Artigos de revistas: "Environmental economics"

1

PEARCE, DAVID. "ENVIRONMENTAL ECONOMICS". Oxford Economic Papers 44, n.º 1 (janeiro de 1992): 174. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.oep.a042033.

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Anderson, Jock R. "Environmental economics". Agricultural Economics 11, n.º 1 (setembro de 1994): 93–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-0862.1994.tb00322.x.

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Spash, Clive L. "Environmental economics". Environmental Politics 3, n.º 1 (março de 1994): 174–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09644019408414135.

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Harris, Michael. "Environmental Economics". Australian Economic Review 29, n.º 4 (outubro de 1996): 449–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8462.1996.tb00952.x.

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Maxwell, Philip. "Environmental Economics". Resources Policy 27, n.º 1 (março de 2001): 54–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0301-4207(00)00036-2.

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KNEESE, A. "Environmental economics". Science of The Total Environment 56 (15 de novembro de 1986): 155–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0048-9697(86)90321-9.

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Macgill, Sally. "Environmental economics". Journal of Rural Studies 3, n.º 2 (janeiro de 1987): 191. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0743-0167(87)90042-8.

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Shultz, Steven. "Environmental economics". Wetlands 18, n.º 3 (setembro de 1998): 495–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf03161541.

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Mannion, AM. "Environmental economics". Cities 14, n.º 1 (fevereiro de 1997): 51–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0264-2751(97)90007-x.

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Cameron, T. A. "Environmental Economics and Ecological Economics". Science 277, n.º 5324 (18 de julho de 1997): 297d—301. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.277.5324.297d.

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van Ierland, Ekko, Corjan Brink, Leen Hordijk e Carolien Kroeze. "Environmental Economics for Environmental Protection". Scientific World JOURNAL 2 (2002): 1254–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1100/tsw.2002.289.

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Environmental economics deals with the optimal allocation of production factors and correcting market failure in protecting the environment. Market failure occurs because of externalities, common property resources, and public goods. Environmental policy instruments include direct regulation, taxes/subsidies, tradable permits, deposit systems, voluntary agreements, and persuasion.Environmental policies usually focus on one pollutant or environmental issue but may have substantial impacts on other emissions and environmental problems. Neglecting these impacts will result in suboptimal policies. We present an integrated optimisation model for determining cost-effective strategies to simultaneously reduce emissions of several pollutants from several sources, allowing for interrelations between sources and abatement options. Our integrated approach in regard to acidifying compounds and greenhouse gases will be able to provide cost-effective policy options that will result in lower overall abatement costs.This paper shows that efficient emission reduction can be calculated, but we argue that, for transboundary air pollution and climate change, it is difficult to implement the socially optimal solution because strong incentives exist for “free-riding”. In order to implement efficient policies, international environmental agree-ments like the Gothenburg or the Kyoto Protocol are necessary to establish stable coalitions. The stability of these agreements depends on the distribution of costs and benefits over countries and on the redistribution of the gains of cooperation.

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Dietz, Frank J., e Jan van der Straaten. "Rethinking Environmental Economics: Missing Links between Economic Theory and Environmental Policy". Journal of Economic Issues 26, n.º 1 (março de 1992): 27–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00213624.1992.11505261.

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Pujiati, Amin, Khasan Setiaji, Hana Netti Purasani e Nina Farliana. "Integration of Environmental Economics to Build Economic Behaviors". E3S Web of Conferences 125 (2019): 02009. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/201912502009.

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Environmental degradation is a global concern and an increasing one. Education is critical for promoting sustainable development and improving the capacity of people to address environment and development issues. As a conservation university, Universitas Negeri Semarang (UNNES) has an interest to integrate conservation values into every academician’s learning. One of the ways is by integrating environmental economics into its learning. This research aims at testing whether there is an influence of integration of environmental economics on the environmental economic behaviors of students of Economic Faculty, Universitas Negeri Semarang. In achieving the objective above, this research uses an experimental approach with factorial design. The research results show that (1) integration of environmental economics is conducted by learning planning, implementation and evaluation, (2) student’s understanding of environmental economy is low, (3) direct integration of environmental economics through Problem Base Learning is able to improve the experiment class’s environmental economic behavior, (4) integration of environmental economics does not reduce student’s ability in mastering the main competencies in economy, (5) environmental economic behavior is formed from various elements that affect it.

