sedan till en analys av fragmentering av en stråle smälta i vatten. Detta är en kritisk del av förloppet då smälta och vatten blandas för att ge utgångstillståndet för ångexplosionen. Beräkningarna genomförs under antagande att kokning inte sker och med materialegenskaper som för Wood´s metall. Mönstret för fragmentering och uppsplittring studeras ingående för olika Weber-tal. Dessutom studeras effekten på strålens uppsplittringslängd av parametrar som diameter och hastighet för strålen samt densitet, ytspänning och viskositet hos materialet. Efter dessa grundläggande studier utvidgas arbetet till FCI-energier i reaktorskala. Här ligger tonvikten på utvärdering av osäkerheter i bestämningen av den inverkan explosionen har på omgivande konstruktioner och komponenter. Osäkerheterna inkluderar eventuell bristande noggrannhet hos såväl de viktiga parametrarna i FCI-processen som i själva beräkningarna. Den sista delen av arbetet handlar om experimentella undersökningar av slaggformationens kylbarhet som genomförts i uppställningen POMECO-HT vid avdelningen för kärnkraftsäkerhet på KTH. Vi vill bestämma effekten av formationens prototypiska egenskaper på kylbarheten. För detta ändamål konstruerades fyra olika formationer: två homogena, en med radiell variation i partikelstorlek och en med triangulär variation. Vi undersökte också hur förbättrad kylning kan uppnås genom att tillföra kylvatten underifrån respektive via ett fallrör (kylning genom naturlig cirkulation). I det avslutande kapitlet ges en sammanfattning av hela arbetet.<br><p>QC 20150507</p>

Dans cette thèse, nous avons exploré l'impact du changement climatique sur la turbulence en ciel clair (CAT), un phénomène affectant la sécurité aérienne et à l'origine de la plupart des accidents dans l'aviation liés aux conditions météorologiques. Des études récentes indiquent une augmentation de la fréquence de la CAT au cours des dernières décennies, tendance qui devrait persister avec le réchauffement climatique. Notre recherche, s'appuyant sur différentes réanalyses atmosphériques et simulations de modèles climatiques, a intégré les incertitudes liées à la variabilité interne et aux modèles pour étudier les changements de la CAT dans un climat passé et futur. Nous avons démontré que les modèles sont adéquats pour caractériser la CAT en haute altitude, bien que certains modèles tendent à sous-estimer la fréquence de la CAT dans l'Atlantique nord. De plus, nous utilisons plusieurs diagnostics de CAT pour évaluer la sensibilité des résultats aux différentes représentations de la turbulence. Nous avons observé une augmentation significative de la fréquence de la CAT, notamment dans l'Atlantique nord, le Pacifique nord, l'est de l'Asie, Moyen-Orient et l'Afrique du Nord. Cela est principalement dû à une forte augmentation du cisaillement vertical du vent dans les courants-jets, qui est lui-même dû à l'accentuation du gradient méridien de température causé par le réchauffement des tropiques et le refroidissement au pôle en haute altitude. L'analyse a révélé que, dans certaines régions de l'hémisphère nord, la variabilité interne du climat est prédominante, tandis que dans d'autres, les changements observés sont principalement dus au réchauffement climatique. Les projections indiquent que la tendance à l'augmentation de la fréquence et de l'intensité de la CAT se poursuivra, surtout dans les régions situées dans la bande de latitudes 20-40° N, s'intensifiant avec le degré de réchauffement global. Des incertitudes persistent néanmoins dans l'Atlantique Nord, liées aux modèles et aux indices de CAT. Nos résultats suggèrent que la CAT risque de devenir plus intense, avec des implications importantes pour la sécurité et les opérations aériennes, ainsi que pour la conception des futurs avions. Nous avons également lié la CAT aux régimes de temps dans l'Atlantique Nord, révélant que la phase positive de la NAO favorise le développement de la CAT en hiver. Nous proposons des trajectoires de vol pour les traversées transatlantiques qui minimisent la consommation de carburant (donc les émissions de CO2) et évitent la CAT, adaptées selon les régimes de temps. Nous avons constaté qu'il est possible de réduire la consommation de carburant tout en évitant la CAT, à l'exception dans les jours du régime NAO. L'optimisation des itinéraires pourrait donc bénéficier à l'industrie de l'aviation et contribuer à minimiser l'impact de l'aviation sur l'environnement<br>In this thesis, we investigated the impact of climate change on clear-air turbulence (CAT), a phenomenon with important consequences for aviation safety and causes most weather-related aircraft incidents. Recent studies have shown that in response to climate change, CAT could significantly increase. Here, we use several atmospheric reanalyses and coupled model experiments database to incorporate and address the uncertainties related to internal