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Demirdağ, Elza Alışova. "An inquiry concerning assistance sentence item determinative in Azerbaijan Turkish and its synonym in Turkish Language". International Journal of Innovative Research in Education 3, n.º 1 (22 de abril de 2016): 19. http://dx.doi.org/10.18844/ijire.v3i1.469.
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Turkish language has been changed throughout history owing to geographical and political conditions. It is necessary to make the requıred studies to minimise these differences. This study aims at contributing towards comparative language studies. In this study, assisting sentence item determinative has been examined in present day Azerbaijan Turkish. At first a short classification has been made between the sentence items of the two languages. Later a definition of assistant sentence item determinative has been made and its characteristics clarified by examples from chosen literary passages. In this study, the synonym of determinative is searched in Turkish language. A comparison has been made between Azerbaijan Turkish and Turkish language using grammer books of both languages and using passeges chosen from literary examples. The similarities and differences of the sentence items of the two languages has showen in the selected example passage. As a result of the research it has been put forward that determinative is learned by group of words and not a sentence item of Turkish language. This research is important because it has brought forward the difference between the two dialects from the point of view of syntax.Keywords: AzerbaijanTurkish, Turkish language, assistance sentence items, determinative
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Ali, Hassan, Muhammad Shumail Naveed, Dilawar Naseem e Jawaid Shabbir. "LL (1) Parser versus GNF inducted LL (1) Parser on Arithmetic Expressions Grammar: A Comparative Study". Quaid-e-Awam University Research Journal of Engineering, Science & Technology 18, n.º 02 (31 de dezembro de 2020): 89–101. http://dx.doi.org/10.52584/qrj.1802.14.
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The prime objective of the proposed study is to determine the induction of Greibach Normal Form (GNF) in Arithmetic Expression Grammars to improve the processing speed of conventional LL(1) parser. Conventional arithmetic expression grammar and its equivalent LL(1) is used in the study which is converted. A transformation method is defined which converts the selected grammar into a Greibach normal form that is further converted into a GNF based parser through a method proposed in the study. These two parsers are analyzed by considering 399 cases of arithmetic expressions. During statistical analysis, the results are initially examined with the Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Shapiro-Wilk test. The statistical significance of the proposed method is evaluated with the Mann-Whitney U test. The study described that GNF based LL(1) parser for arithmetic take fewer steps than conventional LL(1) grammar. The ranks and asymptotic significance depict that the GNF based LL(1) method is significant than the conventional LL(1) approach. The study adds to the knowledge of parsers itself, parser expression grammars (PEG’s), LL(1) grammars, Greibach Normal Form (GNF) induced grammar structure, and the induction of Arithmetic PEG’s LL(1) to GNF based grammar.
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P, Megala, e Jayasree G. "Thokaapiyam and Nambiaga Porul in a Comparative Theoretical Approach". International Research Journal of Tamil 4, S-18 (8 de dezembro de 2022): 141–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.34256/irjt224s1819.
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Ancient Tamil language is rich in grammar. Grammar is obtained from literature as oil is obtained from sesame seeds. There are about fifty grammar books in Tamil. These are the five types of grammars such as letter, word, object, word, and group. The five types of grammars are related to each other, such as the word formed by letters, the pattern used to express the meaning of the word, and the pattern used for the method of speaking. Among these, the things that come to represent the meaning of writing, and the things that come to represent the meaning of words, are the one that excels. This study is to investigate how a content can be found similar, expanded, and separate. Grammar is the protocol developed by the scholars according to the Tamil tradition to regulate the visual language of this case. The text “Nambiyaga Porul” is believed to have been composed by Nambiar in the 12th century BC. It was composed by adapting the grammar of the Tolkapiyam. The text expands the ideas that need to be expanded and summarizes what needs to be said. This book has five parts. Total there are 252 chapters such as 116 in Agam, 54 in Kalavu, 29 in Varaivu, 10 in Karpiyal, and 43 in Olibiyal. The text also explains Thirukkovaiyar's definition about grammar. 'Grammar is the norm for literature and many attempts were done to find the changes taking place in grammar. The first book in these processes was Tanjaivanan’s “Kovai’. Tradition prevails in the society as rules, virtues, restrictions and structures. Thus, Nambi named the book as “Agaporul Vilakkam”. Later, it was given as “Nambiyaga Porul” with his name. The aim of this article is to know the similar, extensive, doubt-dispelling elements that can be found in Tolkappiyam's epistemology and in the epistemology of Nambiyaga Porul.
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van der Auwera, Johan, e Dirk Noël. "Raising: Dutch Between English and German". Journal of Germanic Linguistics 23, n.º 1 (15 de fevereiro de 2011): 1–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1470542710000048.
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As a complement to C. B. van Haeringen's classic comparative study (1956) that positioned the grammar of Dutch in between the grammars of English and German, this study compares the productivity of three kinds of “raising” patterns in these languages: Object-to-Subject, Subject-to-Object, and Subject-to-Subject raising. It establishes the extent to which Dutch, as well as English and German, have evolved from the old West Germanic starting point these languages are assumed to have shared in this area of grammar. The results are a test case for Hawkins' (1986) case syncretism account of the difference in “explicit-ness” between the grammars of English and German.*
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Rich, Patrick Leslie. "What Is n’t Doing There?: French Expletive Negation in Comparative Clauses". LSA Annual Meeting Extended Abstracts 1 (2 de maio de 2010): 54. http://dx.doi.org/10.3765/exabs.v0i0.534.
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This paper explores expletive ne in subordinate comparative clauses in French. I limit the discussion to (reduced) clausal comparatives, since expletive negation does not occur in (direct) phrasal comparatives. I show that expletive ne is favored in all comparative clauses, and argue that this provides direct evidence that it is still a part of synchronic French grammar. I propose that French comparatives should be analyzed as A-not-A constructions, and that expletive ne is a formally negative head that is licensed by a truth-value operator. Expletive ne thus functions concordally to mark the comparative subordinate clause as containing a negation.
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Vlasov, Sergei V., e Leonid V. Moskovkin. "Categories of the name and the verb in Anfangs-Gründe der Russischen Sprache (1731)". Vestnik of Saint Petersburg University. Language and Literature 18, n.º 3 (2021): 528–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.21638/spbu09.2021.307.