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Suleymanov, Magomed, Aminat Huazheva e Elman Akhyadov. "Environmental economics and sustainable development". BIO Web of Conferences 76 (2023): 08007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/bioconf/20237608007.

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Environmental economics plays a pivotal role in shaping policies and strategies for sustainable development in the contemporary world. The intricate relationship between economic activities and the environment calls for an interdisciplinary approach that integrates ecological, social, and economic factors. This article explores the multifaceted connection between environmental economics and sustainable development. It delves into key concepts, such as externalities, market failures, and policy instruments, that inform decision-making processes aimed at achieving environmental sustainability. Additionally, it highlights the challenges and opportunities associated with incorporating environmental considerations into economic paradigms. Through case studies and empirical evidence, the article underscores the real-world implications of environmental economics on sustainable development. It also emphasizes the importance of proactive policies and global cooperation to address pressing environmental issues, promote responsible resource management, and work toward a more sustainable and equitable future.

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Ferrari, Sylvie, e Jérôme Ballet. "Crossing Environmental Ethics and Environmental Economics". International Review of Environmental and Resource Economics 18, n.º 4 (2024): 443–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1561/101.00000169.

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O'Riordan, Timothy. "The economics of environmental conservation: Economics for environmental and ecological management". Biological Conservation 65, n.º 1 (1993): 90–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0006-3207(93)90205-f.

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Pearce, David. "An Intellectual History of Environmental Economics". Annual Review of Energy and the Environment 27, n.º 1 (novembro de 2002): 57–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.energy.27.122001.083429.

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▪ Abstract From modest beginnings in the 1960s, environmental economics has grown to be a major subdiscipline of economics. It combines traditional work in the field of welfare economics and the theory of economic growth with more recent perspectives on the political economy of choosing policy instruments and the philosophy of sustainable development. The central tenets are that environmental problems have their roots in the failure of economic systems to maximize human well-being, that environmental quality matters for human well-being and for more traditionally oriented economic growth objectives, and that efficient policy can be achieved through incentive design.

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Müller, Frank G. "Environmental economics and ecological economics: antagonistic approaches?" International Journal of Environmental Studies 58, n.º 4 (junho de 2001): 415–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00207230108711342.

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Shaw, W. Douglass. "Environmental Economics: Can Economics Help Mother Earth?" Environmental Conservation 18, n.º 3 (1991): 237–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0376892900022153.

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Ecologists and environmentalists have long been at odds with economists over whether economic theory and practice helps or hinders environmental protection and improvement. This paper suggests that the specific field of environmental economics has contributed a great deal to the potential for environmental improvement, particularly with recent improvements in techniques which attempt to value environmental goods. The basic tenets of environmental economics are reviewed, including the tradable emissions-permits approach, and then specific recent applications of the permit system in the United States of America are presented.The two basic valuation techniques, travel cost and the contingent valuation method (CVM), are briefly discussed, along with the shortcoming of the travel cost approach in obtaining ‘intrinsic’ values for environmental goods. This paper describes results from experimental economics which support the use of the CVM in estimating intrinsic values for environmental resources. In a new study, subjects in a laboratory experiment pay to prevent the destruction of a plant. This finding should appeal to the environmentalist and ecologist. Lastly, recent developments in macroeconomics and general equilibrium models which incorporate pollution and resource degradation variables, are shown to contribute positively to the goal of global environmental improvement.

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Jana, Polakova. "Is economic institutional adaptation feasible for agri-environmental policy? Case of Good Agricultural and Environmental Condition standards". Agricultural Economics (Zemědělská ekonomika) 64, No. 10 (24 de outubro de 2018): 456–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.17221/138/2017-agricecon.

