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Artigos de revistas sobre o assunto "Gares – France – 1800-"

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LOQUET, Monique. "Promoting artistic quality in rhythmic gymnastics: a didactic analysis from high performance to school practice". Revista Brasileira de Educação Física e Esporte 30, n.º 1 (março de 2016): 145–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1807-55092016000100145.

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Abstract In France, the curricula for physical education (PE) place gymnastic activities in a set of competences named “Achieving a corporal performance for artistic and acrobatic aims”, alongside dance and circus arts. What place does Artistic occupy in gymnastic activities? Is an aesthetic gesture sufficient to be considered as part of an artistic activity? Defining the term «Artistic» is difficult in the field of sports, as descriptions usually come from the technique/Artistic dichotomy. Our analysis focuses on rhythmic gymnastics (RG), which is precisely seen as emblematic of this technique/Artistic division: on the one hand, technical rigor, prescriptions and rules; on the other hand, grace, creation and self-expression. We believe such compartmentalized categories are too schematic to define gymnasts’ and students’ activities, so we will examine their articulation points. We first present an overview of RG as a school practice in ordinary forms of teaching, then an historical analysis of RG as a sports practice, to highlight the unbridgeable gap between both school and sports practices, regarding technique/Artistic connections. We then propose three significant points of articulation (called games) closely combining technical requirements and artistic commitment. We consider that the variation of the three games played in GR (creating, making beautiful, representing) is the product of historical dynamics of this sport we call artistic. Finally, on this basis, we propose a learning game for novice students promoting the artistic quality of RG practice.
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Frota, Wander Nunes, e Saulo Cunha de Serpa Brandão. "O Digital nas Humanidades: Uma Entrevista com Franco Moretti por Melissa Dinsman". Texto Digital 12, n.º 1 (5 de setembro de 2016): 119. http://dx.doi.org/10.5007/1807-9288.2016v12n1p119.

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http://dx.doi.org/10.5007/1807-9288.2016v12n1p119Pelo menos na última década, o termo “humanidades digitais” [doravante, “HD”] tem capturado a imaginação e a ira dos estudiosos em muitas universidades estadunidenses. Os defensores do campo, que funde a Hermenêutica com a Ciência da Computação, o têm como um meio extremamente necessário para agitar e expandir os métodos tradicionais de interpretação literária; para os críticos mais francos, é uma nova moda que simboliza a contagem dos feijões neoliberais a destruir o ensino superior estadunidense. Em algum lugar no meio desses dois extremos, há um corpo vasto e variado do trabalho que utiliza e examina criticamente ferramentas digitais na busca dos estudos humanísticos. Esse campo das HD é imenso e cada vez mais indefinível mesmo por aqueles que o praticam. Na verdade, a expressão “Humanidades Digitais” parece espantosamente inapropriada para uma área de estudo que inclui, por um lado, a pesquisa computacional, as plataformas de leitura e de escrita digital, a pedagogia digital, as publicações de acesso aberto, os textos aumentados e os bancos de dados literários, e, por outro, a arqueologia da mídia e as teorias das redes, os jogos (“games”) e as plataformas (“wares”), tanto duras (“hard”, ou seja, os equipamentos) como moles (“soft”, ou seja, os programas). Como Franco Moretti me disse no início de nossa conversa: “a expressão ‘humanidades digitais’ nada significa”.
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"Buchbesprechungen". Zeitschrift für Historische Forschung: Volume 48, Issue 2 48, n.º 2 (1 de abril de 2021): 311–436. http://dx.doi.org/10.3790/zhf.48.2.311.