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The relevance of this study is due to the importance of Vasiliy Adodurov’s Anfangs-Gründe der Russischen Sprache as the first academic grammar of the Russian language written by a Russian scholar and published in Russia. The aim of the article is to show the innovations of Adodurov’s grammatical views and the relation of his grammar with Western European and Slavic grammatical traditions in the conceptual presentation of the name and the verb. The material of the research is the Russian grammar of Adodurov in comparison with the grammars by H.W.Ludolph, I.W.Paus, the Slavonic grammar by M. Smotritsky, the Latin grammars by I.Rhenius, E.Kopijewitz, I.Lange, “Grammatica Marchica”, and the German grammar by M. Schwanwitz. The descriptive and comparative research methods are used. A particularity of the research approach is the comparison of Anfangs-Gründe not only with the Russian, Slavonic and German grammars, but also with the Latin grammars. The results of the study show the innovations of Adodurov in the interpretation of the gender of names, voices of the Russian verb, and the forms of the future and the past tense. He simplifies the noun and verb description scheme taking into account specific features of the Russian language and methodological considerations. The article also proposes a new version of the collaboration between Adodurov and the anonymous German-speaking author of the comments in the margins of the manuscript Compendium Grammaticae Russicae, explaining Adodurov’s use of these comments in Anfangs-Gründe.
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Medeiros, Carolina Lacerda. "A AQUISIÇÃO DA POSIÇÃO DO VERBO EM INGLÊS E ALEMÃO: UM ESTUDO COMPARATIVO | THE ACQUISITION OF VERBS IN ENGLISH AND GERMAN: A COMPARATIVE STUDY". Estudos Linguísticos e Literários, n.º 54 (12 de janeiro de 2016): 8. http://dx.doi.org/10.9771/ell.v0i54.18104.
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<p><strong>Resumo:</strong> A literatura que discute a sintaxe do verbo nas línguas naturais em geral assume que as línguas V2 são aquelas em que o verbo flexionado ocupa a segunda posição na sentença, sendo a primeira posição ocupada por qualquer outro elemento. O alemão, assim como outras línguas germânicas, é caracterizado como uma língua de tipo V2. O inglês, por outro lado, não apresenta a ordenação de constituintes segundo a qual o verbo obrigatoriamente ocupa a segunda posição na sentença, tendo sido considerado uma língua V2 apenas em seu período arcaico. Este artigo procura fazer um breve estudo comparativo analisando a fala de duas crianças, uma adquirindo o alemão e uma adquirindo o inglês britânico, em diferentes momentos (1;9 até 3;3). Com base na tipologia de Vikner (1995) temos como objetivo verificar até que ponto as duas línguas se assemelham, no âmbito da sintaxe, e em que momento passam a se comportar como línguas distintas no que respeita à posição do verbo uma vez que, linearmente, o inglês apresenta o verbo em segunda posição nas sentenças simples. Como hipótese, temos que um ponto decisivo para a diferenciação das duas gramáticas seria a aquisição de encaixadas. Desse modo, a criança que adquire o alemão começaria a apresentar traços de uma gramática V2 a partir do momento em que adquire sentenças encaixadas, dado que, diferentemente do inglês, esta língua não apresenta verbo em segunda posição nas subordinadas. A criança adquirindo o inglês, por outro lado, mantém a ordem V2 linear nas encaixadas. O <em>corpus </em>utilizado neste trabalho é oriundo da base CHILDES e pode ser acessado <em>online</em>. O quadro teórico se baseia na noção de Gramática de Chomsky (1985), convencionada como Língua-I, que remete à possibilidade de se gerarem estruturas linguísticas e não, por exemplo, a um certo inventário de estruturas. Tais possibilidades são limitadas pela Gramática Universal, parte das faculdades inatas do ser humano, que dispõe de princípios imutáveis e parâmetros que podem ser fixados diferentemente em gramáticas particulares, determinando, assim, os limites de variação entre essas gramáticas (Chomsky & Lasnik 1993). Cada gramática particular, neste sentido, representa uma determinada parametrização dos princípios da Gramática Universal. A gramática do falante, na teoria gerativa, será, portanto, uma entidade individual: uma gramática particular internalizada na mente de cada indivíduo.</p><p><strong>Abstract:</strong> <em>The literature usually assumes that V2 languages are those in which the finite verb is on second position on the sentence, like it is in German. English, on the other hand, does not present the same linearization, so Vikner (1995) classified it as a residual V2-language. This paper aims to provide a comparative study analyzing the speech of two children, one acquiring German and the other acquiring European English, in different moments (1;9-3;3). Based on Vikner's typology, we try to verify how these two languages are syntactically alike and in which moment they begin to behave like different grammars, in what concern verb position, since, linearly, English also presents the verb in second position in matrix sentences. As a hypothesis, we believe that a crucial point in this differentiation would be the acquisition of subordinate sentences. In this sense, the child acquiring German would start presenting V2 grammar traces on the moment s/he acquires subordinate sentences, since, unlike English, this grammar do not present V2 in subordinate structures. The child acquiring English, on the other hand, would maintain the V2 linearization on subordinate sentences. This work is based on the CHILDES corpus, which can be accessed online. The theoretic framework is based on Chomsky's (1985) notion of Grammar as I-Language, that refers to the possibility to generate language structures and not, for example, a certain inventory of structures. Those possibilities are limited by the Universal Grammar, part of human's innate faculties, that is formed by immutable principles and parameters that can be differently fixed by different particular grammars determining the limits of language variation between those grammars. In this sense, each particular grammar represents a different parametrization of the Universal Grammar's principles. Each speaker's grammar, in this sense, will be an individual entity: a particular grammar internalized in the individual's mind</em><em>.</em></p><p>Keywords: <em>Language Acquisition; V2; Comparative Syntax; Generative Grammar.</em></p><p> </p>
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Rutten, Gijsbert. "‘Lowthian’ Linguistics across the North Sea". Historiographia Linguistica 39, n.º 1 (22 de março de 2012): 43–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/hl.39.1.04rut.
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Summary This paper focuses on Dutch grammar-writing in the 18th century so as to put the linguistic works of Robert Lowth (1710–1787) in an international, comparative perspective. It demonstrates that certain characteristics of the “Lowthian” approach to grammar and of 18th-century English linguistics in general are parallelled by similar developments in the history of Dutch linguistics. The transition from normative grammar to prescriptive grammar which characterises the English late 18th century has a counterpart in the Dutch development from ‘civil’ to national grammar. Lowth’s recognition of different stylistic levels with corresponding levels of grammatical acceptability has a Dutch counterpart as well. The transition towards prescriptivism and the relevance of different stylistic levels are closely connected, which is exemplified by a case study on the treatment of adnominal inflection in 18th-century grammars of Dutch.