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This review focuses on Czech implementation of standards for soil and water protection called Good Agricultural and Environmental Conditions (GAEC), with linkage to the European Union (EU) level. I investigate different elements of adaptive institutional economics: (i) summarise current knowledge regarding the social reasons for introducing GAEC; (ii) assess the evidence linked to GAEC to better understand the potential as well as boundaries of formalizing cause-effect links; (iii) clarify the pertinence of producers’ claims on costs accruing from GAEC implementation. These three points highlight the thesis of this paper: implementation in farmers’ practices of the theoretical concept of sustainability in terms of bridging together economics, society and the environment. The economic reasoning for GAEC introduction within adaptive institutional economics stems from the relational positioning of the knowledge of the costs of the impact of agricultural land use on other characteristic rural land uses. GAEC are needed, albeit the size of support obtained by producers surpasses the costs of complying; therefore, the result pays off for farms. We have learned that GAEC implementation is important from regional to EU levels and that its role is more related to economic institutional adaptation than to regulation. Adaptation of institutional economics is therefore feasible, making it possible to understand GAEC as a network which manages and enables knowledge transfer linked directly to regulation. Institutional economics can link sustainability with farmers’ practices and accounts for the behaviour of the farmers. In this review, I find that, for society, it is necessary to require measurement of agri-environmental outcomes for water resources, soil and biodiversity through GAEC at appropriate scales. These scales are likely to be relevant to adaptive institutional economy localities perceived by the rural public.

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Khachaturov, Tigran. "Environmental Economics: Introduction (1982)". Moscow University Economics Bulletin 2016, n.º 4 (30 de agosto de 2016): 161–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.38050/013001052016413.

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22

Anderson, Glen D., e Paul B. Downing. "Environmental Economics and Policy". Land Economics 61, n.º 4 (novembro de 1985): 462. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3146164.

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Pindyck, Robert S. "Uncertainty in Environmental Economics". Review of Environmental Economics and Policy 1, n.º 1 (1 de janeiro de 2007): 45–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/reep/rem002.

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Shogren, Jason F., e Laura O. Taylor. "On Behavioral-Environmental Economics". Review of Environmental Economics and Policy 2, n.º 1 (1 de janeiro de 2008): 26–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/reep/rem027.

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25

McAleer, Michael. "Economics and Environmental Modelling". Environmental Modelling & Software 16, n.º 6 (setembro de 2001): 495–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s1364-8152(01)00018-4.

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26

Sarokin, David, e Jay Schulkin. "Environmental Economics and Responsibility". Environmental Conservation 19, n.º 4 (1992): 326–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0376892900031441.

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We are optimistic about the ability of our social institutions to respond to the challenges of environmental degradation, but recognize that (a) restoring environmental quality to a world inclined towards rapidly-increasing consumption of resources and generation of wastes will require profound institutional changes, and (b) environmental challenges cannot be separated from the global-scale issue of achieving an equitable distribution of resources. Conventional economics practically ignores environmental consequences, and is inadequate to the challenge of environmental restoration. A new way of ‘doing business’ is called for.Three industries — energy, agriculture, and automobiles — have a responsibility to become the avant garde of global environmentalism, owing to the large toll which they exact in resource utilization and pollution, and for the almost universal role that each of these industries plays in the planet's diverse societies. In order to effect changes of an appropriate magnitude, these industries will need to reorient their priorities and goals — as will the institutions with which they routinely interact, including governments, research and development, and financial institutions.

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Hjalager, Anne-Mette. "Environmental Economics in Tourism". Annals of Tourism Research 24, n.º 4 (outubro de 1997): 1020–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0160-7383(97)88444-7.

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Goldstein, Eli. "“Introduction to Environmental Economics”". European Journal of Political Economy 19, n.º 2 (junho de 2003): 391–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0176-2680(02)00176-3.

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Willis, Ken, Ece Ozdemiroglu e Danny Campbell. "Environmental economics and policy". Journal of Environmental Economics and Policy 1, n.º 1 (março de 2012): 1–4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/21606544.2012.657819.

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Nunes, Paulo Augusto Lourenço Dias. "Economics of environmental conservation". Ecological Economics 62, n.º 1 (abril de 2007): 194–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2006.10.014.

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Omer, Abdeen Mustafa. "Environmental and Ecological Economics". Environmental Science Current Research 6, n.º 1 (16 de janeiro de 2023): 1–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.24966/escr-5020/100042.

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Faber, Albert, e Koen Frenken. "Models in evolutionary economics and environmental policy: Towards an evolutionary environmental economics". Technological Forecasting and Social Change 76, n.º 4 (maio de 2009): 462–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2008.04.009.