variability and climate models in past and future CAT trends. We conclude that the models are suitable tools to study CAT. Nevertheless, we show that over the North Atlantic region, most models underestimate CAT frequency. Several CAT diagnostics are computed to assess the sensitivity of results to different turbulence representations. We observed a significant increase in CAT frequency in recent decades over several regions in the Northern Hemisphere: North Atlantic, North Pacific, East Asia, Middle East and North Africa. This is mainly due to a large increase in the vertical wind shear related to the subtropical jet strengthening, which is due in turn to the sharpening of the meridional temperature gradient caused by the warming over the tropics and the cooling over high latitudes in upper atmospheric levels. Our results suggest that in some regions of the northern hemisphere, the internal climate variability is large enough to mask the anthropogenic-induced signal, while in others, the changes observed could be potentially attributed to global warming. Multi-model climate projections indicate that the positive trend reported in the past will continue to increase in the future with the global warming level. In general, models project an increase in CAT frequency and intensity within the 20-40°N latitudinal band. In the North Atlantic, large uncertainty remains due to lack of model agreement and differences among the various CAT diagnostics. The projected increases in CAT frequency and intensity shown in this thesis could have a significant impact on aviation operations and safety, as well as on the design of future aircrafts. We have also investigated the connections between CAT and the prevailing weather regimes in the North Atlantic. The analysis indicate that the positive phase of the NAO creates a favorable environment for the development of CAT in the winter season. Trajectories for transatlantic flight routes that minimize fuel consumption (thus CO2 emissions) and avoid CAT are proposed, for each weather regime. We have found that it is possible to reduce fuel consumption while avoiding CAT, with the exception of NAO regime days. Route optimization could therefore benefit the aviation industry and contributing to minimizing aviation's impact on the environment

У роботі розглянуто схеми та принципи дії тепловикористовуючих теплових насосів, до яких відносяться абсорбційні, адсорбційні та пароежекторні насоси. Також виконано термодинамічний аналіз пароструминного термотрансформатора, який працює в режимі теплового насоса. У дослідній частині поставлені задачі дослідження, розроблено теплонасосну установку з використанням пароструминної термокомпресії та досліджено зміни температури випаровування холодильного агента та температури на вході до паронагрівача на ефективність її роботи. У конструкторській частині виконано тепловий конструктивний розрахунок пароструминного ежектора. В розділі охорони праці розглянуто техніку безпеки при експлуатації холодильного виробництва, проведено Аналіз шкідливих та небезпечних факторів холодильного виробництва, виконано розрахунок природного та штучного освітлення.<br>В работе рассмотрены схемы и принципы действия теплоиспользующих тепловых насосов, к которым относятся абсорбционные, адсорбционные и пароэжекторные насосы. Также выполнен термодинамический анализ пароструйного термотрансформатора, который работает в режиме теплового насоса. В исследовательской части поставленные задачи исследования, разработана теплонасосной установки с использованием пароструйных термокомпрессии и исследованы изменения температуры испарения холодильного агента и температуры на входе в паронагревателя на эффективность ее работы. В конструкторской части выполнен тепловой конструктивный расчет пароструйного эжектора. В разделе охраны труда рассмотрены технике безопасности при эксплуатации холодильного производства, проведения Анализ вредных и опасных факторов холодильного производства, произведен расчет естественного и искусственного освещения.<br>The work discusses the schemes and principles of operation of heat-using heat pumps, which include absorption, adsorption and steam jet pumps. A thermodynamic analysis of the steam-jet thermotransformer, which operates in the heat pump mode, was also performed. In the research part, the objectives of the study were developed, a heat pump installation using steam-jet thermal compression was developed, and changes in the temperature of evaporation of the refrigerant and the temperature at the inlet of the steam heater on its efficiency were studied. In the design part, the thermal design calculation of the steam-jet ejector was performed. In the section of labor protection, safety measures are considered during operation of the refrigeration industry, analysis of harmful and dangerous factors in the refrigeration industry, calculation of natural and artificial lighting.