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Schmid, Mainz / Manubach) Fischer-Kattner, Anke / Jamel Ostwald (Hrsg.), The World of the Siege. Representations of Early Modern Positional Warfare (History of Warfare, 126), Leiden / Boston 2019, Brill, IX u. 316 S. / Abb., € 105,00. (Marian Füssel, Göttingen) Dörfler-Dierken, Angelika (Hrsg.), Reformation und Militär. Wege und Irrwege in fünf Jahrhunderten, Göttingen 2019, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 320 S. / Abb., € 35,00. (Marianne Taatz-Jacobi, Halle) Schönauer, Tobias / Daniel Hohrath (Hrsg.), Formen des Krieges. 1600 – 1815 (Kataloge des Bayerischen Armeemuseums, 19), Ingolstadt 2019, Bayerisches Armeemuseum, 248 S. / Abb., € 15,00. (Thomas Weißbrich, Berlin) Goetze, Dorothée / Lena Oetzel (Hrsg.), Warum Friedenschließen so schwer ist. Frühneuzeitliche Friedensfindung am Beispiel des Westfälischen Friedenskongresses (Schriftenreihe zur Neueren Geschichte, 39; Schriftenreihe zur Neueren Geschichte. Neue Folge, 2), Münster 2019, Aschendorff, IX u. 457 S. / Abb., € 62,00. 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(Mathias Schmoeckel, Bonn) Ceglia, Francesco Paolo de (Hrsg.), The Body of Evidence. Corpses and Proofs in Early Modern European Medicine (Medieval and Early Modern Philosophy and Science, 30), Leiden / Boston 2020, Brill, X u. 355 S., € 154,00. (Robert Jütte, Stuttgart) Río Parra, Elena del, Exceptional Crime in Early Modern Spain. Taxonomic and Intellectual Perspectives (The Medieval and Early Modern Iberian World, 68), Leiden / Boston 2019, Brill, XI u. 218 S. / Abb., € 95,00. (Ralf-Peter Fuchs, Essen) Moreno, Doris (Hrsg.), The Complexity of Hispanic Religious Life in the 16th–18th Centuries (The Iberian Religious World, 6), Leiden / Boston 2020, Brill, 225 S. / Abb., € 165,00. (Joël Graf, Bern) Kaplan, Benjamin J., Reformation and the Practice of Toleration. Dutch Religious History in the Early Modern Era (St Andrews Studies in Reformation History), Leiden / Boston 2019, Brill, IX u. 371 S. / Abb., € 128,00. (Olaf Mörke, Kiel) Cecere, Domenico / Chiara De Caprio / Lorenza Gianfrancesco / Pasquale Palmieri (Hrsg.), Disaster Narratives in Early Modern Naples. Politics, Communication and Culture, Rom 2018, Viella, 257 S. / Abb., € 45,00. (Cornel Zwierlein, Berlin) Prak, Maarten / Patrick Wallis (Hrsg.), Apprenticeship in Early Modern Europe, Cambridge [u. a.] 2020, Cambridge University Press, XII u. 322 S. / Abb., £ 75,00. (Patrick Schmidt, Rostock) Bracht, Johannes / Ulrich Pfister, Landpacht, Marktgesellschaft und agrarische Entwicklung. Fünf Adelsgüter zwischen Rhein und Weser, 16. bis 19. Jahrhundert (Vierteljahrschrift für Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte. Beihefte, 247), Stuttgart 2020, Steiner, 364 S. / Abb., € 59,00. (Nicolas Rügge, Hannover) Kenny, Neil, Born to Write. Literary Families and Social History in Early Modern France, Oxford / New York 2020, Oxford University Press, XII u. 407 S. / Abb., £ 65,00. (Markus Friedrich, Hamburg) Capp, Bernard, The Ties That Bind. Siblings, Family, and Society in Early Modern England, Oxford / New York 2018, Oxford University Press, 222 S., £ 60,00. (Margareth Lanzinger, Wien) Huber, Vitus, Die Konquistadoren. Cortés, Pizarro und die Eroberung Amerikas (C. H. Beck Wissen, 2890), München 2019, Beck, 128 S. / Abb., € 9,95. (Horst Pietschmann, Hamburg) Stolberg, Michael, Gelehrte Medizin und ärztlicher Alltag in der Renaissance, Berlin / Boston 2021, de Gruyter Oldenbourg, VIII u. 580 S. / Abb., € 89,95. (Robert Jütte, Stuttgart) Lüneburg, Marie von, Tyrannei und Teufel. Die Wahrnehmung der Inquisition in deutschsprachigen Druckmedien im 16. Jahrhundert, Wien / Köln / Weimar 2020, Böhlau, 234 S. / Abb., € 45,00. (Wolfgang Reinhard, Freiburg i. Br.) Krey, Alexander, Wirtschaftstätigkeit, Verwaltung und Lebensverhältnisse des Mainzer Domkapitels im 16. Jahrhundert. Eine Untersuchung zu Wirtschaftsstil und Wirtschaftskultur einer geistlichen Gemeinschaft (Schriften zur Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte, 35), Hamburg 2020, Dr. Kovaç, 530 S. / graph. Darst., € 139,80. (Maria Weber, München) Fuchs, Gero, Gewinn als Umbruch der Ordnung? Der Fall des Siegburger Töpfers Peter Knütgen im 16. Jahrhundert (Rechtsordnung und Wirtschaftsgeschichte, 19), Tübingen 2019, Mohr Siebeck, XIII u. 195 S. / Abb., € 59,00. (Anke Sczesny, Augsburg) Lotito, Mark A., The Reformation of Historical Thought (St Andrews Studies in Reformation History), Leiden / Boston 2019, Brill, XX u. 542 S. / Abb., € 160,00. (Andreas Bihrer, Kiel) Georg III. von Anhalt, Abendmahlsschriften, hrsg. v. Tobias Jammerthal / David B. Janssen (Anhalt‍[er]‌kenntnisse), Leipzig 2019, Evangelische Verlagsanstalt, 440 S., € 48,00. (Eike Wolgast, Heidelberg) Bauer, Stefan, The Invention of Papal History. Onofrio Panvinio between Renaissance and Catholic Reform (Oxford-Warburg Studies), Oxford 2020, Oxford University Press, VIII u. 262 S. / Abb., £ 70,00. (Marco Cavarzere, Venedig) Murphy, Neil, The Tudor Occupation of Boulogne. Conquest, Colonisation and Imperial Monarchy, 1544 – 1550, Cambridge [u. a.] 2019, Cambridge University Press, XVIII u. 296 S. / Abb., £ 75,00. (Martin Foerster, Hamburg) Mills, Simon, A Commerce of Knowledge. Trade, Religion, and Scholarship between England and the Ottoman Empire, c. 1600 – 1760, Oxford 2020, Oxford University Press, XII u. 332 S. / Abb., £ 65,00. (Stefano Saracino, Jena / München) Karner, Herbert / Elisabeth Loinig / Martin Scheutz (Hrsg.), Die Jesuiten in Krems – die Ankunft eines neuen Ordens in einer protestantischen Stadt im Jahr 1616. Die Vorträge der Tagung des Instituts für kunst- und musikhistorische Forschungen der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, des Niederösterreichischen Instituts für Landeskunde und des Instituts für Österreichische Geschichtsforschung der Universität Wien, Krems, 28. bis 29. Oktober 2016 (Studien und Forschungen aus dem Niederösterreichischen Institut für Landeskunde, 71), St. Pölten 2018, Verlag Niederösterreichisches Institut für Landeskunde, 432 S. / Abb., € 25,00. (Markus Friedrich, Hamburg) Die „litterae annuae“ der Gesellschaft Jesu von Otterndorf (1713 bis 1730) und von Stade (1629 bis 1631), hrsg. v. Christoph Flucke / Martin J. Schröter, Münster 2020, Aschendorff, 154 S. / Abb., € 24,90. (Markus Friedrich, Hamburg) Como, David R., Radical Parliamentarians and the English Civil War, Oxford 2018, Oxford University Press, XV u. 457 S. / Abb., £ 85,00. (Torsten Riotte, Frankfurt a. M.) Corens, Liesbeth, Confessional Mobility and English Catholics in Counter-Reformation Europe, Oxford / New York 2019, Oxford University Press, XII u. 240 S. / Abb., £ 60,00. (Ulrich Niggemann, Augsburg) Asche, Matthias / Marco Kollenberg / Antje Zeiger (Hrsg.), Halb Europa in Brandenburg. Der Dreißigjährige Krieg und seine Folgen, Berlin 2020, Lukas, 244 S. / Abb., € 20,00. (Michael Rohrschneider, Bonn) Fiedler, Beate-Christine / Christine van den Heuvel (Hrsg.), Friedensordnung und machtpolitische Rivalitäten. Die schwedischen Besitzungen in Niedersachsen im europäischen Kontext zwischen 1648 und 1721 (Veröffentlichungen des Niedersächsischen Landesarchivs, 3), Göttingen 2019, Wallstein, 375 S. / Abb., € 29,90. (Niels Petersen, Göttingen) Prokosch, Michael, Das älteste Bürgerbuch der Stadt Linz (1658 – 1707). Edition und Auswertung (Quelleneditionen des Instituts für Österreichische Geschichtsforschung, 18), Wien / Köln / Weimar 2019, Böhlau, 308 S. / Abb., € 50,00. 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Eine Biografie (Hamburgische Lebensbilder, 25), Göttingen 2020, Wallstein, 200 S. / Abb., € 16,00. (Mark-Georg Dehrmann, Berlin) Augustynowicz, Christoph / Johannes Frimmel (Hrsg.), Der Buchdrucker Maria Theresias. Johann Thomas Trattner (1719 – 1798) und sein Medienimperium (Buchforschung, 10), Wiesbaden 2019, Harrassowitz, 173 S. / Abb., € 54,00. (Mona Garloff, Innsbruck) Beckus, Paul, Land ohne Herr – Fürst ohne Hof? Friedrich August von Anhalt-Zerbst und sein Fürstentum (Quellen und Forschungen zur Geschichte Sachsen-Anhalts, 15), Halle 2018, Mitteldeutscher Verlag, 604 S. / Abb., € 54,00. (Michael Hecht, Halle) Whatmore, Richard, Terrorists, Anarchists and Republicans. The Genevans and the Irish in Time of Revolution, Princeton / Oxford, Princeton University Press 2019, XXIX u. 478 S. / Abb., £ 34,00. (Ronald G. Asch, Freiburg i. Br.) Elster, Jon, France before 1789. The Unraveling of an Absolutist Regime, Princeton / Oxford 2020, Princeton University Press, XI u. 263 S. / graph. 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Teses / dissertações sobre o assunto "Gares – France – 1800-"

