Literatura científica selecionada sobre o tema "Electronic surveillance – United States – History"

Foodborne illnesses are an important public health problem in the United States in terms of both the burden of illness and cost to the health care system. Strengthening foodborne illness surveillance helps address the growing issues of food safety in the United States. Very little is known about the use of consumer complaint surveillance systems for foodborne illness. This study evaluates the use of these surveillance systems by local health departments (LHDs) in the United States and their practices and policies for investigating complaints. Data for this study were collected through two Web-based surveys based on a representative sample of LHDs in the United States; 81% of LHDs use complaint-based surveillance. Of those that did not have a complaint system, 64% reported that the state health department or another agency ran their complaint system. Health departments collect a wide variety of information from callers through their complaint systems, including food intake history. Most of the LHDs, however, do not store the information in an electronic database. Outbreak rates and complaint rates were found to be positively correlated, with a Pearson's correlation coefficient of 0.38. Complaints were the most common outbreak detection mechanism reported by respondents, with a median of 69% of outbreaks during the previous year found through complaints. Complaint systems are commonly used in the United States. Increasing the rate at which illnesses are reported by the public and improving investigation practices could help increase the number of outbreaks detected through complaint surveillance.

Intelligence and law enforcement agencies in western democracies are turning increasingly to electronic surveillance tools in their efforts to identify and combat new terrorist threats. But this does not mean that they are equally equipped to undertake these measures. As the author shows by comparing surveillance activities in three countries—Great Britain, the United States, and Germany—the Federal Republic's more restrictive legal norms and institutions provide its government with much less freedom of maneuver than its allies.

Background Patient travel history can be crucial in evaluating evolving infectious disease events. Such information can be challenging to acquire in electronic health records, as it is often available only in unstructured text. Objective This study aims to assess the feasibility of annotating and automatically extracting travel history mentions from unstructured clinical documents in the Department of Veterans Affairs across disparate health care facilities and among millions of patients. Information about travel exposure augments existing surveillance applications for increased preparedness in responding quickly to public health threats. Methods Clinical documents related to arboviral disease were annotated following selection using a semiautomated bootstrapping process. Using annotated instances as training data, models were developed to extract from unstructured clinical text any mention of affirmed travel locations outside of the continental United States. Automated text processing models were evaluated, involving machine learning and neural language models for extraction accuracy. Results Among 4584 annotated instances, 2659 (58%) contained an affirmed mention of travel history, while 347 (7.6%) were negated. Interannotator agreement resulted in a document-level Cohen kappa of 0.776. Automated text processing accuracy (F1 85.6, 95% CI 82.5-87.9) and computational burden were acceptable such that the system can provide a rapid screen for public health events. Conclusions Automated extraction of patient travel history from clinical documents is feasible for enhanced passive surveillance public health systems. Without such a system, it would usually be necessary to manually review charts to identify recent travel or lack of travel, use an electronic health record that enforces travel history documentation, or ignore this potential source of information altogether. The development of this tool was initially motivated by emergent arboviral diseases. More recently, this system was used in the early phases of response to COVID-19 in the United States, although its utility was limited to a relatively brief window due to the rapid domestic spread of the virus. Such systems may aid future efforts to prevent and contain the spread of infectious diseases.

Dance is a popular activity associated with many physical and mental health benefits, but injuries are a concern for all skill levels. Previous studies have focused on professional dancers or particular genres, meaning the population-wide characteristics of injuries is unknown. This study’s objective was to identify the incidence and types of dance-related injuries evaluated in emergency departments in the United States over the 14-year period 2000-2013. METHODS: Data were obtained from the nationally representative National Electronic Injury Surveillance System from 2000–2013. National estimates of injuries were determined using complex sample design. Trends using 2-year intervals were calculated using linear regression and injury proportion ratios using Pearson’s X2. RESULTS: The average annual incidence of dance-related injuries requiring emergency medical attention was 17,145 per year. The number of injuries grew from 14,204 in 2000/1 to 21,356 in 2012/3, a change of 33.4% after accounting for population growth. Lower limb injuries were most common, particularly ankle and knee sprains. Females presented with a greater proportion of ankle (injury proportion ratio [IPR]=1.34, p=0.029) and foot sprains (IPR=2.11, p<0.001) but a lower proportion of shoulder sprains (IPR=0.41, p<0.001) and face lacerations (IPR=0.13, p<0.001). Younger dancers presented with a lower proportion of knee (IPR=0.79, p=0.006) and low back sprains (IPR=0.68, p=0.019). CONCLUSIONS: The average annual incidence of dance-related injuries of a serious enough nature to require presentation to the emergency department in the United States was 17,145 per year, with ankle and knee sprains being the most common. Injury numbers have increased in recent years.