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Hohaus, Vera, e M. Ryan Bochnak. "The Grammar of Degree: Gradability Across Languages". Annual Review of Linguistics 6, n.º 1 (14 de janeiro de 2020): 235–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-linguistics-011718-012009.
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In this review, we discuss the empirical landscape of degree constructions cross-linguistically as well as the major analytical avenues that have been pursued to account for individual languages and cross-linguistic variation. We first focus on comparatives and outline various compositional strategies for different types of comparative sentences as well as points of cross-linguistic variation in the lexicalization of comparative operators and gradable predicates. We then expand the discussion to superlatives, equatives, and other degree constructions. Finally, we turn to constructions beyond the prototypical degree constructions but where degree-based analyses have been pursued; we focus on change-of-state verbs and exclamatives. This is an area that is especially ripe for future cross-linguistic research. We conclude by mentioning connections to other subfields of linguistics, such as language acquisition, historical linguistics, and language processing.
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Berent, Iris. "Unveiling phonological universals: A linguist who asks “why” is (inter alia) an experimental psychologist". Behavioral and Brain Sciences 32, n.º 5 (outubro de 2009): 450–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0140525x09990628.
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AbstractEvans & Levinson (E&L) are right to hold theories of language accountable for language diversity, but typological data alone cannot determine the structure of mental phonological grammars. Grammatical universals are nonetheless testable by formal and experimental methods, and the growing research in experimental phonology demonstrates the viability of a comparative experimental evaluation of the Universal Grammar (UG) hypothesis.
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Mooventhan, PS. "In the Archaic Grammar Tradition and Variable Content in Muthal-Karu-Uri in Tholkappiya Aga Ilakkanam and Maran Agapporul". Shanlax International Journal of Tamil Research 8, n.º 2 (1 de outubro de 2023): 49–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.34293/tamil.v8i2.6733.
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Porul Ilakkanam is a proof of the pride and uniqueness of Tamil language. It can be considered as the best of any language race in the world languages. The Porul Ilakkanam is the basis for the meaning and imagination of Sangam songs. Grammatical Grammar In Tamil tradition for thousands of years, there are many places where the narratives have preserved the character of the case. Tholkappiyam, which is considered to be the first complete grammar book of Tamil, was followed by various grammar books over time. They were adapted to the religious and social norms of the authors of those books and the customs of their time. Thus Maran Agapporul is unique in the later grammars of the sixteenth century. Developmental trends in subject grammar can be seen in the grammar description of this book. This article aims to show the origin and development of the ideas of this book in a comparative perspective, the skills contained in the archeology and the changes made by this book.
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Doboș, Daniela. "The First Major Grammars of English and Romanian: A Comparative Approach". Linguaculture 11, n.º 2 (10 de dezembro de 2020): 45–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.47743/lincu-2020-2-0171.
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If the history of the English language is the story of its written texts, the same holds true for the history of the Romanian language, and in both cases the first grammars played a major part in the shaping up of the respective vernaculars. The paper proposes a comparative approach to the beginnings of codified grammars in English and Romanian, with a focus on those that are deemed to be the first major works– Robert Lowth’s A Short Introduction to English Grammar (1762) and Samuil Micu and Gheorghe Şincai’s Elementa linguae daco-romanae sive valachicae (1780). This approach considers topics such as why grammars might have been desirable in the eighteenth century (the political factor), and the functions of ‘grammars’, which are relevant in both cases; what language was actually codified, as well as the role of Latin in this enterprise, since it is worth noting that while English and Romanian belong in different language families, Latin was a formative element in both, ever since the territories of the two respective countries marked the North-Western and South-Eastern borders of the Roman Empire.
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Sun, Weiwei, e Xiaojun Wan. "Data-driven, PCFG-based and Pseudo-PCFG-based Models for Chinese Dependency Parsing". Transactions of the Association for Computational Linguistics 1 (dezembro de 2013): 301–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/tacl_a_00229.
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We present a comparative study of transition-, graph- and PCFG-based models aimed at illuminating more precisely the likely contribution of CFGs in improving Chinese dependency parsing accuracy, especially by combining heterogeneous models. Inspired by the impact of a constituency grammar on dependency parsing, we propose several strategies to acquire pseudo CFGs only from dependency annotations. Compared to linguistic grammars learned from rich phrase-structure treebanks, well designed pseudo grammars achieve similar parsing accuracy and have equivalent contributions to parser ensemble. Moreover, pseudo grammars increase the diversity of base models; therefore, together with all other models, further improve system combination. Based on automatic POS tagging, our final model achieves a UAS of 87.23%, resulting in a significant improvement of the state of the art.
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Schena, Leo. "Études de linguistique française en Italie". Lingvisticæ Investigationes. International Journal of Linguistics and Language Resources 23, n.º 1 (31 de dezembro de 2000): 77–114. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/li.23.1.04sch.
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Around forty Italian studies of French grammar running from the early 60s to 1997 are described in this Guide bibliographique. They are all undoubtedly noteworthy for their scientific interest, but in Italy the subject they deal with is in need of further exploration. Not only do such studies represent individual initiatives (no large common project has ever been carried out), they also take different approaches, which is inevitable in so far as grammar encompasses phonetics, lexicon, comparative analysis and teaching. In fact, the degree of diversity is not as high as one might expect. Only six trends are observable: pedagogic grammars, psychomechanical, pragmatic and énonciation-oriented studies, lexicon-grammars and manuals. In spite of this, the works in Schena’s Guide clearly show the evolution which the concept of grammar has undergone during the last three decades; research into meaning and the introduction of the human being into language have undermined the widely accepted priority that generativism and formalism give to syntax, since all levels — syntactic, semantic and pragmatic — are now treated as a sort of continuum which excludes any global model. The author’s aim is to present the key ideas of the studies mentioned above and to point out their innovative function in the Italian panorama of French linguistics.
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Krusha, Ilir, e Franz Schörkhuber. "THE FORMAL AND SEMANTIC PROPERTIES OF INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES IN ALBANIAN AND GERMAN USAGE". Folia linguistica et litteraria XIII, n.º 40 (julho de 2022): 291–314. http://dx.doi.org/10.31902/fll.40.2022.15.