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Franz, Hannah. "Towards an integrated assessment framework for existing structures : Study of riveted lattice girders in French train sheds of 1850-1930". Electronic Thesis or Diss., Ecole centrale de Nantes, 2024. http://www.theses.fr/2024ECDN0014.

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Les poutres treillis rivetées en fer puddlé et en acier doux sont des éléments essentiels du patrimoine de la construction métallique française des années 1850 à 1930. Lors des récentes restaurations de halles de gare historiques à charpente métallique menéespar la SNCF, les poutres treillis rivetées ont souvent été renforcées en raison de problèmes de stabilité identifiés numériquement. En réalité, des déformations excessives dues au flambement sont rarement observées. Afin de limiter des interventions structurales invasives, cette thèse propose une méthodologie novatrice d'évaluation. La méthodologie, appliquée aux poutres treillis rivetées dans les halles de gare françaises est décomposée en trois étapes. Tout d'abord, les caractéristiques structurelles ayant une valeur patrimoniale sont identifiées en s'appuyant sur l'histoire de l'ingénierie, et l'impact des stratégies de rénovation sur la structure est discuté à l'aide d'un inventaire des rénovations précédentes. Ensuite, les hypothèses de modélisation pour l’analyse structurale sont débattues à partir de la littérature historique et récente. La raideur rotationnelle des assemblages rivetés, paramètre clé pour le flambement, est évaluée grâce à des investigations expérimentales et numériques sur une poutre treillis rivetée historique. Enfin, les critères de dimensionnement actuels sont discutés en les comparant aux méthodes de vérification historiques. La méthodologie développée à travers cette thèse peut être appliquée aux structures patrimoniales de tous matériaux, et plus largement aux structures existantes
Wrought-iron and mild-steel riveted lattice girders are essential constituents of the French metallic construction heritage of 1850 to1930. In recent restorations of historic train sheds conducted by the French national railway company SNCF, riveted lattice girders haveoften been reinforced because of numerically identified stability problems. In reality, however, excessive deformations due to buckling arerarely witnessed. In order to limit invasive structural interventions, this thesis, therefore, proposes a novel integrated assessment methodology. The methodology, applied to riveted lattice girders in French metallic train sheds, is decomposed into three steps. Firstly, structural features conveying heritage value are identified relying on the history of engineering, and the impact of renovation strategies on the structure is discussed using an inventory of previous renovations. Secondly, modelling assumptions for structural analysis are debated based on a review of historical and recent literature. The rotational stiffness of riveted joints, a key parameter for buckling, is assessed using experimental and numerical investigations carried out on a reclaimed riveted lattice girder. Thirdly, current design criteria used for assessment are discussed by comparing them with historical verification methods. The proposed methodology sets the basis of an assessment framework that could be extended to heritage structures of all materials, and broadly to most types of existing structures
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Joyeux-Prunel, Béatrice. ""Nul n'est prophète en son pays. . . " ou la logique avant-gardiste : l'internationalisation de la peinture des avant-gardes parisiennes : 1855-1914". Paris 1, 2005. http://www.theses.fr/2005PA010522.

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Ce travail étudie comparativement les carrières internationales des avant-gardes parisiennes, à partir d'une base de données de catalogues d'expositions. La stratégie du détour par l'étranger permettait de rester d'avant-garde dans le champ artistique parisien, tout en exportant une peinture plus vendable. En jouant sur les décalages entre les champs artistiques nationaux, les artistes prétendaient à une reconnaissance étrangère qui prouvait le retard parisien. L'accueil par l'étranger des avant-gardes parisiennes n'était pas pour autant garanti. Il peut être analysé comme le résultat d'un transfert culturel, fondé sur une stratégie d'expositions différenciées selon les lieux. Il fut assuré par une population de médiateurs cosmopolite, de position sociale intermédiaire. La clé des carrières n'était ni le système marchand-critique, ni la presse, mais une véritable anticipation herméneutique des interprétations des publics, que permettait une orientation cosmopolite.
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Schiau-Botea, Diana. "Le texte et le lieu du spectacle de La Plume au Mur. Stéphane Mallarmé parmi les avant-gardes". Thesis, Paris 3, 2010. http://www.theses.fr/2010PA030043/document.