10531 Background: Electronic cigarettes (E-cigarettes) have become frequently used as a smoking cessation tool. Emerging research has shown that e-cigarettes have similar carcinogenic effects as combustible cigarettes. While current lung cancer screening (LCS) guidelines primarily rely on individuals’ smoking history, it's becoming increasingly important to understand the prevalence of e-cigarette use among individuals, especially in the context of their LCS eligibility. Methods: Individuals aged 40-80 years were extracted from the 2022 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System. Eligibility was defined using the 2021 USPSTF LCS criteria, i.e., aged 50-80 years who ever smoked, with at least a 20-pack-year smoking history, currently smoke or quit within the past 15 years. We compared the prevalence of current and ever e-cigarette use among LCS-eligible and non-eligible populations, overall and by smoking (combustible cigarettes) status using chi-square tests. All analyses were weighted. The significance level was set at a 2-sided p-value of <0.05. Results: Among the 208,317 individuals included, 9.9% were eligible for LCS. Overall, 3.8% and 22.1% reported current and ever cigarette use, respectively. Fewer LCS-ineligible individuals reported currently using e-cigarettes than their LCS-eligible counterparts (Table). Among former combustible cigarette users, LCS-ineligible individuals were less likely to be current e-cigarette user than LCS-eligible individuals. However, among current combustible cigarette users, LCS-ineligible individuals were more likely to be current e-cigarettes users than LCS-eligible individuals. When examining the prevalence of ever e-cigarette use, similar findings were observed. Conclusions: Our study reveals a significant prevalence of e-cigarette usage among older adults (aged 40-80), with 1 in 5 individuals reporting ever having used e-cigarettes. Moreover, current cigarette users who were ineligible for LCS were more likely to use e-cigarette than their LCS-eligible counterparts. Future epidemiological studies are warranted to assess the risk of e-cigarette use (including intensity, duration and interactions with combustible cigarettes) and lung cancer risks. E-cigarette use may need to be considered in formulating future LCS guidelines. [Table: see text]

Background: Carbapenemase-producing carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CP-CRE) pose a serious public health threat. The CDC guidelines for combating CP-CRE include a recommendation to screen selected high-risk patients. Objective: We describe a program to identify and screen patients at risk for CP-CRE. Setting: An academic, tertiary-care center with 1,297 licensed beds and 62,071 admissions per year. Methods: A report was created in the electronic medical record (EMR) to identify adult patients admitted in the previous 24 hours from countries and states with known CP-CRE transmission based on address and ZIP code. Patients with a known travel history outside the United States were also reviewed, but these data were inaccurate. Initially, a physician from Infection Prevention and Control (IPAC) placed orders for CP-CRE screening of these patients. Subsequently, a nursing protocol was developed to facilitate infection preventionists placing orders for CP-CRE screening earlier in the eligible patient’s hospital stay. An electronic communication is sent via the EMR alerting the patient care team to the order, the rationale for the order, and links to a tool kit with resources to help answer patient questions. A single perirectal swab is obtained by the nurse caring for the patient and is tested for Klebsiella pneumoniae carbapenemase (KPC), New Delhi metallo-β-lactamase (NDM), oxacillinase-48 (OXA-48), and Verona integron-encoded metallo-β-lactamase (VIM) by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Results: From May 2018 to November 2019, 688 patients were screened for CP-CRE using the case-finding report and the nursing protocol. Overall, 9 patients with CP-CRE were identified: 1 KPC, 2 NDM, and 5 OXA-48, and 1 patient was identified to have both NDM and OXA-48. The yield of 1.3% from this screening is higher than that reported previously in the literature. Use of the nursing protocol has enabled IPAC to complete timely CP-CRE surveillance and prevent transmission to other patients. We are currently using a similar process to identify and screen persons at risk for the emerging infection Candida auris.Conclusions: The EMR can be leveraged for early identification and screening of patients with epidemiologically significant pathogens. Protocols within the EMR can be effectively replicated and modified to respond to emerging infections and changing surveillance guidelines.Funding: NoneDisclosures: Consulting fee-—Merck (Priya Sampathkumar)