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HAYASHIYAMA, Yasuhisa, Shin-ichi MUTO e Tetsuji SATO. "OPTIMAL ECONOMIC GROWTH THEORY IN THE ENVIRONMENTAL AND RESOURCE ECONOMICS: ECONOMICS FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT". Doboku Gakkai Ronbunshu, n.º 779 (2005): 25–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.2208/jscej.2005.779_25.

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Robson, A., e W. J. Turner. "Environmental Economics and Electricity Generation". Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part A: Journal of Power and Energy 208, n.º 3 (agosto de 1994): 177–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1243/pime_proc_1994_208_033_02.

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Environmental economics, methodologies and issues are discussed and examples quoted for electricity generation systems. Results of the application of environmental ‘adders’ simulating a carbon tax in a British engineering-economic forecasting model are presented and the implications for energy strategy and nuclear energy discussed in relation to environmental factors.

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Korporowicz, Violetta. "Environmental economics – a modern science with traditions". Studia Ecologiae et Bioethicae 18, n.º 5 (31 de dezembro de 2020): 235–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.21697/seb.2020.18.5.20.

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The fact that problems of environmental degradation and its protection are gaining importance is caused, among others, by limitations in management efficiency. It forces us to look at economic processes with consideration of output of such disciplines that indicate how one should manage in a situation of reduced availability of natural resources. Such discipline, without any doubts, is environmental protection. This science indicates methods and economic instruments that can be applied in economic practice necessary for environmental protection. It deals also with problems related to economic studies of implications of environmental policies. At the same environmental economics that results from neoclassical trend of economics looking at the market as unfailing mechanism of economic regulation proves that invisible hand of market fails in case of environmental protection. That is why we should apply different types of instruments especially these related to indirect regulation (including such economic instruments as taxes) that support actions related to limitation of environmental degradation. It is worth also to add that recognition of methodological premises of this science supports not only development of this discipline but first of all it shows that it is applicable. The principles developed by environmental economics should be applied in practice by all participants of economic life from consumers and to producers and governments in order to keep not only current natural resources but most importantly ensure the development opportunities for next generations.

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Munda, Giuseppe. "Environmental Economics, Ecological Economics, and the Concept of Sustainable Development". Environmental Values 6, n.º 2 (maio de 1997): 213–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/096327199700600206.

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This paper presents a systematic discussion, mainly for non-economists, on economic approaches to the concept of sustainable development. As a first step, the concept of sustainability is extensively discussed. As a second step, the argument that it is not possible to consider sustainability only from an economic or ecological point of view is defended; issues such as economic-ecological integration, inter-generational and intra-generational equity are considered of fundamental importance. Two different economic approaches to environmental issues, i.e. neo-classical environmental economics and ecological economics, are compared. Some key differences such as weak versus strong sustainability, commensurability versus incommensurability and ethical neutrality versus different values acceptance are pointed out.

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SADCHENKO, O. V., e I. V. ROBUL. "ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL MARKETING SPACE OF THE ECONOMICS OF EXPERIENCE". Economic innovations 22, n.º 1(74) (20 de março de 2020): 129–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.31520/ei.2020.22.1(74).129-139.