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Comme l’a montré récemment Peter Sloterdijk, l’avènement du système médiatique remet profondément en cause le modèle humaniste du livre comme lettre créatrice d’amitié. Les citoyens ne s’identifient plus à des valeurs communes grâce à des lectures canoniques. C’est pourquoi, à la fin du XIXe siècle déjà, les hommes de lettres vont chercher des modalités nouvelles de réduire la distance qui les sépare du public. Cette thèse examine et compare quatre journaux ou revues artistiques différentes – L’Hydropathe, Le Chat Noir, La Plume et Le Mur – dont les créateurs organisent des soirées littéraires publiques ou des spectacles de projection – théâtre d’ombres – dans des lieux qu’ils aménagent dans ce but : des cafés, des petites salles intimes du Quartier Latin, des cabarets à Montmartre. Les étudiants nomades se fixent et à cela va correspondre un investissement progressif aussi bien de l’espace théâtral que de l’espace textuel. On sera pourtant étonné de découvrir des préoccupations similaires, chez un auteur retiré, qui ne prenait pas volontiers la parole en public. Stéphane Mallarmé est un écrivain, comme dit Jacques Rancière, « infiniment attentif à son temps ». On remarquera ainsi que Mallarmé et les avant-gardes étudiées créent des spectacles démocratiques qui s’efforcent de rendre compte des contradictions irréductibles du monde moderne. On imaginera avec un certain plaisir, certes indissociable de l’humour, de la fête et du carnaval, les communautés auxquelles les mises en scène de l’écriture fragmentaire et du support artistique nous invitent visiblement à rêver
As Peter Sloterdijk writes, the development of mass media such as lowcost popular newspapers challenges radically the humanist conception of the book as letter generating friendship. Citizens of the newborn republic can no longer share the same values thanks to canonical, national, or universal readings. At the end of the 19th century, for that reason, journalists and writers attempt to create new opportunities which allow them to abolish the distance and meet their public. This dissertation examines and compares four different artistic journals – L’Hydropathe, Le Chat Noir, La Plume et Le Mur – whose creators organize literary gatherings or shadow theater shows in different venues designed for this purpose : cafés, small auditoriums in the Latin Quarter, and cabarets in Montmartre. Nomad students « settle down », create new texts, and decorate the walls, and this work becomes a very important part of their identity. However, one will be surprised to discover similar concerns in the work of a solitary writer, who did not particularly like to speak in public. Stéphane Mallarmé is indeed a writer, as Jacques Rancière says, « infinitely aware of his time ». We shall see that both Mallarmé and the avant-gardes studied in this dissertation produce democratic performances which atttempt to transpose the irreducible contradictions of modern times into exemplary figures. In a joyful, carnivalesque way mostly, the staging of fragmentary writing and of artistic frames invites us visibly to imagine communities
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Manneheut-Frémont, Béatrice. "Le milieu artistique à Paris entre 1896 et 1908 : contribution à l'étude sur la naissance des avant-gardes". Rennes 2, 2001. http://www.theses.fr/2001REN20039.

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Cette étude se propose d'analyser quelques éléments du milieu artistique parisien entre 1896 et 1908. Le tournant du XXe siècle est considéré comme une période charnière -point final du symbolisme et point de départ des "avant-gardes"- Sans que l'on en mesure toujours la "réalité" artistique. La formation d'une nouvelle conscience artistique n'est pas le fait seulement d'une avant-garde à l'écart qui se résume souvent en quelques noms (Picasso, Matisse ou Apollinaire), mais tient à nombre de personnalités, artistes, écrivains et critiques d'art méconnus, intégrées elles aussi dans l'histoire de la modernité. Ainsi, nous avons tenté de dégager, dans une première partie, certaines manifestations artistiques qui mettent en relation tout un ensemble de personnalités qui occupent une place non négligeable au sein de l'activité littéraire, philosophique et artistique du début du XXe siècle. De ce fait, le philosophe polonais Mécislas Golberg, dont les relations avec Guillaume Apollinaire et Henri Matisse ont pu être éclaircies grâce à l'apport de correspondances inédites, apparaît comme un maillon essentiel dans le cheminement de la constitution des avant-gardes. Dans un deuxième temps, ce principe de réseaux et de collusions entre plusieurs personnalités, a été élargi au quartier Montparnasse ; ce qui nous a permis d'en préciser la genèse artistique, bien avant sa consécration à partir des années 1910. Enfin, à travers les changements que connait la critique d'art, nous avons tenté de réintégrer dans cette histoire de la naissance des avant-gardes, des critiques dont les textes nous permettent de mieux comprendre certaines évolutions, en particulier celle de la poésie-critique à travers les écrits de Marius-Ary Leblond
This study seeks to analyse some elements of the Parisian artistic environment between 1896 and 1908. The bend of the 20th century is considered as a transitory period -the end of the symbolism and the beginning of the avant-gardes- without that one always measures it the artistic "reality". The formation of a new artistic consciousness is not the fact only of an avant-garde aside which often amounts in some names (Picasso, Matisse or Apollinaire), but includes numbers of personalities, artists, writers and underestimated art critics, integrated too into the history of modernity. So we tried to develop, in a first part, some artistic manifestations which connect a set of personalities who occupy a not unimportant place within the literary, philosophic and artistiic activity of the beginning of the 20th century. Therefore, the Polish philosopher Mécislas Golberg, whose relations with Guillaume Apollinaire, and Henri Matisse were able to be cleared up thanks to the contribution of new correspondences, appears as an essential link in the progress of the constitution of the avant-garde. In a second time, it principles of networks and collusions among several personalities was widened in the district Montparnasse, what allowed us to clarify the artistic genesis of it, well before its consecration from 1910's. Finally, through the changes of the art criticism, we tried to reinstate in this history of the birth of the avant-gardes, some texts of art critics which allow us better to understand some evolutions, in particular that of the poetry-criticism through Marius-Ary Leblond's papers
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Prieur, Florent Marcel. "Dompter une ville en colère : Genèse, conception et mise en œuvre de la police d’État de Lyon 1800-1870". Thesis, Lyon 2, 2013. http://www.theses.fr/2013LYO20076.