The popularity of electronic cigarettes in the United States and around the world has led to a startling rise in youth nicotine use. The Juul® e-cigarette was introduced in the U.S. market in 2015 and had captured approximately 13% of the U.S. market by 2017. Unlike many other contemporary electronic cigarette companies, the founders behind the Juul® e-cigarette approached their product launch like a traditional high-tech start-up company, not like a tobacco company. This article presents a case study of Juul’s corporate and product development history in the context of US regulatory actions. The objective of this article is to demonstrate the value of government-curated archives as leading indicators which can (a) provide insight into emergent technologies and (b) inform emergent regulatory science research questions. A variety of sources were used to gather data about the Juul® e-cigarette and the corporations that surround it. Sources included government agencies, published academic literature, non-profit organizations, corporate and retail websites, and the popular press. Data were disambiguated, authenticated, and categorized prior to being placed on a timeline of events. A timeline of four significant milestones, nineteen corporate filings and events, twelve US regulatory actions, sixty-four patent applications, eighty-seven trademark applications, twenty-three design patents and thirty-two utility patents related to Juul Labs and its associates is presented, spanning the years 2004 through 2020. This work demonstrates the probative value of findings from patent, trademark, and SEC filing literature in establishing a premise for emergent regulatory science research questions which may not yet be supported by traditional archival research literature. The methods presented here can be used to identify key aspects of emerging technologies before products actually enter the market; this shifting policy formulation and problem identification from a paradigm of being reactive in favor of becoming proactive. Such a proactive approach may permit anticipatory regulatory science research and ultimately shorten the elapsed time between market technology innovation and regulatory response.

The article is devoted to the analysis of the geopolitical and regional significance of the Sahara-Sahel zone (SSZ) of Africa in the current coordinate system of international relations, primarily taking into account the increased interest of Russia in this region in the last few years. An assessment of the economic potential of the SSZ is given to determine the feasibility of investments in the development of its countries, including from the point of view of their importance for the strategic and military-political interests of Russia and its main competitors there, primarily France and the United States. The prospect of maintaining Russia's active presence in the region and the cost of this is assessed. The reasons for the curtailment of the French military-political presence in the main countries of this region and the desire of the United States to maintain its intelligence surveillance bases there are explained. Conclusions and suggestions are made regarding what Russia needs to do to ensure its interests in the SSZ with minimal costs.