En framtida alternativ framdrivningsmetod av fartyg skulle kunna vara en ångjetstråle som expanderas via en ejektor. Syftet med studien var att utföra ett experiment med två olika typer av utloppsmunstycken på ejektorns diffusor, för att därigenom ta reda på vilken design som lämpar sig för denna framdrivningsmetod samt vilken tryckkraft som är möjlig att uppnå. Studiens resultat är tänkt att användas som underlag för fortsatta studier om fartygsframdrift med ångjetstråle via en ejektor, för att eventuellt kunna öka energieffektiviteten i jämförelse med dagens framdrivningsmetoder. Resultatet visar att en cirkulär strålbild ger högst tryckkraft trots ett lägre inloppstryck vid en vattentemperatur på 70 °C i jämförelse med en platt strålbild vid ett högre inloppstryck och samma temperatur. Experimentet gav ingen mätbar tryckkraft vid expansion av fuktig ånga med ett tryck på 3 MPa och en temperatur på 150 °C.<br>A future alternative propulsion method of ships could be a steam jet that is expanded via an ejector. The purpose of the study was to conduct an experiment on two different types of outlet nozzles on the diffuser of the ejector. This was carried out to find which design that is suitable for this propulsion method and what propulsion force that was possible to achieve. The result of the study was then thought to be used as a basis for further studies of steam jet propulsion through an ejector, to possibly increase the energy efficiency in comparison with today's propulsion methods. The result shows that a circular jet provides maximum propulsion force despite a lower inlet pressure and a water temperature at 70 °C in comparison with a flat jet at higher inlet pressures and equal temperature. The experiment gave no measurable propulsion force when expanding wet steam at a pressure of 3 MPa and a temperature at 150 °C.

Kraft recovery boiler smelt is shattered into small droplets by an impinging steam jet to prevent smelt-water explosions in the dissolving tank. Inadequate shattering increases the likelihood of dissolving tank explosions. While industry has not dedicated much effort to smelt shattering, the safety implications require smelt shattering to be studied in detail. An experimental set-up was constructed to simulate the shattering operation using a water-glycerine solution and air instead of smelt and steam respectively. The objective was to examine how physical properties and flow characteristics affect shattering. It was found that increasing shatter jet velocity greatly reduced droplet mean diameter. Increasing the liquid flow rate greatly increased droplet size, as expected. Shattering was not significantly affected by viscosity, unless a weak shatter jet was used on a highly viscous fluid. Increasing the proximity of the shatter jet nozzle decreased droplet size.

This experim ental project aims to describe the influencing factors in the vacuum boiling o f w ater in w ater vapour refrigeration system s Testing was conducted using a 2 kW three-stage steam je t ejector system, w ith barom etric condensers, as the com pression device. Three direct-contact evaporators were used to investigate the boiling phenom ena. T hese were : a through-flow evaporator w here heal and mass transfer rates were established for boiling m echanism s at various positions within the evaporator; a vertical cylinder where small quantities o f w ater were subjected to rapid decom pression and the effects m easured, and a sim ple channel for photographic studies o f the process. Boiling in direct-contact water vapour systems is described herein The vacuum boiling proo ss was found to be controlled by a com bination o f the w ater surface tem perature and the hydrostatic pressure gradient, these being governed by the w ater vapour flow geometry between the w ater surface and ejector suction and convective heat transfer below the boiling region. The contributions o f the various boiling regim es to the total heat transfer are discussed. Heat and mass transfer coefficients and their applicability to evaporator design are presented

碩士<br>國立宜蘭大學<br>食品科學系碩士班<br>98<br>Starch is a nature macromolecule polymer. The properties of natural starch often cannot conform to the needs of food processor. To meet the demands for processed food, the physical or chemical methods were used to change the properties of natural starch. The technique of steam direct cooking has been used commercially to prepare milk for many years. The cooking method involves pumping food slurry through an orifice where it is mixed with steam at high temperature and pressure. Steam passing through the cooker formed intense turbulence, it not only heated food rapidly but also led to mechanical shearing of food causing the structure change. The objective of this research is to study the effects of steam direct cooking on the structure change of various corn starches. Three kinds of corn starch with different amylose content were used. The effect of different steam temperature on the physicochemical characteristics of corn starches were investigated by light microscopy, SEM, starch damage, degree of crystallinity, amylose content and weight-average molecular weight. The results of this study showed that the steam direct heating caused double damage of starch granules through high temperature heating and mechanical shear. The insoluble solid content of all three starches cooked by steam heating decreased with temperature increased. There was a significant increase in damaged starch content and decrease in degree of crystallinity when temperature became higher. The amylose content of corn starches affected the insoluble solid content and starch damage rate significantly. The results also showed there were increase in amylose content and big fraction of cooked and damaged starch. High amylose corn starch (Hylon VII) was not easy to swell and gelatinize, it showed the polarization cross pattern after boiled in hot water 30 minute. There was more than 90% of insoluble solid content in heated starches after steam direct cooking, and only 40% of starch granule damaged. The observation using light microscopy and SEM revealed that the starch granules were enlarged by swelling. The inner content of the starch was leach out through damaged portion. Some sheet type fractions were observed in steam direct cooked starches, it could be caused by the mechanical shearing of direct steam cooking.