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La loi du 19 juin 1851 qui étatise la police de Lyon marque une rupture majeure dans l’histoire du maintien de l’ordre en France. Depuis la Révolution française, les maires ont en effet été chargés de la police dans toutes les communes françaises, Paris exceptée. À partir de 1851, Lyon fait donc figure d’exception. Parce qu’elle s’est signalée par ses colères récurrentes depuis la fin du XVIIIe siècle, qu’elle est considérée comme la capitale du sud-est de la France et que sa population apparaît unanimement comme rétive à toute forme de domination, elle passe pour une cité rebelle. Dans le contexte d’un « Printemps des peuples » marqué par les soulèvements réguliers des partisans de la République démocratique et sociale, en juin 1848 puis en juin 1849, Lyon devient aux yeux des autorités, le quartier général de tous ceux qui veulent renverser l’ordre social en France voire en Europe. Or, durant cette période, la police lyonnaise donne chaque jour les preuves d’une défaillance complète face à la criminalité et à la délinquance, malgré une réorganisation générale tentée à l’automne 1848. En réaction, le pouvoir parisien place progressivement Lyon « hors du droit commun ». La ville et ses faubourgs sont d’abord privés de leurs gardes nationales en juillet 1848, lesquelles ne seront jamais réorganisées, à la différence des autres municipalités, car elles sont perçues, entre Rhône et Saône, comme peu sûres, faibles face à l’émeute et promptes à se retourner contre l’armée et la police. Le 15 juin 1849, une nouvelle insurrection éclate à Lyon. Réprimée par l’armée, elle enclenche la réforme générale de l’organisation administrative et policière de la ville et des faubourgs. Dans l’immédiat, Lyon et les cinq départements de la 6e division militaire sont placés et maintenus en état de siège. Tentée une première fois à l’automne 1849, la réforme aboutit avec la loi du 19 juin 1851. Désormais, Lyon jouit d’une police étatisée, aux mains d’un préfet du Rhône devenu préfet de police, agissant dans une nouvelle entité administrative, l’agglomération lyonnaise, qui regroupe une douzaine de communes et faubourgs. Le décret du 24 mars 1852 fait aboutir cette réforme, en supprimant le maire et en attribuant ses fonctions au préfet, en annexant les communes suburbaines et en divisant la ville en cinq arrondissements. Sur le plan policier, les services sont réorganisés jusqu’en 1854, sur la base des modèles parisien, londonien et genevois. La police d’État lyonnaise traverse le Second Empire et devient le modèle à partir duquel les polices des préfectures de plus de 40 000 habitants sont étatisées en 1855. Cette pérennité de la police d’État ne doit pourtant pas dissimuler une contestation permanente de son existence au cours des années 1860, au Corps législatif puis au Conseil général du Rhône. Les élus républicains demandent en effet la restitution à Lyon d’une municipalité élue, prélude au retour de la ville dans le « droit commun » sur le plan policier. Progressivement, la surveillance politique de l’agglomération s’avère difficile à assurer et les effectifs policiers apparaissent insuffisants. C’est néanmoins la défaite de Sedan qui aura raison de la police d’État. La République proclamée, la municipalité lyonnaise tout juste recomposée reprend immédiatement la direction du maintien de l’ordre le 4 septembre 1870
The law of 19th June 1851 which establishes state control over the police of Lyon marks a major break in the history of urban policing in France. Since the French Revolution, mayors were in charged of the police in all the French municipalities, Paris excepted. From 1851, Lyon thus became an exception. Because it differenced itself by its recurring revolts since the end of the XVIIIth century, because it is considered as the capital of the southeast-part of France and because its population appeared unanimously as refusing any kind of domination, it was considered as a rebel city. During the "people’s spring" marked by the regular uprisings of the partisans of the democratic and social Republic, in June, 1848 then in June, 1849, Lyon became for the authorities, the headquarters of all those who wanted to turn upside down social order in France and even in Europe. Yet, during this period, the police of Lyon gave daily proofs of a total failure to fight criminality, in spite of a general reorganization tempted in autumn 1848.In reaction, the Parisian power gradually put Lyon "outside the common law". The city and its suburbs were firstly deprived of their national guards in July 1848, unlike the other municipalities, because its guards were perceived, between the Rhône and the Saône, as weak in front of riots and quick to turn around against the army and the police. On June 15th 1849, a new uprising burst in Lyon. Repressed by the army, it engaged the general reform of the administrative and police organization of the city and the suburbs. Lyon and the five departments of the 6th military division had immediately been are placed and maintained under state of siege. Firstly tried in autumn 1849, the reform succeeded with the law of 19th June 1851. From then on, Lyon had a state-controlled police, in the hands of the prefect of the Rhône who became a prefect of police, acting in a new administrative entity, the Lyon agglomeration, which included a dozen municipalities and suburbs. The decree of March 24th, 1852 made this reform succeed, by suppressing the mayor and by attributing its functions to the prefect, by annexing the suburban municipalities and by dividing the city into five districts. On the police plan, services were reorganized until 1854, on the basis of the models of Paris, London and Geneva.The State police of Lyon crossed the Second Empire and became the model from which the polices of the prefectures of more than 40 000 inhabitants passed under state control in 1855. Nevertheless, the State police is contested during the 1860s, in the Legislative Corps and the General Council of the Rhône. The republican asked for the restoration of an elected municipality in Lyon, seen as the first step of the return of the city in the police "common law". Gradually, political surveillance of the urban space became increasingly difficult, and the police staff seemed insufficient. Nevertheless, it was the defeat of Sedan that would mark the end of the State police. Once the Republic had been proclaimed, the municipality of Lyon just recomposed took back immediately the direction of the police on September 4th, 1870
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Roffe, Morgane. "Le droit et la police des jeux de hasard dans les Alpes-Maritimes aux XIXe et XXe siècles (1800-1954)". Thesis, Université Côte d'Azur (ComUE), 2017. http://www.theses.fr/2017AZUR0037.