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This paper provides a comparison of two languages that are very distinct in grammar and pronunciation, respectively German and Albanian. Since research opportunities in comparative linguistics are infinite, this paper focuses on interrogative sentences and their sentence types. Through a detailed analysis of sentence examples of the grammar used in Albanian and German, we examine the similarities and differences related to different forms of interrogative sentences. As a framework for the classification of interrogative sentences in both languages, we have distinguished sentences into general interrogative sentences and complementary ones. In the end, the knowledge gained is summerised in a general overview. The aim of this work is to compare two languages that are very different in grammar, style and pronunciation, German and Albanian. Since the field of possible investigations in comparative linguistics is endless, the present work focuses on interrogative sentences and their respective linguistic forms. Through the detailed analysis of sentence examples, which are taken from common German and Albanian grammars, the similarities and differences in interrogative sentences are shown. The distinction between yes/no questions and questions that require a supplement serves as a regulatory framework. At the end of the work, the knowledge gained is summarized in an overview.
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Kasimova, Malika. "Comparative Study Of Bilingual And Monolingual Children In Acquiring Grammar Strategies". American Journal of Applied sciences 03, n.º 01 (31 de janeiro de 2021): 128–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.37547/tajas/volume03issue01-19.
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Foreign languages have been taught worldwide starting from elementary schools. While some children learn English as a second language, there are many bilinguals who study English as the third language. This small scale study aims to illustrate the dissimilarities between bilingual and monolingual students in learning the English language, specifically, acquiring English Grammar strategies. Two 3rd grade primary school pupils attended in this study. The research compiled three stages and data analysis revealed accordingly.
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Vieira, Caio Aguiar, e Valéria Viana Sousa. "A confluência entre o Funcionalismo e a Gramática de Construções (The confluence between Functionalism and Construction Grammar)". Estudos da Língua(gem) 18, n.º 1 (30 de abril de 2020): 5. http://dx.doi.org/10.22481/el.v18i1.6048.
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Objetivamos, neste artigo, evidenciar os ganhos teórico-metodológicos, frutos da inter-relação do Funcionalismo norte-americano e da Gramática de Construções, principalmente na concepção de que a língua se estrutura a partir de uma rede de construções interconectadas. Com efeito, na análise linguística, são considerados tanto aspectos de forma como de função. Para ilustrar tal questão, utilizamos os dados do estudo realizado por Vieira e Sousa (2019) com foco nas estruturas comparativas instanciadas pelo conector que nem no Português Brasileiro, tomando como amostra os dados de fala dos corpora de fala Popular e Culto de Vitória da Conquista. Os resultados deste trabalho mostraram que o subesquema comparativo, governado pelo que nem, instancia duas microconstruções, sendo uma delas caracterizada pela ancoragem [+ oracional], e a outra marcada pela relação [- oracional]. De forma geral, averiguamos que todas as microconstruções analisadas compartilham da configuração formal-funcional comparativa, aliada a fatores de ordem cognitiva e de (inter)subjetividade.
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Noccioli, Carlos Alexandre Molina, e Giovanna Maria Abrantes Carvas. "Gramática: ensino da disciplina metalinguística na cultura ocidental brasileira". História da Ciência e Ensino: construindo interfaces 20 (29 de dezembro de 2019): 598–609. http://dx.doi.org/10.23925/2178-2911.2019v20espp598-609.
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Resumo Este artigo é parte de um estudo histórico e comparativo acerca do ensino de língua padrão enquanto ciência linguística, inserido na tradição ocidental do fazer gramática. Discorremos a partir de um resgate da história em torno da disciplina gramatical desde a Antiguidade Clássica, a fim de estabelecermos pontos de contato com uma gramática brasileira situada no pós-NGB (Nomenclatura Gramatical Brasileira), especialmente o livro Sintaxe clássica portuguêsa de Cláudio Brandão.Palavras-chave: História, Ensino de gramática, perduração ideológica Abstract This article is part of a historical and comparative study of standard language teaching as a linguistic science, embedded in the Western tradition of grammar making. We draw from a rescue of history around grammar discipline since Classical Antiquity, in order to establish points of contact with a Brazilian grammar located in the post-NGB (Brazilian Grammatical Nomenclature), especially the Cláudio Brandão’ book Sintaxe clássica portuguêsa. Keywords: History, Grammar teaching, ideological perduring
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Clackson, J. "Review. Comparative grammar. New comparative grammar of Greek and Latin. A L Sihler". Classical Review 46, n.º 2 (1 de fevereiro de 1996): 297–301. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cr/46.2.297.
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Kozelko, Iryna. "TERMINOLOGICAL ACTIVITY OF VASYL SIMOVYCH AT THE BEGINNING OF THE XX CENTURY". Naukovì zapiski Nacìonalʹnogo unìversitetu «Ostrozʹka akademìâ». Serìâ «Fìlologìâ» 1, n.º 10(78) (27 de fevereiro de 2020): 120–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.25264/2519-2558-2020-10(78)-120-123.
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The result of V. Simovych’s fruitful work is a number of scientific investigations. The scientist worked on improving the system of the Ukrainian language and its terminology in the 20-30’s of the twentieth century and paid much attention to the culture of the Ukrainian language. This article focuses on the study of linguistic terminology in V. Simovich’s textbooks – «Practical grammar of the Ukrainian language» (1918) and «Grammar of the Ukrainian language for self-study and in support of school science» (1921), namely the phonetical terminology. The article presents the corpus of phonetical terms used by V. Simovych in grammars. Using descriptive and comparative methods, a quantitative description of phonetical terms used in the grammars of V. Simovych in the beginning of the twentieth century. The originality of the proposed phonetic terms is indicated. In both books, V. Simovych identified the phonetic terms in a separate section «Sounds». It talks about how «sounds up», the apparatus of speech is illustrated, or the speech apparatus of a person. In the second edition, the author introduces a term звучня that corresponds to the modern term phonetics. In each of the grammar by V. Simovych, about 116 terms have been recorded, giving the names of syllables, characterizing the types of sounds, the emphasis. It also highlights the borrowed sounds, which are called as чужі звуки, чужі двозвуки, чуже «ґ», чуже «ф», чуже «о», etc., but there are also occasional чужоземні двозвуки, чужоземні посереднї звуки «Ö», «Ü».