Abstract Background: For patients suffering from rare diseases, accurate and early diagnosis is critical and often lifesaving, whereas misdiagnosis can be fatal. While patient registries are useful and necessary, they may not provide reliable patient population denominators or sufficient longitudinal clinical follow-up. Access to complete and integrated patient records necessary to capture full clinical history can be challenging. Commonly, there is a lack of centralized and continuous care in the health care systems of many countries, including the United States (US). It is also challenging to identify a sufficient number of cases to provide robust results because of the rare nature of these diseases. We describe a healthcare system that can identify patients for research purposes, who have rare diseases, by accessing de-identified electronic clinical details. We used Paroxysmal Nocturnal Hemoglobinuria (PNH) as an example of a rare disease for this abstract. Methods: The Department of Defense (DOD) healthcare system is a US-based, longitudinal electronic health record (EHR) and claims database with health information on approximately 10 million active beneficiaries across the country. We evaluated the feasibility to conduct studies of rare diseases in the DOD healthcare system by assessing the capability to identify patients with PNH and to describe their course of disease and treatment. We used ICD 9/10 diagnosis codes, NDC and HCPCS codes, laboratory data and PNH treatment codes to identify patients with a clinical course consistent with PNH. Patients were classified as definite/likely, probable/possible or unlikely PNH based on the available clinical evidence and then findings were validated against review of patient records by a clinical expert. Individuals classified as unlikely PNH were excluded from the study. The clinical information on these patients will be used to understand the course of PNH in patients with and without treatments and to describe their treatment adherence and disease activity over time. Results: We identified 244 people with a diagnosis or treatment code that was indicative of PNH during years 2007-2017; 71% of the patients had electronic records that covered 10 or more years starting as early as 2003 and extending as far as 2017. From these 244 patients, we identified 73 patients with a definite/likely or probable/ possible PNH diagnosis. An ICD-10 code for PNH or a prescription for eculizumab (PNH treatment) were required, but not sufficient to confirm the presence of PNH. There is no ICD-9 code for PNH. Cases had no other indication for eculizumab use and had to have appropriate symptoms, comorbidities or lab results to be considered a case. Patients with only 1 code for PNH and no treatment were assumed to have unconfirmed disease and were excluded. 27 cases, including those with no eculizumab and a random sample of likely cases, were reviewed to validate the PNH diagnoses in collaboration with DOD treating physicians. Conclusion: The DOD healthcare system is a valuable and cost effective resource for the study of rare diseases in a timely manner. We have demonstrated the ability to identify a validated series of PNH cases that will provide important clinical insights for identifying and treating new PNH cases. This healthcare system provides long patient follow-up, demographics similar to the US population, and access to records in an integrated inpatient, outpatient and ER system that encompasses all patient care. Disclaimer Statement: Research data were derived from an approved Naval Medical Center, Portsmouth, VA IRB protocol (NMCP.2017.0080). The views expressed in this abstract are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of the Department of the Navy, Department of Defense or the United States Government. Copyright Notice: CAPT Brian Feldman is a military service member. This work was prepared as part of his official duties. Title 17 U.S.C. 105 provides that 'Copyright protection under this title is not available for any work of the United States Government.' Title 17 U.S.C. 101 defines a United States Government work as a work prepared by a military service member or employee of the United States Government as part of that person's official duties. Disclosures Ulcickas Yood: Alexion Pharmaceuticals, Inc.: Other: Employee of EpiSource, LLC, which was contracted by Alexion Pharmaceuticals, Inc. EpiSource had the final decision on content. . Jick:Alexion Pharmaceuticals, Inc.: Other: Employee of the Boston Collaborative Drug Surveillance Program, which was contracted and paid by Alexion Pharmaceuticals, Inc. to work on a study of PNH using DOD data. . Vasilakis-Scaramozza:Alexion Pharmaceuticals, Inc.: Other: Employee of the Boston Collaborative Drug Surveillance Program, which was contracted and paid by Alexion Pharmaceuticals, Inc. to work on a study of PNH using DOD data.. Donato:Alexion Pharmaceuticals Inc: Employment, Equity Ownership. Tomazos:Alexion Pharmaceuticals, Inc.: Employment, Equity Ownership. L'Italien:Alexion Pharmaceuticals, Inc.: Equity Ownership, Other: Former employee and current stockholder of Alexion Pharmaceuticals, Inc. . Sicignano:Alexion Pharmaceuticals, Inc.: Other: Employee of Health ResearchTx, which has a business relationship with Alexion Pharmaceuticals, Inc.. Feldman:Alexion Pharmaceuticals, Inc.: Other: Employee, Department of Navy, United States Government..