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Topicality. It is relevant to determine the equilibrium dynamic state of the system based on the harmonization of the interaction between economic and environmental subsystems in the market space. The product of the economy of experience is: a product or service plus additional profit from experience. Impression - entertainment, training, the possibility of personal participation, self-expression, the development of social contacts and skills (socialization) and more, these are added value factors. Additional costs in the originality or uniqueness of a product or service are paid off and bring additional profit. Therefore, goods or services related to natural resources or conditions are especially relevant. The economics of experience should be considered in the economic and environmental marketing space, which will allow to form the price of goods and services that increases in the first case (location) from the additional costs for rent and additional profit for the uniqueness of receiving a service in this area or increasing due to the impression of a product or service and overlapping cost of services. In the second case, the price of the service is adjusted relative to additional costs and profits for the originality of the provision of impression services. That is, we can consider differential rents of the first and second order taking into account the environmental factor. Rent in the conditions of the economy of experience - additional income received by the entrepreneur in excess of a certain profit for the uniqueness of the location of his activities and capital; the formation of environmental rents, when considering the natural resource potential, is due to more favorable location conditions in which one entrepreneur is in front of another, not in equal conditions. Aim and tasks. The purpose of the article is to determine the economic and environmental marketing space in the context of the development of the economy of experience by substantiating the theoretical and scientific-practical foundations of the formation of the mechanism of economic and environmental innovative development. Research results. Issues related to the “economy of experience” make it possible to go to that level of economic development that allows you to take advantage of the competitive advantages of this enterprise. When considering the innovation and ecological space, competitive advantages can be used more effectively in terms of attracting impressions to meet the needs of both the B2B, B2C market and international markets. Impression marketing is an additional human activity that relates to the market in the conditions of fierce competition and a saturated market, when its principles serve as the only possible way to ensure profitability and plus additional profitability of production, growth and development of the enterprise. Market orientation determines the main areas of economic activity and evaluates its results by the value of the final income. A distinctive feature of such a service is that it can exist only with the relationship between the buyer of the service, the manufacturer of the service and the “additional service”, which does not always depend on the manufacturer of the service, but is formed depending on the location, historical value of the place or the unusual nature of the service , that is, from the uniqueness of the provision of this service. So, in fact, the consumer pays for a pleasant, sometimes unforgettable experience, and the producer (owner) of this service overpays (relative to the average price level) for rent or for the purchase of additional fixed assets (or additional investments). The manufacturer must have compensation for the "overpayment" and, of course, additional profit. So, the consumer pays extra money for an additional service-impression, and the owner also pays extra either for renting a room or for the additional supply of this service, that is, “impression” is the additional costs that are reflected in the price of the goods. An impression in the economic sense is additional costs and additional profit. Only ecologically high-quality goods and the same high-quality environmental services are in real demand in the market and can attract consumers. Proceeding both from the interests of society as a whole and each member of the society, it is necessary to use new forms of organizing production, business and labor, improving the structure of production and economic activity, taking into account national characteristics of nature management. The condition for the formation of environmental rents is not only the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the resource (resource-goods - land), but also the environmental characteristics of this resource and products grown on this site. Therefore, with the expenditure of equal capital, they give a different quantity and quality of products. Ecological rent can be formed on the worst land fertility, but the best environmental characteristics. At the same time, lands of higher categories can be removed from agricultural circulation in connection with an environmental disaster. Therefore, in an economy of experience, when determining the price of “decision making”, environmental components must be taken into account, however, environmental degradation, depletion of natural resources, and excessive pollution indicate failures in the market mechanism. The economics of experience in modern conditions can change this negative practice. Conclusion. In modern conditions of economic development, a fundamentally new environmental policy of the state is needed, which would clearly define the strategy and tactics for improving relations between society, production and nature, the optimal combination of environmental, economic and marketing positions. In this regard, multidimensional studies of marketing systems that are part of integrated socio-ecological-economic systems, combined by information flows, are needed. In the process of formation of market structures of the economics of experience, the task is to combine the interests of the economy, society and improve the environment. Reducing pollution and conserving natural resources becomes beneficial to the economics of experience. If earlier the interests of economics and ecology were located in the plane of conflicts, now in the ecological and economic space their interests coincide: the producer receives additional profit, while improving the environment.

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Pacala, S. W. "ENVIRONMENTAL ECONOMICS: False Alarm over Environmental False Alarms". Science 301, n.º 5637 (29 de agosto de 2003): 1187–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1086646.

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Green, C. "Oil and Water? Environmental Economics and Environmental Ethics". Global Bioethics 6, n.º 1 (janeiro de 1993): 21–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/11287462.1993.10800627.

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Norouzi, Nima. "Sustainability and Economics: The Environmental Valuation Controversy". International Journal of Environmental Sustainability and Protection 1, n.º 1 (30 de dezembro de 2021): 3–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.35745/ijesp2021v01.01.0002.

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On sustainable development, a fundamental controversy is a value assigned to environmental goods and services. Economics approaches it from two perspectives: the traditional neoclassical approach (environmental economics) and another, more comprehensive one, where different sciences converge (ecological economics). This work offers a critical review of conventional economic theory associated with sustainable development, also highlights the need to assign values to environmental services for better decision-making, in which individual and social preferences are considered, thereby it would advance towards the central goals of sustainable development: economic efficiency, social justice, and ecological sustainability. This paper’s main contribution and novelty are to frame a discussion about the controversy between the various disciplines involved in the commensurability of nature. This link is a necessity of today’s world and must be considered an important issue to enhance sustainable development.