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L’histoire normative française comme l’histoire normative sarde, démontre une certaine ambivalence vis-à-vis des jeux de hasard, exprimée dans les textes répressifs (le décret du 24 juin 1806 et les articles 410 et 475 du Code pénal de 1810). Le cadre répressif dominant, au travers des lois du 21 mai et du 18 juillet 1836, révèle de nouveau cette ambivalence. En effet, l’article 4 du décret de 1806 et l’article 5 de la loi du 21 mai 1836, traduisent déjà une tolérance de l’administration supérieure vis-à-vis de la progression des jeux. Aussi, les autorités préfectorales confirment une tolérance progressive vis-à-vis des jeux de hasard. Localement, des casinos sont autorisés, après l’annexion à la France en 1860, ils suscitent des controverses de la presse et d’une partie de l’opinion publique. Néanmoins, face à la concurrence d’un État limitrophe (la principauté de Monaco), les pouvoirs publics des Alpes-Maritimes encouragent une politique d’exploitation des jeux, car favorable au développement urbain, généré par la villégiature, puis le tourisme. Un droit empirique des jeux de hasard se développe alors dans la zone de villégiature du département. La réforme nationale normative du 15 juin 1907, en légalisant alors les casinos-cercles dans les stations balnéaires, thermales et climatiques, est particulièrement favorable aux Alpes-Maritimes. Dorénavant, les intérêts économiques prévalent sur des considérations morales. La sphère des jeux devient un élément convoité. L’attraction financière, notamment vis-à-vis du prélèvement communal sur le produit des jeux, laisse entrevoir un droit utilitariste conforté par la réforme de la loi de finances en 1953
The French normative history, just like the Sardian normative history shows a certain ambivalence when it comes to gambling games, as it’s expressed in repressive texts (the June 24th 1804 bill and the 410 and 475 articles from the 1810 criminal Code). The dominant repressive framework, through the laws of May 21st and July 18th 1836, reveals again that ambivalence. Indeed, the article 4 from the 1806’s bill and the 5 from the May 21st 1836’law, already translate a progressive tolerance of the games progression from the superior administration. Also, the prefectural authorities confirm a progressive tolerance about gambling games. Locally, some casinos are allowed, after the annexion to France in 1860, they bring up some controversial reactions from the press and the public opinion. However, because of the concurrence coming from a neighboring state (the principality of Monaco), the public authorities of the Alpes-Maritimes, encourage the game exploitation, because of their favorable impact on the urban development, generated by resorts then tourism. An empirical right to gambling games is then developing in the resort area of the department. The national reform of June, which legalized the casinos in the seaside, health and thermal stations is especially beneficial to the Alpes-Maritimes. From now on, the economic interests prevail on moral considerations. The gambling sphere becomes a much coveted domain. The financial attraction, especially from the communal tax on gambling games, shows a glimpse of the utilitarian law later confronted by the financial reform in 1953
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Fressin, Thomas. "Des bourgeoisies urbaines en quête de distinction : Les compagnies des chevaliers de l’arc, de l’arbalète et de l’arquebuse (1585-1793)". Thesis, Université Côte d'Azur, 2020. http://www.theses.fr/2020COAZ2010.

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Cette thèse analyse la quête de distinction des bourgeoisies urbaines à l'époque moderne à travers le cas particulier des compagnies de chevaliers des nobles jeux de l'arc, de l'arbalète et de l'arquebuse, formes de sociabilité persistant tout au long de l'Ancien Régime. Le cadre d'étude est le royaume de France, du roi Henri IV jusqu'au 24 avril 1793, date du dernier décret mettant définitivement fin à ce qui reste de ces compagnies.Au gré du renforcement du pouvoir royal, cette thèse montre les enjeux pour les bourgeois du maintien de cette sociabilité dans l'espace public français. À l'intersection de l'histoire de la bourgeoisie, de l'histoire des sociabilités, de l'histoire des jeux et de l'histoire militaire des villes, elle permet de mettre au jour les rapports complexes des bourgeois avec les autorités municipales, royales et militaires. Elle révèle également une grande influence et une large présence de ces compagnies dans de nombreuses villes du Royaume, aspects encore trop méconnus.La première partie expose les origines diverses et amalgamées de ces compagnies, pour ensuite se consacrer à la passion de la bourgeoisie pour la sociabilité et les privilèges. Elle montre la structuration en sociétés urbaines d'élus, constituées en un ordre chevaleresque connu et reconnu à travers le Royaume, qui intéressera progressivement les habitants des faubourgs et villages. La seconde partie analyse les activités organisées par ces compagnies dans l'espace urbain, en particulier leurs exercices et concours de tir. Constitués en nobles jeux et en jeux olympiques de tir, les chevaliers renforcent et entretiennent l'idée que leurs exercices sont des jeux d'élite, réservés à l'élite. Outre la présentation des fêtes grandioses et de la théâtralité chevaleresque mises en scène, cette partie permet d'apprécier les enjeux de ces manifestations urbaines.La troisième partie permet quant à elle d'apprécier les jeux et enjeux des pouvoirs à travers la stratégie de distinction et de conservation des droits et exemptions des membres de ces compagnies. La dernière partie se concentre sur la place réservée à ces compagnies au sein de la milice bourgeoise et à leur caractère militaire volontairement affiché. L'étude des missions confiées par les villes à ces compagnies montre, à travers les siècles, un rôle militaire relativement fantasmé, accessoire et décrié. Occupant des places d'honneur et de sécurité, qui distinguent les chevaliers des nobles jeux des miliciens de quartiers, il faut attendre les turbulences de la Révolution pour observer quelques prises de risque, qui ne permettront toutefois pas d'éviter une fusion avec la Garde nationale
This thesis aims to analyze the quest for social distinction, which animated the French urban bourgeoisie all along the Modern Era, through the example of the Companies of Knights of the noble games of Archery, of the Crossbow and Arquebus – a kind of sociability that persisted over the whole Ancien Régime. The framework of our study is the Kingdom of France, from the last decade of the xvith century to April 24th 1793, the day when a decree put a definitive end to what had subsisted from the companies.Following the long rise of the French Royal power, this thesis shows how important it was – for the bourgeois – to maintain this sociability in the French public space. At the crossroad of bourgeoisie history, history of sociabilities, history of games and military history of the cities, it unveils the complex relationship between bourgeois on the one hand, and municipal, royal and military authorities on the other. It also reveals the great – yet still widely underestimated – influence and numerical importance of these companies were in many cities.Part One will be dedicated to the diverse and blended origins of these companies as well as to the passion the bourgeoisie had for sociability and privileges. This part demonstrates that the constitution of urban societies of elected members – forming a chivalric order known and acknowledged across the whole Kingdom – progressively raised interest among the inhabitants of the faubourgs and villages. Moreover, it enables us to appreciate the power games and stakes in the cities through the strategies of social distinction, exemptions and maintenance of rights deployed by the the companies’ members.Part Two turn to analyze the activities of thess companies in the urban space, aspecially the shooting exercises and competitions. Constitute in Noble games and Olympic games, the Knights reinforced and maintained the idea that their exercises where elitist games, reserved to an elite they where part of. In addition to exhibiting the magnificent feasts and the chivalric dramatization, this part highlights the social, cultural and political issues of these urban events.Part Three will focus on the place dedicated to the Companies within the urban militia and on their military aspect, which was voluntarily stressed. Studying the missions given to those companies over the centuries reveals that their military function was more ideal than actual, marginal and criticized. Confined to honour places or performing security missions – which distinguished the Knights of the Noble games from the city’s militiamen – it was not until the troubled times of the French Revolution that some risks were taken, yet it did not prevent the companies from getting merged into the Garde nationale
В этой диссертации анализируется поиск городской буржуазией самоидентификации в современный период через частный случай рыцарских обществ аристократических военных игр: «обществ стрельбы из лука, арбалета и аркебузы», которые являлись формами социализации, сохранившимися во Франции Старого порядка. Предметом изучения является Королевство Франция, начиная от короля Генриха IV и до 24 апреля 1793 года, даты последнего указа, положившего конец тому, что осталось от этих обществ.Это исследование демонстрирует проблемы и вызовы, с которыми сталкивалась буржуазия для поддержания данного социального взаимодействия в пространстве французского общества в период укрепления королевской власти. На стыке истории буржуазии, истории подобных обществ, истории игр и военной истории городов, изучение этих социальных взаимодействий позволяет выявить сложные связи между буржуазией и городскими, королевскими и военными властями. Это исследование раскрывает малоизученные аспекты огромного влияния и широкого присутствия этих обществ во многих городах Королевства.Первая часть данной диссертации представляет различные и разнородные истоки этих обществ, а также, иллюстрирует стремление буржуазии к формированию подобных сообществ и привилегиям. В дальнейшем, представляется возможность проследить интеграцию в городскую структуру выборных членов, сформировавшихся подобном в рыцарском обществе, известном и признанным во всем Королевстве, и которое постепенно вызывает интерес у жителей пригородов и деревень.Во второй части анализируются мероприятия, организуемые такими обществами в городской среде, в частности упражнения и соревнования по стрельбе. В процессе преобразования этих мероприятий в аристократические игры и олимпийские игры по стрельбе, рыцари укрепляли и поддерживали идею, что их развлечения - это привилегированные игры, предназначенные для определенной элиты. Помимо изучения процесса создания великолепной рыцарской постановки, эта часть исследования позволяет понять и другие аспекты этих городских представлений.Третья часть исследования содержит информацию об играх и влиянии властей на членов подобных обществ через стратегию разграничения и сохранения прав и свобод.Последняя часть посвящена тому месту, которое было отведено таким обществам в буржуазной милиции и их военному духу, который вставлялся напоказ. Изучение задач, возложенных городами на эти общества, демонстрирует, что на протяжении веков их военная роль была относительно выдуманной, незначительной, вспомогательной и осуждаемой. Занимая почетные места и места в охранных структурах городов, которые отличали рыцарей аристократических игр от окрестных ополченцев, эти общества встретили потрясения Революции, что не помешало, однако, их слиянию с Национальной гвардией
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Livros sobre o assunto "Gares – France – 1800-"