Background There is limited research on screening rates among uninsured cancer survivors. Uninsured cancer survivors are at higher risk of poorer health outcomes than the insured due to limited access to preventative screening for secondary cancers. This study examines the rates of surveillance and screening of uninsured cancer survivors and compares to uninsured patients without a cancer history seen in free clinics. Methods Data were collected retrospectively from electronic medical records and paper charts of patients from 10 free clinics between January 2016 and December 2018 in the Tampa Bay area. The prevalence of socioeconomic characteristics, cancer diagnoses, and screening practices were compared for cancer survivors and free clinic patients without a history of cancer. Study participants were determined to be eligible for cancer screenings based on the United States Preventive Services Task Force guidelines. Results Out of 13 982 uninsured patients frequenting free clinics between 2016 and 2018, 402 (2.9%) had a documented history of cancer. Out of the 285 eligible cancer survivors, 44 (15.4%) had completed age-appropriate colon cancer screening. Among the 170 female cancer survivors, 75 (44.1%) had completed breast cancer screenings, and only 5.9% (59/246) had completed cervical cancer screenings. After adjusting for age, gender, race, salary, employment status, and household size, cancer survivors were more likely to undergo colorectal cancer screening (OR: 3.59, 95% CI: 2.10–6.15) and breast cancer screening (OR: 2.13, 95% CI: 1.30–3.84) than patients without a cancer history. This difference was not seen for cervical cancer screening (OR: 0.99, 95% CI: .62–1.58). Conclusions Uninsured cancer survivors frequenting free clinics represent a unique population that is underrepresented in the medical literature. Our results suggest that uninsured survivors use screening services at higher rates when compared to uninsured patients without a reported cancer diagnosis. However, these rates are suboptimal when compared to national screening rates of insured cancer survivors.

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Bachelors
Health and Public Affairs
Legal Studies

Thesis (M.A. in Security Studies (Homeland Security and Defense))--Naval Postgraduate School, March 2006.
Thesis Advisor(s): David Brannan. "March 2006." Includes bibliographical references (p. 77-80). Also available online.

This paper explores the complex relationship between securing the rights of citizens to privacy and national security priorities under conditions of government mass surveillance. The inquiry examines the conflict between those who support and those who stand in opposition of government surveillance, and is framed around the question of whether changes in technology and the concept of nationalism help inform our understanding of the increase in surveillance post-9/11. From a peace and conflict studies perspective, the work analyzes how the rise of nationalism in the post-9/11 era and the protracted wars against terrorism, in combination with the growth of technological power, have impacted the relationship between state-surveillance and democracy. Findings identify protracted warfare, technology and corporate profits as conflict drivers within the surveillance system, which gives rise to moral dilemmas and structural polarizations in the political culture and institutions of the state and society. The analysis concludes that these dilemmas systematically create an imbalance of power between the citizen to the state, and cannot be fully addressed unless the efficacy of war is critically questioned.

More than a century ago in their definitive work “The Right to Privacy” Samuel D. Warren and Louis D. Brandeis highlighted the challenges posed to individual privacy by advancing technology. Today’s workplace is characterised by its reliance on computer technology, particularly the use of email and the Internet to perform critical business functions. Increasingly these and other workplace activities are the focus of monitoring by employers. There is little formal regulation of electronic monitoring in Australian or United States workplaces. Without reasonable limits or controls, this has the potential to adversely affect employees’ privacy rights. Australia has a history of legislating to protect privacy rights, whereas the United States has relied on a combination of constitutional guarantees, federal and state statutes, and the common law. This thesis examines a number of existing and proposed statutory and other workplace privacy laws in Australia and the United States. The analysis demonstrates that existing measures fail to adequately regulate monitoring or provide employees with suitable remedies where unjustifiable intrusions occur. The thesis ultimately supports the view that enacting uniform legislation at the national level provides a more effective and comprehensive solution for both employers and employees. Chapter One provides a general introduction and briefly discusses issues relevant to electronic monitoring in the workplace. Chapter Two contains an overview of privacy law as it relates to electronic monitoring in Australian and United States workplaces. In Chapter Three there is an examination of the complaint process and remedies available to a hypothetical employee (Mary) who is concerned about protecting her privacy rights at work. Chapter Four provides an analysis of the major themes emerging from the research, and also discusses the draft national uniform legislation. Chapter Five details the proposed legislation in the form of the Workplace Surveillance and Monitoring Act, and Chapter Six contains the conclusion.