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Rauch, Irmengard. "On Gothic in the computer age". NOWELE / North-Western European Language Evolution 67, n.º 2 (21 de julho de 2014): 231–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/nowele.67.2.04rau.
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The Gothic language spoken some 1500 years ago in the area west and north of the Black Sea remains the darling of the older Germanic languages, as well as the preferred Germanic representative in Comparative Grammar. In the computer age researchers have readily accessible digitized Gothic texts, grammars, glossaries, bibliographies, as well as tagged corpora studies. In demonstrating the family resemblance of the inflectional morphology of the Gothic demonstrative pronoun, the strong adjective, and the third person pronoun, this paper makes use of the concept of inheritance networks, developed in computer linguistics, and of underspecification theory.
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Kitagawa, Chisato, e Nobuko Hasegawa. "Japanese Syntax in Comparative Grammar". Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 28, n.º 2 (novembro de 1994): 209. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/489293.
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Laughren, Mary, e Robert Freidin. "Current Issues in Comparative Grammar". Language 74, n.º 3 (setembro de 1998): 620. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/417798.
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LIEN, Chinfa. "Approximatives: Towards Dialectal Comparative Grammar". Bulletin of the Chinese Linguistic Society of Japan 2007, n.º 254 (2007): 29–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.7131/chuugokugogaku.2007.29.
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AKULOV, Alexander. "Prefixation Ability Index and Verbal Grammar Correlation Index prove the reality of Buyeo group". Acta Linguistica Asiatica 6, n.º 1 (29 de junho de 2016): 81–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.4312/ala.6.1.81-97.
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All suggestions about reality of Buyeo group were based on the representation of a language as a heap of lexemes: such method allows different scholars to make different conclusions and doesn't suppose verification. Language is first of all structure/grammar, but not a heap of lexemes, so methods of comparative linguistics should be based on comparison of grammars. Prefixation Ability Index (PAI) and Verbal Grammar Correlation Index (VGCI) are typology based tools of comparative linguistics. PAI allows us to see whether languages are potentially related: if values of PAI differ more than fourfold, it's a sign of unrelatedness, if PAI values differ less than fourfold, there is a possibility for some further search to find proves of relatedness. VGCI completely answers questions about relatedness/unrelatedness: if VGCI value is 0.4 and more then languages are related, if VGCI is 0.3 and less then languages are unrelated. PAI of Japanese is 0.13, PAI of Korean is 0.13; it means they can be related. VGCI of Japanese and Korean is 0.57, it's almost the same as VGCI of English and Afrikaans that is 0.56, so it means that Japanese and Korean belong to the same group, but not just to the same family.
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Luo, Qiongpeng, Zhiguo Xie e Xiao Li. "Degrees and grammar". Language and Linguistics / 語言暨語言學 24, n.º 1 (12 de dezembro de 2022): 5–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/lali.00124.luo.
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Abstract In this article, we discuss some fundamental issues as well as several unresolved questions of degree-based theories in contemporary linguistics from the perspective of East Asian languages, with a view to pointing out some directions for future research. We first focus on several controversies surrounding the studies of comparative constructions in the literature, i.e., phrasal comparison vs. clausal comparison, individual comparison vs. degree comparison, big DegP vs. small DegP, the points of cross-linguistic variation, etc. We then expand the discussion to comparative constructions and other degree-related constructions in Mandarin Chinese, Japanese, and Korean, and demonstrate how an East Asian perspective offers a novel insight into those controversies and uncovers considerable in-depth commonality underlying a variety of degree-related constructions cross-linguistically. We conclude by suggesting some directions for future within- and cross-linguistic research.
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Schneider, Kurt. "Application of Graph Grammars in an Educational Software Engineering Game: A Case Study in Pragmatic Adoption". International Journal of Software Engineering and Knowledge Engineering 07, n.º 04 (dezembro de 1997): 401–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0218194097000242.
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This paper introduces an approach to modeling software project dynamics using an attributed graph grammar formalism. A project situation is modeled and presented to a "player" who is supposed to act as project manager of a simulated project. Events and internal processes of the simulated project are modeled using a custom-designed formalism that integrates attributed graph grammar concepts with a quantitative simulation mechanism resembling System Dynamics. Both ingredients were pragmatically selected and blended based on (1) their comparative simplicity, (2) their expressive power, and (3) their intuitive appeal for bridging the cognitive gap between real-world software engineering experiences and an executable simulation model. This modeling formalism was applied in the SESAM educational software engineering game. The modeling formalism was supported by a family of graphical SESAM editors. Resulting models could be animated and served as simulated projects in the game runs. SESAM was applied in graduate courses on software project management at the University of Stuttgart. Experiences with the modeling approach are reported. The design history and design rationale that led to using graph grammars as the underlying formalism are described and discussed. The design of the SESAM modeling formalism is presented as an (involuntary) case study in adopting a graph grammar approach.
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Burston, Jack. "Comparative Evaluation of French Grammar Checkers". CALICO Journal 13, n.º 2-3 (14 de janeiro de 2013): 104–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1558/cj.v13i2-3.104-111.
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Four grammar checkers, all of French Canadian origin, were evaluated in this study: Le Correcteur 101 (Le Correcteur), GramR, Hugo Plus (Hugo), and the French Proofing Tools for Word for Windows Ver. 6 (French Proofing Tools). All the programs except GramR exist in both IBM-PC and Macintosh versions. The versions tested in this study are indicated in Table 1 (other available versions are indicated in parentheses) IBM-PC software was tested on a 486/66; Macintosh software was run on a Quadra 650. These programs will operate on lesser platforms, but with considerably slower response times.
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Lehmann, Christian. "A survey of general comparative grammar". Journal of Linguistics 24, n.º 1 (março de 1988): 175–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022226700011609.
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Koly, Rustam. "الجملة الإنشائية في اللغتين العربية والإندونيسية في ضوء التحليل التقابلي (جملة النهي مثالاً)". البصيرة: مجلة الدراسات الإسلامية 3, n.º 2 (13 de outubro de 2022): 195–215. http://dx.doi.org/10.36701/bashirah.v3i2.649.