碩士<br>國立宜蘭大學<br>食品科學系碩士班<br>98<br>Resistant starch (RS) refers to the portion of starch resist digestion by human body. There are four types of RS, the one formed by retrograding cooked starch are known as RS3. The technique of steam direct cooking involves pumping starch slurry through an orifice where it is mixed with steam at high temperature and pressure. Steam passing through the cooker formed intense turbulence, it not only heated starch slurry rapidly but also led to mechanical shearing of starch causing the structure damage. The goal of this study is to investigate the feasibility of improving RS properties of rice flour and starch by steam direct heating with various cooling rate. The results showed that the RS content of products reduced more by steam direct heating than high pressure retorting. The higher temperature steam direct heating processed the more reduction RS content of products had. The steam direct heating affected the RS content of rice flour and starch more than corn starch. By comparison of effects of heating treatment on the RS content of rice flour with rice starch, the damage from steam direct heating was less to rice flour than rice starch. It could be caused by the protection of rice protein around the rice starch. Study on controlling cooling rate of cooked starch revealed slowing cooling rate would benefit the formation of RS. The result of this investigating showed that the steam direct heating and control cooling to improve RS properties of rice starch is feasible.

碩士<br>國立宜蘭大學<br>食品科學系碩士班<br>102<br>The raw materials for preparation of resistant starch were mostly from high amylose cereal starches or legume starches. Waxy starches after treated with enzymes produce short chain amylose and also promote the formation of resistant starch. To prepare resistant starch, the raw materials need to be gelatinized firstly. Steam jet cooking with high temperature and high shear force can break starch granule and in favor to form resistant starch after retrogradation. Therefore, the objective of this study is to investigate the effect of steam jet cooking integrated enzymatic treatment on producing resistant starch of waxy starch and flour. The results show that the apparent amylose and resistant starch content of waxy corn starch increased dramatically after steam jet cooking with enzymatic and retrogradation treatment. The high temperature of steam jet cooking sterilized the starch slurry and prevented deterioration from microbial during enzymatically treatment and retrogradation process. By comparison various processing conditions, waxy corn starch gelatinized by steam direct heating at 135oC could form the highest amount of resistant starch. The yield of steam jet cooking process was similar to retorting or batch reactor heating. Three different kind of waxy starches had been processed by steam jet cooking combining enzymatically and retrogradation treatment. The results of analytical studies showed that waxy potato starch formed higher amount of apparent amylose and resistant starch with lower hydration capacity. The waxy corn starch could produce more resistant starch than waxy rice starch after these treatments. Comparing waxy rice flour with waxy rice starch, the hydration capacity of flour increased slower than starch. The resistant starch content of waxy rice flour analyzed by Englyst method was higher than waxy rice starch. However, the results were opposite when the resistant starches were analyzed by Megazyme method. The morphology studies by scanning electron microscope showed the products processed by those treatment formed broken and incomplete particle configuration. The X-ray diffraction studies revealed those particles were B type crystallinity.