More than a century ago in their definitive work “The Right to Privacy” Samuel D. Warren and Louis D. Brandeis highlighted the challenges posed to individual privacy by advancing technology. Today’s workplace is characterised by its reliance on computer technology, particularly the use of email and the Internet to perform critical business functions. Increasingly these and other workplace activities are the focus of monitoring by employers. There is little formal regulation of electronic monitoring in Australian or United States workplaces. Without reasonable limits or controls, this has the potential to adversely affect employees’ privacy rights. Australia has a history of legislating to protect privacy rights, whereas the United States has relied on a combination of constitutional guarantees, federal and state statutes, and the common law. This thesis examines a number of existing and proposed statutory and other workplace privacy laws in Australia and the United States. The analysis demonstrates that existing measures fail to adequately regulate monitoring or provide employees with suitable remedies where unjustifiable intrusions occur. The thesis ultimately supports the view that enacting uniform legislation at the national level provides a more effective and comprehensive solution for both employers and employees. Chapter One provides a general introduction and briefly discusses issues relevant to electronic monitoring in the workplace. Chapter Two contains an overview of privacy law as it relates to electronic monitoring in Australian and United States workplaces. In Chapter Three there is an examination of the complaint process and remedies available to a hypothetical employee (Mary) who is concerned about protecting her privacy rights at work. Chapter Four provides an analysis of the major themes emerging from the research, and also discusses the draft national uniform legislation. Chapter Five details the proposed legislation in the form of the Workplace Surveillance and Monitoring Act, and Chapter Six contains the conclusion.

Electronic surveillance for foreign intelligence purposes was largely unregulated prior to 1978. The Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978 (hereinafter "FISA") was enacted to implement a judicial authorization process for foreign intelligence electronic surveillance that would effectively balance competing needs for national security and civil liberty under the Fourth Amendment. This study examines the evolution of FISA and its effectiveness under the Fourth Amendment, as assessed by federal reviewing courts and scholars since the statute's enactment. The study concludes that the FISA electronic surveillance authorization process has been effective in providing a constitutional mechanism to obtain foreign intelligence information.

Citizen complaints about inappropriate use of force indicate negative police-public relations, unresponsive police services, and the unresponsiveness of police management to citizens' concerns. However, the effective delivery of key policing services depends on the performance of individual police officers. Surveillance technology can monitor and control the behavior of officers, ensuring that police officers provide high quality policing services that meet the needs of citizens. Examples of surveillance technology such as in-car cameras and CCTV can be used as an administrative tool to respond to citizen complaints by police chief executives. This research examines the effect of surveillance technology on the behavior of municipal police departments that is operationalized as the number of citizen complaints that were filed against municipal police departments. This research also examines the impact of surveillance technology on dismissed and sustained complaints by using 511 large municipal police departments in the U.S. from Law Enforcement Management and Administrative Statistics (LEMAS) 2003 dataset. Three different models are developed to evaluate the impact of in-car cameras and CCTV on the citizen complaints and their dispositions. Two ordinary least square regression (OLS) models and a Heckman selection model are used to analyze the data. The Heckman selection model is utilized to correct for selection bias in truncated data for sustained complaints after log transformation. The results suggest that the use of surveillance technology by the police is necessary, but insufficient, in reducing the number of complaints. The finding suggests that videotaped evidence, recorded by surveillance technology, increased the number of convictions of accused officers in municipal police departments. The analysis also suggests that municipal police departments that used CCTV only in 2003 received a higher number of citizen complaints, in comparison to municipal police departments without CCTV, both in 2000 and 2003. No evidence was found to indicate that surveillance technology has a positive impact on the percentage of dismissed complaints.

Throughout the years, the United States government and local law enforcement has used electronic domestic surveillance for criminal justice purposes. Shortly after World War II, the government began to abuse the power of electronic domestic surveillance for the purposes of gathering intelligence on American citizens. After the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States, electronic domestic surveillance focused heavily on American citizens in the name of national security. The government has a duty to protect the United States and American citizens. The use of electronic domestic surveillance is a method for that purpose; however, the infringement of American’s Fourth Amendment rights has become a conflict for the government while trying to maintain national security. Along with attempting to keep security for American citizens, the United States government has lacked transparency in their electronic domestic surveillance methods, causing controversy with American citizens. It is a question of how much privacy would Americans sacrifice for their security. The research in this paper focuses on the comparison of the electronic domestic surveillance methods, how these processes affected the Fourth Amendment rights of American citizens, and the response to these programs and violations by Americans and the United States government, respectively.