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This study aims to determine Arabic and Indonesian grammar in the form of prohibition sentences, by discussing the similarities and differences between them, after describing their respective grammars to find out where the difficulties of Indonesian students in learning Arabic, especially in prohibition sentences. This study uses a comparative research methodology through three research steps, namely: (1) to describe prohibited sentences in Arabic and Indonesian grammar; (2) collect the similarities and differences in the prohibition sentences in Arabic and Indonesian grammar; (3) predicting the difficulties of students in learning Arabic due to grammatical differences between Arabic and Indonesian. The results of this study indicate that the two languages have similarities in: 1) prohibition and its era, where the prohibition sentence in both languages is addressed to the interlocutor, for the present or future time; 2) the prohibition sentence using only one tool "لا", "don't"; 3) this prohibition tool is always before the prohibition sentence; 4) does not require adjustments between prohibition tools and prohibition sentences, both on the type and number of objects. The grammatical differences between these two languages lie in the breadth of Arabic in the variety of method and suitability in type (male or female), number, and personal (speaker, interlocutor and spoken to) where this is a difficulty for Indonesian students in learn Arabic.
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Zhenshin, Da, e Liu Likun. "COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF AFFIXES IN UZBEK AND CHINESE LANGUAGES". Journal of Central Asian Social Studies 01, n.º 02 (29 de dezembro de 2020): 7–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.37547/jcass/volume01issue02-a2.
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This article analyzes the different forms of affixes in Uzbek and Chinese as the main means of enriching vocabulary in Uzbek and Chinese. A comparative analysis of affixation methods and possibilities also reveals the grammar associated with bilingual affixes.
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Helland, Hans Petter. "La notion de transfert appliquée au français comme langue étrangère". Bergen Language and Linguistics Studies 10, n.º 1 (18 de novembro de 2019): 12. http://dx.doi.org/10.15845/bells.v10i1.1469.
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Our main objective in this paper is to show how linguistic properties can be transferred from one system to another. Consequences of transfer are evaluated, both positive and negative, for the acquisition of possessives in French L2 or L3 by Norwegian learners. We take as a starting point a comparative description of the possessive systems in French and Norwegian and examine interlanguage grammars of adult learners of French both in a Norwegian university setting and in an immersion context. On the basis of results from production-comprehension tests we can predict and explain interlanguage errors in the students' L2-grammar (negative transfer) using comparative grammatical constraints (reflexive-irreflexive contrasts, binding constraints, explicit marking of the possessor, orientation towards the possessor or the possessum, etc.). We can also predict cases where the learners make fewer errors or no errors at all (positive transfer). In this way we are able to measure the importance of transfer, both negative and positive, for the acquisition of French as foreign language by Norwegian adult learners.
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Judžentytė, Gintarė. "Review of semantic research of adverbs of place in Lithuanian". Lietuvių kalba, n.º 7 (20 de dezembro de 2013): 1–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.15388/lk.2013.22686.
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Semantic investigations of adverbs of place in Lithuanian started in 1653, when in the first grammar of the Lithuanian language Danielius Kleinas offered a classification of adverbs of place that consisted of four semantic groups: 1) In Loco; 2) De Loco; 3) Per Locum; 4) Ad Locum. This semantic division remained unchanged for over two centuries, i.e. 17th – 18th century.The comparative-historical method that was introduced in the 19th century influenced Lithuanian linguistics and, as a result, such figures as A. Šleicheris, the author of the first theoretical Lithuanian language grammar and F. Kuršaitis, another author of an important grammar volume focused more on the origin of adverbs (of place) rather than their semantics.The 20th century in Lithuanian linguistics had still retained some reverberations of the 19th century, the author of the first standard Lithuanian grammar J. Jablonskis still pays more attention to the origin of adverbs of place and not its meanings.The most significant semantic research of adverbs of place in this century is considered to be K. Ulvydas’ analysis in the academic “grammar of the Lithuanian language” as it was the first one to provide a comprehensive description of what an adverb is in general as well as a definition of an adverb of place. In comparison to other grammars written earlier, this work provides the most extensive semantic classification of adverbs of place; in addition, it provides a detailed account of the meanings of adverbs of place, the overlaps of those meanings, etc.
Along with grammars of Lithuanian, adverbs of place were extensively investigated in other scholarly works. The most important of them is B. Forsman’s monograph “Das baltische Adverb” which, in comparison to other works devoted to Lithuanian adverbs of place, provides a detailed analysis and description of the semantics of adverbs of place in Lithuanian:
1. B. Forssman was the first one to apply the notion of space in the investigation of Lithuanian adverbs of place;
he was the first one to research Lithuanian adverbs of place by naming an object in relation to which the place/location is described;
he was the first one to include the notion of deixis into the history of semantic research of Lithuanian adverbs of place;
he was the first one to distinguish the meanings of Lithuanian adverbs of place according to the manner of localisation and division of space.
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Hubers, Ferdy, e Helen de Hoop. "The effect of prescriptivism on comparative markers in spoken Dutch". Linguistics in the Netherlands 2013 30 (18 de novembro de 2013): 89–101. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/avt.30.07hub.
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Dutch prescriptive grammar rules dictate that the complementizer dan ‘than’ should be used in comparative constructions of inequality. This has been an issue for grammarians from the sixteenth century onwards when als ‘as’ started to be used as an alternative form in this type of context. In order to find out why and when people choose one comparative marker over the other, we examined the use of these markers in the Spoken Dutch Corpus (CGN). We found that the use of dan is overall more common than als in comparative constructions of inequality, even though from a linguistic point of view als might be favoured. The choice between als and dan turns out to be strongly correlated with the level of education. Although this factor has been assumed to be of influence for a long time, as far as we know it has never been quantitatively tested before. We conclude that the effect of the level of education we found reflects the strong influence of the prescriptive rule taught in schools, repressing the use of als in comparatives of inequality.
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Zevakhina, Natalia, Svetlana Dzhakupova e Anna Vishenkova. "The Grammar of Russian Metalinguistic Comparatives". Scando-Slavica 63, n.º 2 (3 de julho de 2017): 179–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00806765.2017.1399589.
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Kelly, David H., e Andrew L. Sihler. "New Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin". Classical World 92, n.º 5 (1999): 478. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/4352338.
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Vajda, Edward J. "Reconstructing Grammar: Comparative Linguistics and Grammaticalization (review)". Language 78, n.º 3 (2002): 594–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/lan.2002.0182.