碩士<br>國立中興大學<br>機械工程學系所<br>100<br>Steel Industry is the mother of heavy industry and It is also an energy-consuming intensive industry. A vacuum refining furnace consumes more than one third of a whole steelworks&apos;&apos; energy. Therefore, "How to save the energy of a vacuum refining furnace?" and "How to reduce energy consumption in a furnace?" have become important issues for all steelworks. In this article, we analyze and research by fluid dynamics equations and the experimental data measuring from a steam ejector. The steam ejector include a primary nozzle,a converging part,a mixing chamber,a throat,a diffuser and other parts. The principle of the steam jet ejector is to use the expansion work of the high-pressure steam to produce vacuum. When high pressure steam passes through a nozzle at high speed, the nozzle creates a very low pressure zone that draws in and accelerates the liquid and the gas. When the mixed fluids reach the throat and diffuser, there is higher pressure by converting velocity energy into pressure energy. Therefore, this study provides a simple and accurate theory of fluid mechanics equation. With this theory, we can analyze and define all parts of a steam jet ejector. We give each part a part number and analyze the pressure, Mach number, the amount of the air sucked in. We do it with four different groups of steam ejector parts that come in different sizes. At last, we compare the fluid mechanics equations with experimental results, then we infer the results.

Verlässliche Vorhersagen zum Verlauf von Störfallszenarien in Reaktorsystemen sind mit CFD-Modellen möglich, wenn diese anhand von Experimenten entwickelt und validiert sind. Motiviert durch die Vorgänge, die bei einem Thermoshock-Szenario unter Druck im Primärkreis eines Druckwasserreaktors entstehen, wurden im Rahmen dieser Arbeit Experimente zur Direktkontaktkondensation von Dampf an unterkühltem Wasser bei hohen Drücken untersucht. Der beschriebene Versuchsaufbau erlaubt es, in einer Anlage, die drei Phänomene geschichtete Strömung, Strahl und Blasenmitriss zu untersuchen. Eine umfassende Instrumentierung ermöglichte es, besonders viele Informationen aus den Experimenten zu erfassen. Verschiedene bildgebende Messverfahren erlauben einen besonderen Einblick in die Strömung ohne Rückkopplung ins Fluid zu haben. Einzelne Mess- und Auswertemethoden wurden extra für die Untersuchung entwickelt und beschrieben. Vor Allem die Messergebnisse der Strahlexperimente mit Kondensation sind umfangreich und neuartig. Die starke Turbulenz im Inneren der untersuchten Strahlen führen zu den höchsten Kondensationsraten in den vorliegenden Experimenten. Hier wurden die Strahldurchmesser-Verläufe für verschiedene Randbedingungen verglichen, um zu zeigen, wie stark die Kondensation an Strahlen vom Umgebungsdruck abhängt. Die Gas-Mitriss-Experimente sind die ersten dokumentierten Versuche dieser Art. Sie zeigen, dass das mitgerissene Gas bei Eintrittsunterkühlungen oberhalb von 10 K sofort an der Eintrittsstelle kondensiert. Es kommt nicht zur Bildung von Blasen oder zum Mitriss nach unten. Vielmehr ist ausschließlich ein negativer Meniskus zu erkennen, der eine von den Randbedingungen abhängige Geometrie hat. Je geringer die Eintritts-Unterkühlung und je höher die Strahlgeschwindigkeit ist, desto tiefer dringt der Gas-Meniskus in die Wasservorlage ein. Die Menge an mitgerissenem Gas ist auch bei hohen Geschwindigkeiten klein gegenüber der Kondensationsmenge am Strahl. Die Experimente wurden im Wesentlichen darauf ausgelegt, Daten für den Vergleich mit CFD-Simulationen zu liefern. Vor allem der Einfluss des Umgebungsdruckes auf die Strahlgeometrie und die Kondensationsrate sollte weiter untersucht und in Simulationen abgebildet werden.:1. Motivation 2. Stand von Wissenschaft und Technik 2.1. Kondensation in geschichteter Strömung 2.2. Geometrie von Freistrahlen 2.3. Kondensation am Freistrahl 2.4. Blasenmitriss 2.5. Blasenmitriss bei gleichzeitiger Kondensation 2.6. Modellierung 2.7. Anwendung der Erkenntnisse auf den Hypothetischen Störfall 