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Grijalva, Therese C., e Clifford Nowell. "What Interests Environmental and Resource Economists? A Comparison of Research Output in Agricultural Economics versus Environmental Economics". Agricultural and Resource Economics Review 43, n.º 2 (agosto de 2014): 209–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1068280500004287.

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We compare the research productivity of faculties housed in departments offering doctoral degrees in agricultural economics (AgEcon) with faculties housed in departments offering doctoral degrees in economics (Econ) that specialize in environmental and resource economics. Rankings are based on faculty publications in EconLit between 1985 and 2010. We find that AgEcon departments publish more papers and rate higher overall on productivity measures than Econ departments but that average productivity is greater for Econ departments. AgEcon publications dominate the Journal of Economic Literature's (JEL's) agriculture (Q1) subdiscipline while Econ and AgEcon departments publish evenly in the other Q subdisciplines.

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Hémous, David, e Morten Olsen. "Directed Technical Change in Labor and Environmental Economics". Annual Review of Economics 13, n.º 1 (5 de agosto de 2021): 571–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-economics-092120-044327.

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It is increasingly evident that the direction of technological change responds to economic incentives. We review the literature on directed technical change in the context of environmental economics and labor economics, and we show that these fields have much in common both theoretically and empirically. We emphasize the importance of a balanced growth path and show that the lack of such a path is closely related to the slow development of green technologies in environmental economics and to growing inequality in labor economics. We discuss whether the direction of innovation is efficient.

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Söderbaum, Peter. "Economics, Ethics and Environmental Problems". Journal of Interdisciplinary Economics 1, n.º 3 (abril de 1986): 139–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/02601079x8600100303.

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The relevance and usefulness of mainstream or neoclassical economics has been questioned more in some fields of inquiry than in others. Against the background of an attempt to characterize environmental problems, the fruitfulness of conventional ideas of economic analysis, as carried out in practice in the form of cost-benefit analysis, is questioned. Alternative approaches judged to be more compatible with environmental problems are indicated. It is argued that cost-benefit analysis represents a closed ethic or ideology and that approaches which open the way for various possible ethical or ideological standpoints are more promising. Different principles of resource allocation or housekeeping should be considered and the idea of only one “scientifically correct” or “true” principle abandoned. Non-monetary principles of housekeeping, such as specific versions of ecological ethics, are not “less economic” than the now dominant monetary principles.

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Miller, J. R., e L. Miller. "Principles of Environmental Economics and the Political Economy of West German Environmental Policy". Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy 6, n.º 4 (dezembro de 1988): 457–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1068/c060457.

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We begin by recognizing that environmental economics has an influence on environmental policy. We describe two schools of environmental economics: A standard school, an outgrowth of the standard economics paradigm; and an alternative school, one which is more normative in nature, which calls for radical economic change largely through a change in individual values and a transformation of industrial society. The policies and proposals of West German political parties are examined in terms of the principles of these two schools. We conclude that both schools are well represented across the political spectrum, from the fundamentalists in the Greens to the present governing coalition.

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Karr, James R., e Tom Thomas. "Economics, Ecology, and Environmental Quality". Ecological Applications 6, n.º 1 (fevereiro de 1996): 31–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2269549.

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Edwards, Steven E. "In Defense of Environmental Economics". Environmental Ethics 9, n.º 1 (1987): 73–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.5840/enviroethics19879117.

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Sagoff, Mark. "Some Problems with Environmental Economics". Environmental Ethics 10, n.º 1 (1988): 55–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.5840/enviroethics198810128.

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Bresso, Mercedes, e Claude Raffestin. "Environmental economics: ideology or Utopia?" Espace géographique 1, n.º 1 (1993): 135–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.3406/spgeo.1993.3197.

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Conrad, Jon M., e Tom Tietenberg. "Environmental and Natural Resource Economics". Land Economics 62, n.º 3 (agosto de 1986): 336. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3146403.

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Carlsson, Fredrik, e Olof Johansson-Stenman. "Behavioral Economics and Environmental Policy". Annual Review of Resource Economics 4, n.º 1 (agosto de 2012): 75–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-resource-110811-114547.

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