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Paulauskienė, Aldona. "On interpreting Lithuanian past tenses in major linguistic works on Lithuanian grammar". Lietuvių kalba, n.º 4 (25 de outubro de 2010): 1–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.15388/lk.2010.22854.
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The verb in Lithuanian possesses two simple past tenses, i.e. the past simple and the past frequentative tense. Specialists of comparative historical grammar have not shown any greater interest in the past frequentative tense since it is only typical of Lithuanian. One of the reasons is that Latvian, the other surviving Baltic language, does not possess it; furthermore, in the past a large part of Lithuania did not employ the tense either. However, now it is widely used and all grammars consider the past simple and the past frequentative tense equally significant. Still the paradigm of simple tenses in Lithuanian has not been defined as yet, as the past frequentative tense has not been given theoretical evaluation in the framework of other simple tenses. The article covers the interpretation of past tenses in major grammars of Lithuanian (from the first volume dating back to 1653 to present-day Lithuanian grammars). The paradigmatic relations of past tenses as presented in the numerous sources as well as language facts helped identify the following main features: the role of the category of aspect in the process of the formation of the past frequentative tense, relations between the past frequentative and the past simple tense, and finally, the place of the past frequentative tense in the paradigm of Lithuanian simple tenses.
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Donig, Deb. "Textimony: The Grammar of Atrocity". Comparative Literature 76, n.º 1 (1 de março de 2024): 105–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1215/00104124-10897146.
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Abstract This essay seeks to understand the complexity of a post-Holocaust discourse of comparative suffering in law and literature, focusing on the legacy of the transatlantic slave trade. The essay traces a history of post-1945 discourse about the Holocaust, as the place of Jewish suffering under the Nazis swerves between comparability and incomparability, ineffability and analogy, in legal and literary representations. Focusing on M. NourbeSe Philip’s poetry in her work Zong!, which features an entanglement between the articulative capacity of Holocaust analogies for articulating the suffering of the transatlantic slave trade and the simultaneous tendency for such comparisons to occlude the very subject that such a comparison seeks to articulate, the argument identifies the tensions that inevitably emerge out of a discourse of comparative memory. Moving outside of Zong!, the essay shows how this problem is embedded, with significant impact on the history and the future of the legal recognition of suffering produced by the transatlantic slave trade, opening up new lines of inquiry about the efficacy, and the consequences, of comparison on the terrain of post-Holocaust human rights.
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Pollard, Carl Jesse, e Elizabeth Allyn Smith. "A unified analysis of the same, phrasal comparatives, and superlatives". Semantics and Linguistic Theory 22 (3 de setembro de 2012): 307. http://dx.doi.org/10.3765/salt.v22i0.2655.
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We present a unified categorial analysis of several types of English comparative, superlative, and THE SAME/DIFFERENT (S/D) sentences, thereby accounting for parallels among these constructions first noted in Heim ms. Our analysis, couched in a linear-logic-based from of categorial grammar along the lines of Oehrle 1994, builds on the basic insights underlying Barker's (2007) `parasitic scope' analysis of internal readings of THE SAME, but is simpler and more general than Barker's. Ours is also the first unified analysis of all three kinds of phenomena. Our analysis of phrasal comparatives captures their essential similarity to associate-remnant S/D constructions such as ANNA READ THE SAME BOOK AS BILL.
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Giomi, Riccardo. "Similatives are Manners, comparatives are Quantities (except when they aren’t)". Open Linguistics 8, n.º 1 (1 de janeiro de 2022): 650–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/opli-2022-0211.
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Abstract This article proposes a fine-grained semantic analysis of similative and comparative constructions within the framework of Functional Discourse Grammar (FDG). The core idea is that, when used in their prototypical modifying functions, the two types of constructions are built upon two semantic frames that share an identical structure but differ as regards the semantic category that underlies the whole modifying expression – whence the title of the article: similatives are Manners and comparatives are Quantities. At the same time, I argue that similatives can also be put to modifying and predicative uses in which they do not express a Manner but a Configurational Property (i.e., a “nuclear predication”) and that comparatives do not express a Quantity when occurring as arguments of lexical(ized) ditransitive predicates like prefer or would rather, nor when the two terms of the comparison are introduced by a specific type of temporal expression. Finally, the paper refines previous FDG approaches to the alternation between analytic and synthetic expression of comparison in such languages as English and Latin, proposing that the English comparative suffix -er is liable to being modified by narrow-scope measure expressions and is therefore a partly lexical element and not a fully grammaticalized marker of comparison.
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Michaelis, Laura A. "The Comparative Conditional in Latin". Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society 18, n.º 1 (25 de agosto de 1992): 166. http://dx.doi.org/10.3765/bls.v18i1.1594.
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Solleveld, Floris. "Expanding the comparative view". Historiographia Linguistica 47, n.º 1 (16 de outubro de 2020): 52–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/hl.00062.sol.
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Summary Wilhelm von Humboldt’s Über die Kawi-Sprache auf der Insel Java can be seen as the first comparative grammar of non-Indo-European languages. While Humboldt’s practice of collecting and re-assembling linguistic information has been documented extensively in the Berlin Academy edition of his Schriften zur Sprachwissenschaft, this article puts his work in perspective by tracing it back to its sources and treating it as part of a wider parallel process of expanding the comparative view. In three sections, this article discusses (1) the research agendas of the three British colonial scholars upon whose works Humboldt drew for Malayan languages; (2) to which extent his Polynesian language material was ‘rawer’ than these compendia; and (3) how he reworked this material into a comparative Malayo-Polynesian grammar. Finally, a comparison is drawn with the work of his assistant and continuator Eduard Buschmann, and with Horatio Hale’s slightly later survey of the languages of the Pacific.
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Deng, Fangfang, e Yuewu Lin. "A Comparative Study on Beliefs of Grammar Teaching between High School English Teachers and Students in China". English Language Teaching 9, n.º 8 (2 de junho de 2016): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/elt.v9n8p1.