3. Versuchsanlage 3.1. Messtechnik 3.1.1. Schnelle Temperaturmesstechnik 3.1.2. Hochgeschwindigkeitskamera 3.1.3. Infrarotkamera 3.1.4. Temperatur- und Druckmesslanzen 3.2. Abgeleitete Größen 3.3. Messung der Kondensationsrate 3.4. Geschwindigkeits- und Turbulenzmessung 4. Experimente und Ergebnisse 4.1. Geschichtete Strömung 4.2. Freistrahl 4.3. Gasmitriss 5. Zusammenfassung und Ausblick<br>Reliable predictions on the behaviour of accident scenarios in reactor systems are possible with CFD models if they have been developed and validated on the basis of experiments. Motivated by the processes that occur in a Pressurized Thermal Shock scenario in the primary circuit of a Pressurized Water Reactor, experiments on the Direct Contact Condensation of steam on subcooled water were investigated at high pressures. The described experimental setup allows to study all three phenomena: stratified flow, jet and bubble entrainment. Comprehensive instrumentation made it possible to gather a considerable amount of information from the experiments. Various imaging techniques allow a particular insight in the flow without feedback into the fluid. Some of the measurement and evaluation methods were specifically developed for the investigation and have been described. Especially the measurement results of the jet experiments with condensation are comprehensive and unique. The strong turbulence inside the examined jets results in the highest condensation rates in these experiments. Here, the jet diameter profiles were compared for different boundary conditions in order to show that condensation in jets is strongly influenced by ambient pressure. The gas entrainment experiments are the first documented experiments of their kind. They show that the entrained gas condenses immediately at the point of entrainment with inlet subcooling above 10 K. There is no formation of bubbles or entrainment downwards. Only a negative meniscus is visible, which has a geometry dependent on the boundary conditions. The lower the inlet subcooling and the higher the jet velocity, the deeper the gas meniscus penetrates into the water layer. The amount of entrained gas is small in comparison to the amount of condensation at the jet even at high velocities. The experiments were essentially designed to provide data for comparison with CFD simulations. In particular, the influence of the ambient pressure on the beam geometry and the condensation rate should be further investigated and reproduced in simulations.:1. Motivation 2. Stand von Wissenschaft und Technik 2.1. Kondensation in geschichteter Strömung 2.2. Geometrie von Freistrahlen 2.3. Kondensation am Freistrahl 2.4. Blasenmitriss 2.5. Blasenmitriss bei gleichzeitiger Kondensation 2.6. Modellierung 2.7. Anwendung der Erkenntnisse auf den Hypothetischen Störfall 3. Versuchsanlage 3.1. Messtechnik 3.1.1. Schnelle Temperaturmesstechnik 3.1.2. Hochgeschwindigkeitskamera 3.1.3. Infrarotkamera 3.1.4. Temperatur- und Druckmesslanzen 3.2. Abgeleitete Größen 3.3. Messung der Kondensationsrate 3.4. Geschwindigkeits- und Turbulenzmessung 4. Experimente und Ergebnisse 4.1. Geschichtete Strömung 4.2. Freistrahl 4.3. Gasmitriss 5. Zusammenfassung und Ausblick

The Aerosol Mass Spectroscopy (AMS) is a recently developed method that provides on-line measurements of the chemical composition, mass spectrum and mass distributions of the atmospheric aerosol. Using the AMS with a thermodenuder in smog chamber experiments of ozonolysis of α-pinene, β-pinene and limonene, the mass spectrum of the secondary organic aerosols (SOA) is deconvoluted in low, medium and high volatility mass spectra. The spectrum of the surrogate component with the lower volatility for α-pinene and β-pinene is quite similar to that of ambient oxygenated organic aerosol (OOA). This could explain part of the difference between the AMS mass spectrum in the lab and the field. Combining an AMS and a Scanning Mobility Particle Sizer (SMPS) in smog chamber experiments of α-pinene, β-pinene and limonene ozonolysis, the density of the SOA is calculated and