1

Larrivière, Jean-Paul. Les gardes d'honneur de la Dordogne sous le Premier Empire, 1805-1814. Périgueux: Libro liber, 2004.

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2

Phillips, Brian. In the age of Bismarck and Napoleon III. Dayton, Ohio (140 Indiana Ave., Dayton 45410): Rank and File Figures, 1992.

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3

Toth, Stephen A. Mettray. Cornell University Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.7591/cornell/9781501740183.001.0001.

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The Mettray Penal Colony was a private reformatory without walls, established in France in 1840 for the rehabilitation of young male delinquents. Foucault linked its opening to the most significant change in the modern status of prisons and now this book takes us behind the gates to show how the institution legitimized France's repression of criminal youth and added a unique layer to the nation's carceral system. The book dissects Mettray's social anatomy, exploring inmates' experiences. More than 17,000 young men passed through the reformatory before its closure, and the book situates their struggles within changing conceptions of childhood and adolescence in modern France. It demonstrates that the colony was an ill-conceived project marked by internal contradictions. Its social order was one of subjection and subversion, as officials struggled for order and inmates struggled for autonomy. The book exposes the nature of the relationships between, and among, prisoners and administrators. It explores the daily grind of existence: living conditions, discipline, labor, sex, and violence. Thus, the book gives voice to the incarcerated, not simply to the incarcerators, whose ideas and agendas tend to dominate the historical record. The book is, above all else, a deeply personal illumination of life inside France's most venerated carceral institution.
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Sepinwall, Alyssa Goldstein. Slave Revolt on Screen. University Press of Mississippi, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.14325/mississippi/9781496833105.001.0001.

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This book analyzes how films and video games from around the world have depicted slave revolt, focusing on the Haitian Revolution (1791–1804). This event, the first successful revolution by enslaved people in modern history, sent shockwaves throughout the Atlantic world. However, despite its historical significance, this revolution is less well-known—and appears less often on screen—than most other revolutions; its story, involving enslaved Africans liberating themselves through violence, does not match the suffering-slaves-waiting-for-a-white-hero genre that pervades Hollywood treatments of Black History. Despite Hollywood’s near-silence on this event, some films on the Revolution do exist—from directors in Haiti, the U.S., France, and elsewhere. Slave Revolt on Screen offers the first-ever comprehensive analysis of Haitian Revolution cinema, including completed films and planned projects that were never made. In addition to studying cinema, the book breaks ground in examining video games. It scrutinizes video game depictions of Haitian slave revolt that appear in games like the Assassin’s Creed series which have reached millions more individuals than comparable films. In analyzing films and games on the Revolution, this book calls attention to the ways that economic legacies of slavery and colonialism warp pop-culture portrayals of the past and leave audiences with distorted understandings. It also contributes to important conversations about how Hollywood depicts Black History, as well as to research on slavery and memory, Haitian Studies, France, French colonialism, the French Revolution, Film and History, Cinema and Media Studies, Africana Studies, Caribbean literature, American culture studies, Francophone cinema, and Game Studies.
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Publishers, Museum. Notebook: Satyrs Dancing from Bacchanales, or Satyrs' Games, 1763, Jean Honoré Fragonard, French, 1732-1806, France, Etching on Ivory Laid Paper. Independently Published, 2020.

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6

della Cananea, Giacinto, e Stefano Mannoni, eds. Administrative Justice Fin de siècle. Oxford University Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198867562.001.0001.