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<p>Grammar is “a system of rules governing the conventional arrangement and relationship of words in a sentence” (Brown 1994) which can facilitate the acquisition of a foreign language and is conducive for cultivating comprehensive language competence. Most teachers regard grammar as a frame of English learning. The grammar teaching beliefs held by teachers can affect their practical teaching behaviors in class, thus can have different teaching results in the end. Therefore, through quantitative and qualitative research, this paper aims to investigate the present status of grammar beliefs of high school students as well as teachers’ beliefs and their grammar teaching behaviors, analyze and compare the similarities and differences between them. The result shows that teachers’ grammar teaching has the tendency of communicative teaching while students’ grammar beliefs have the characteristic of integration of communicative and traditional grammar teaching. Teachers’ grammar teaching behaviors can basically be consistent with their grammar teaching beliefs.</p>
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Chernovaty, L. "Pedagogical grammar as the framework of tefl research. Part 13. Characteristics of environment in native and foreign language acquisition". Teaching languages at higher institutions, n.º 41 (30 de dezembro de 2022): 100–113. http://dx.doi.org/10.26565/2073-4379-2022-41-06.
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The paper presents the comparative analysis of the characteristics of environment, or input, in the native and foreign language acquisition. The available research provides contradictive data on the role of input in the said acquisition ranging from regarding it as a secondary factor because of its assumed deficiency to underlining the importance of the linguistic experience as the key to the development of grammar mechanisms. The proponents of the latter approach stress the role of the linguistic input, indicate that variable input affects acquisition, focus on the probable relation between the patterns used in input and those used by the language learners. They assume that the input structural complexity can determine the overall timing of the onset of specific language mechanisms. Even those who allow for the dependence of acquisition on the corresponding maturation mechanisms, consider the active interaction of the learner's internal grammatical system with the surrounding linguistic environment to be the most important component of language acquisition. The analysis of interim grammars of learners of English in a formal setting showed that they used similar sets of interim grammar rules, which could be represented in the form of substation tables (ST), The new students who joined the group later, initially had a different nomenclature of their interim rules but eventually tended to show signs of developing the patterns similar to the other learners in the group. This may be explained by the fact that the structure of interim grammar (ST patterns) depends upon the content and structure of the material processed by the students’ cognitive organizers. Identically organized input may contribute to the formation of similar (though not fully identical) interim grammar rules in the students’ minds. Consequently, the content and the structure of the input may have an impact on the configuration of intake, i.e. the part of the foreign language acquisition, which proceeds on the basis of the cognitive organizer’s operation and the subconscious development of grammar mechanisms.
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Grafmiller, Jason, e Benedikt Szmrecsanyi. "Mapping out particle placement in Englishes around the world: A study in comparative sociolinguistic analysis". Language Variation and Change 30, n.º 3 (outubro de 2018): 385–412. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0954394518000170.
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AbstractThis study explores variability in particle placement across nine varieties of English around the globe, utilizing data from the International Corpus of English and the Global Corpus of Web-based English. We introduce a quantitative approach for comparative sociolinguistics that integrates linguistic distance metrics and predictive modeling, and use these methods to examine the development of regional patterns in grammatical constraints on particle placement in World Englishes. We find a high degree of uniformity among the conditioning factors influencing particle placement in native varieties (e.g., British, Canadian, and New Zealand English), while English as a second language varieties (e.g., Indian and Singaporean English) exhibit a high degree of dissimilarity with the native varieties and with each other. We attribute the greater heterogeneity among second language varieties to the interaction between general L2 acquisition processes and the varying sociolinguistic contexts of the individual regions. We argue that the similarities in constraint effects represent compelling evidence for the existence of a shared variable grammar and variation among grammatical systems is more appropriately analyzed and interpreted as a continuum rather than multiple distinct grammars.
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Łyskawa, Paulina, Ruth Maddeaux, Emilia Melara e Naomi Nagy. "Heritage Speakers Follow All the Rules: Language Contact and Convergence in Polish Devoicing". Heritage Language Journal 13, n.º 2 (31 de agosto de 2016): 219–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.46538/hlj.13.2.7.
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We use a comparative variationist framework to compare variable word-final obstruent devoicing patterns in heritage Polish, English and homeland Polish in conversational speech. Phonological and lexical factors are shown to condition this variation differently in the three varieties. We have a particular interest in one other factor relevant to heritage speakers: the amount of code-switching between Polish and English by each speaker. We show that, for second generation heritage speakers, individuals’ code-switching rates are positively correlated with their rates of devoicing. Based on the qualitatively and quantitatively different devoicing patterns of heritage Polish speakers, compared to both homeland Polish and Toronto English, we argue that the phonological grammar of this group of speakers constitutes a convergence of the heritage language and the dominant language’s grammars and suggest that frequent codeswitching provides the context in which these speakers’ knowledge of Polish and English patterns converge.
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Blas Arroyo, José Luis. "At the boundaries of linguistic convergence: Variation in presentational haber / haver-hi". Languages in Contrast 18, n.º 1 (22 de fevereiro de 2018): 35–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/lic.00003.bla.
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Abstract In this paper, we focus on an eventual convergence outcome (the pluralization of presentational haber/haver-hi) in the grammar of two Romance languages, Spanish and Catalan, which have been living side-by-side for centuries in Eastern Spain. Taking into account the sociolinguistic comparative method and on the basis of several representative corpora of the two languages in contact, the data from this research offer evidence that points to a notable congruence between the underlying grammars of both languages, which would, at least partially, account for a similar diffusion of these vernacular pluralizations. Moreover, some of the few cases of disagreement found can be explained on the basis of both internal (such as the existence of points of structural conflict in some verbal paradigms) and external factors (such as hypercorrection), which certain social groups particularly sensitive to normative pressure are more receptive to.
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Song, Yerim. "Perspectives on Grammar Teaching Focused on the Present Perfect-Preterite Comparative Analysis: From Theoretical Grammar to Pedagogical Grammar". Estudios Hispánicos 86 (31 de março de 2018): 65–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.21811/eh.86.65.
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Haig, John H. "Subjacency and Japanese Grammar". Studies in Language 20, n.º 1 (1 de janeiro de 1996): 53–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/sl.20.1.04hai.
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It has been claimed by Hasegawa, Yoshimura, Nishigauchi, Kikuchi, Saito and Watanabe, among others, that Japanese observes subjacency in relative clause formation, question formation, topicalization, comparative deletion (all non-overt operator movements), PP-topicalization, and scrambling (overt movements). In this paper I present counterexamples to each of these claims and argue that an aboutness condition on topic-comment and focus-comment constructions not only better explains the data but also explains the fact that subjects are usually easier to relativize than non-subjects, the fact that NP-topicalization is more free than PP-topicalization and the fact that there is pressure for a "list" interpretation in multiple wh-questions.