estimated between 1.4 and 1.65 g cm-3. This high density implies that the SOA is likely in a solid or a waxy state. The method is applied on field measurements at Finokalia, Crete during the FAME. For the summer campaign (FAME-08) the organic density is in the range of 0.8 and 1.8 g cm-3 with a mean value of 1.35±0.22 g cm-3¬, while for the winter (FAME-09) the average organic density is 1.14±0.36 g cm-3. This technique can also calculate the Collection Efficiency (CE) of the AMS, since AMS does not measure all the particles that enter the instrument. Applying the estimated CE, the AMS is in a good agreement with other instrumentation. The CE and the organic density of the thermodenuded samples are calculated as well. The CE and the organic density both for the ambient and the themodenuded samples are used as post corrections in the volatility estimation. For FAME-08 the organic aerosol is one order of magnitude less volatile than laboratory-generated α-pinene SOA. Furthermore they are highly oxidized due to the photochemistry conditions (especially in the summer) and the station location (away from detectable sources of pollution). Finally, modifying the steam-jet aerosol collector (SJAC) method both particulate and gas phase of the main inorganic species can be measured. Testing the approach at ambient conditions at the ICE-FORTH Institute, we were able to measure together with the inorganic aerosol composition the gas-phase concentrations of NH3, HONO and very low HNO¬3. The results are consistent with the predictions of the thermodynamic model ISORROPIA.<br>Τα αεροζόλ είναι σωματίδια που αιωρούνται στην ατμόσφαιρα. Η Φασματομετρία Μάζας Αεροζόλ (AMS) είναι μία νέα μέθοδος που μπορεί να δώσει ταυτόχρονα και σε πραγματικό χρόνο τη χημική σύσταση, το φάσμα μάζας και τις κατανομές μάζας των ατμοσφαιρικών σωματιδίων. Χρησιμοποιώντας το AMS με έναν θερμικό απογυμνωτή σε πειράματα οζονόλυσης α-πινενίου, β-πινενίου και λεμονενίου σε περιβαλλοντικό θάλαμο, το φάσμα μάζας των δευτερογενών οργανικών σωματιδίων (SOΑ) αναλύεται σε 3 επιμέρους φάσματα, ανάλογα με την πτητικότητα των οργανικών σωματιδίων. Το φάσμα που αντιστοιχεί στις ενώσεις με τη χαμηλότερη πτητικότητα για το α- και β-πινένιο είναι αρκετά όμοιο με αυτό των οξυγονωμένων οργανικών σωματιδίων (ΟΟΑ) από το περιβάλλον. Αυτό εξηγεί και μέρος της διαφοράς του φάσματος μάζας AMS μεταξύ εργαστηρίου και πεδίου. Συνδυάζοντας το AMS με ένα σαρωτή μεγέθους κινούμενων σωματιδίων (SMPS) υπολογίζεται η πυκνότητα των SOA από οζονόλυση α-πινενίου, β-πινενίου και λεμονενίου μεταξύ 1.4 και 1.65 g cm-3. Η σχετικά υψηλή τιμή της πυκνότητας μάλλον σημαίνει ότι τα παραγόμενα σωματίδια είναι στερεά ή κερώδη.Η παραπάνω μέθοδος εφαρμόζεται σε μετρήσεις πεδίου στη Φινοκαλιά, στην Κρήτη (FAME). Για το FAME-08 (καλοκαίρι) η πυκνότητα των οργανικών σωματιδίων είναι μεταξύ 0.8 και 1.8 g cm-3 με μέση τιμή 1.35±0.22 g cm-3, ενώ για το FAME-09 (χειμώνας) η μέση τιμή είναι 1.14±0.36 g cm-3. Η τεχνική αυτή υπολογίζει και το ποσοστό συλλογής (CE) σωματιδίων του AMS, καθώς το AMS μετράει ένα ποσοστό αυτών. Εφαρμόζοντας την CE που υπολογίζεται, η συμφωνία μεταξύ του AMS και άλλων οργάνων είναι αρκετά καλή. Υπολογίζεται επίσης η CE και η πυκνότητα των οργανικών για τα δείγματα που έχουν θερμανθεί στον θερμικό απογυμνωτή. Οι CE και οι οργανικές πυκνότητες χρησιμοποιούνται ως διορθώσεις για την αποφυγή υποεκτίμησης της πτητικότητας του οργανικού αεροζόλ. Για το FAME-08 οι οργανικές ενώσεις είναι περισσότερο από μία τάξη μεγέθους λιγότερο πτητικές από τα SOA που δημιουργούνται σε συνθήκες εργαστηρίου. Επίσης είναι υψηλά οξειδωμένες λόγω της φωτοχημείας (καλοκαίρι) και της τοποθεσίας της δειγματοληψίας (μακριά από πρωτογενείς ρύπους). Τέλος τροποποιώντας τη μέθοδο δειγματοληψίας υγροποιημένων σωματιδίων (SJAC) είναι δυνατό να μετρηθεί και η σωματιδιακή αλλά και η αέρια φάση των κυρίως ανόργανων ενώσεων. Πειράματα που έγιναν από δειγματοληψία στο ΕΙΧΗΜΥΘ δείχνουν την ύπαρξη ΝΗ3 αλλά σχεδόν μηδενικού ΗΝΟ3. Τα αποτελέσματα συγκρίνονται με ένα θερμοδυναμικό μοντέλο (ISΟRROPIA) και η συμφωνία είναι καλή.