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This book argues that too often the evolution of administrative law in Europe has been considered in the light of legal doctrines fashioned at the national level, if not of few authors, whose works are quoted to stress the different paths undertaken by European countries after the French Revolution. The book deviates from these standard accounts in that it focuses on control of administrative power by the courts and considers, empirically, judicial decisions at the epoch of the Belle Époque, more precisely the years 1890-1910. The legal systems selected for comparison include Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, and the UK. Some relied on ordinary or generalist courts, while others created administrative courts, The outcome of the analysis confirms that, in contrast with the over-emphasized differences among national legal doctrines, the challenges which those legal systems faced were largely the same. Moreover, and more importantly, the analysis of the standards of conduct defined and refined by the courts reveals that they exercised an increasingly vigorous control over discretion. They gradually opened the gates of judicial review to new interests, intervened on grounds of purpose and defined general principles of law that were very similar, if not the same. The courts, not legislators, thus created the central tenets of administrative law. Finally, various explanations for the role played by the courts are considered in legal, historic, and political perspectives. The book thus provides an unprecedented outlook on the relationship between public authorities and individuals at the zenith of the sovereign state.
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Besse, Jacques. The Great Easter. The MIT Press, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/11772.001.0001.

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A hallucinating, insomniac, and increasingly fragile flaneur wanders the streets of Paris over the long Easter weekend of 1960. Paris, Easter weekend 1960. The French composer Jacques Besse sets out on a marathon stroll through the city that begins on Good Friday, when he leaves his brother's house on rue de Turbigo, and ends on Easter Monday, when, having declared himself Mars, the god of war, to mystified restaurant-goers, he ambles back toward Saint-Germain-des-Prés. The Great Easter—a memoir in the form of a novella, or perhaps a novella in the form of a memoir—is the first-person account of a hallucinating, insomniac, and increasingly fragile flaneur's unending ambulation. The Great Easter was first published in French in 1969 and became famous a few years later when in their milestone work Anti-Oedipus Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari referred to Besse's walk as the quintessential “double stroll of the schizo.” (Besse was a patient at Guattari's psychiatric clinic La Borde.) Besse's stroll purées past and present, real and not-real: a rendezvous with a prostitute intersects with Sergei Eisenstein and his entourage, a bellowed song about the sea is overwhelmed by “memories” of the 1830 July Revolution, and the entire universe gathers itself up into a bubble above Gare d'Austerlitz. He is seized by anxiety, released by joy; he announces his cosmic celebrity via a huge (imaginary) television while freezing in the night and calling out for bread. A cult favorite in France, The Great Easter is an engrossing, surreal road movie of a book
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Publishers, Museum. Notebook: Nymph Sitting on the Hands of Two Satyrs from Bacchanales, or Satyrs' Games, 1763, Jean Honoré Fragonard, French, 1732-1806, France, Etching on Ivory Laid Paper. Independently Published, 2020.

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9

The Gates of hell by Auguste Rodin. Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press, 1985.

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10

With Their Bare Hands: General Pershing, the 79th Division, and the battle for Montfaucon. Osprey Publishing, 2017.

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Capítulos de livros sobre o assunto "Gares – France – 1800-"

1

Clark, Peter. "Governance 1500 – 1800". In European Cities and Towns, 201–20. Oxford University PressOxford, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199562732.003.0011.

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Abstract In November 1576, Henry III of France and his queen made a joyous entry into the city of Orléans. Outside the gates, seated in a ceremonial grandstand, draped with rich hangings, the king watched a march past by the city’s militia, followed by 200 royal pages (dressed up in orange velvet jerkins with grey and green hats), snaking processions of aged professors and students, royal officials, and, finally, the mayor and aldermen in their coloured gowns, and other leading citizens.
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"3 Capturing the Invisible: Heat, Steam and Gases in France and Great Britain, 1750-1800". In Compound Histories, 85–105. BRILL, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/9789004325562_005.

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3

Davies, Rachel Bryant. "Fish, Firemen, and Prize Fighters". In Epic Performances from the Middle Ages into the Twenty-First Century, 540–57. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198804215.003.0036.

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Burlesque drama—arguably the most widespread form of theatrical entertainment in nineteenth-century Britain—brought the Iliad and Aeneid to a wider range of spectators than those who traditionally encountered ancient literature and mythology at school. These entertainments both exploited contemporary performance culture and enacted the tensions between their composite ancient and modern sources. This chapter focuses on four successful examples of epic repackaged for the London stage, by renowned playwrights at leading theatres, who particularly revelled in negotiating the transformation of classical epic into popular drama: Thomas Dibdin’s Melodrama Mad! or, The Siege of Troy (1819, Surrey Theatre), Charles Selby’s Judgment of Paris; or, The Pas de Pippins (1856, Adelphi), Francis Cowley Burnand’s Dido (1860, St James’s), and his Paris, or Vive Lemprière! (1866, Strand). Analysis of these burlesques reveals deliberate anachronistic juxtapositions which turned the epic performances into complex games of identifying—or overlooking—their varied references.
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"privilege were turned to good account; the company gathered strength to face competition which was a real concern from 1810 onwards. The first competitor appeared in 1770 in England, but the glass that this competitor turned out was not of such quality as to be a threat to Saint-Gobain. Further, the company’s products were protected in France and potential competitors were punished by law until the abolition of privileges in 1790. The first legal French competitor appeared in 1804;1 and the second one in 1823.2 THE NEED FOR A NEW INFORMATION SYSTEM The Accounting System Under the Old Regime In order to understand, analyze and assess the early account­ ing system, it must be remembered that relatively few of the com­ pany records have survived compared with the innumerable docu­ ments that must have been created over a period of 155 years. Pris [1973, pp. 290-8 & 856-64] faithfully described the accounting sys­ tem under the old regime in his Ph.D. thesis, at the end of which he includes copies of most of the documents that have survived. The company was nearly in a position of monopoly with re­ gards to the production of glass. The customers belonged to the King’s court or were local or foreign noble families. Therefore the accumulation of capital was not an essential aim and the market did not seem to be expandable. These are a few elements which give insights about the quality and relevance of the information system required by such a firm. Very little is known about what the accounting system looked like before 1702; the statutes were only concerned with the ac­ counting documents necessary to ascertain the dividends payable quarterly. They included "Inventory" or "balance sheet of bills and payments” (statutes of 1667, 6th item), or “statement of receipts and payments" (statutes of 1695, 18th and 20th items). An annual inventory had existed since the beginning of the company, but only those after 1774 have been preserved. The annual inventories were calculated in Paris by putting together all the inventories of every establishment of the company. The accountants do not seem to have worried about lacking consistent accounting methods; for example, land and buildings, tools and raw materials, finished". In Accounting in France (RLE Accounting), 251. Routledge, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315871042-19.

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