Abstract Poe’s detective fiction has typically been viewed through the Eurocentric lens of turn-of-the-twentieth-century genre conventions. This chapter argues that we should instead place these works within the history of US policing and surveillance, which developed to control African Americans. The chapter demonstrates how surveillance migrates from slave narratives to the emerging genre of detective fiction. Poe experiments with two different modes of detection: “conspicuous” and “inconspicuous.” Conspicuous detection deflects attention from systemic crimes by atomizing detection to focus on an individual mastermind’s nonreciprocal surveillance of an individual criminal. Inconspicuous detection, by contrast, rejects the panoptical model of surveillance and reveals the efficacy of covert, cooperative sousveillance to address systemic injustices such as slavery and colonialism. Ultimately, Poe’s engagement with the contest between surveillance and sousveillance led him to create the exemplary conspicuous detective: C. Auguste Dupin, a fantasy of nonreciprocal surveillance.

The patent protections available to computer programs are almost as old as modern electronic computing. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, when a computer’s programming was as tangible as the machine’s circuits, there was nothing unusual about the idea that a patent could protect a program. The main problem was not whether programs were patent-eligible but how to draft patent applications for them that could bypass well-established doctrinal obstacles. As programs increased in complexity and programming languages enabled their creation through texts, inventors and their lawyers relied on the means-plus claim structure—a claim that discloses a machine as the means to perform a given collection of functions—as a shorthand to disclose the kinds of physicality that their predecessors would have spelled out. Successful patent applications combined means-plus language with very specific descriptions of interconnected electronic components to secure patent protections for the computer programs at their core.

Abstract The introduction argues that to understand the history of surveillance in the United States it is essential to study literature that positions policing and detection within the slave system. Taking up recent theories of genre that focus on identifying constellations of literary characteristics and examining the functions they fulfill for different historical periods, this book analyzes a multi-genre literature of antebellum surveillance. The narrative genres the book investigates share a thematic concern with the surveillance of racialized bodies and formal experimentation with “modes of detection” (ways of telling a story in which certain information is either rendered visible or kept hidden). The introduction also traces the history of racialized surveillance and sousveillance in the antebellum United States, charting the techniques and technologies employed by state-sanctioned agents such as slave patrollers or slave catchers, as well as non-state-sanctioned, often subversive, sousveillance practiced by enslaved men and women.

Edward Snowden was castigated by government officials and mainstream mass media as a traitor, spy, and international criminal when he released information about the National Security Agency (NSA) secret and massive surveillance of virtually all U.S. electronic communication. More than “wiretapping” is involved in the spin being put on Snowden's revelations. A lot of institutional duplicity has been revealed. The reaction of United States officials can be seen as a dramatic performance to demonstrate their moral resolve and complete power (even as Snowden challenged it) in order to dissuade other whistleblowers from following suite, as well as maintain authority and a discourse of fear about terrorism that justifies surveillance and other forms of social control.

OBJECTIVES Examine fatal and nonfatal firearm injuries among children aged 0 to 17 in the United States, including intent, demographic characteristics, trends, state-level patterns, and circumstances. METHODS Fatal injuries were examined by using data from the National Vital Statistics System and nonfatal injuries by using data from the National Electronic Injury Surveillance System. Trends from 2002 to 2014 were tested using joinpoint regression analyses. Incident characteristics and circumstances were examined by using data from the National Violent Death Reporting System. RESULTS Nearly 1300 children die and 5790 are treated for gunshot wounds each year. Boys, older children, and minorities are disproportionately affected. Although unintentional firearm deaths among children declined from 2002 to 2014 and firearm homicides declined from 2007 to 2014, firearm suicides decreased between 2002 and 2007 and then showed a significant upward trend from 2007 to 2014. Rates of firearm homicide among children are higher in many Southern states and parts of the Midwest relative to other parts of the country. Firearm suicides are more dispersed across the United States with some of the highest rates occurring in Western states. Firearm homicides of younger children often occurred in multivictim events and involved intimate partner or family conflict; older children more often died in the context of crime and violence. Firearm suicides were often precipitated by situational and relationship problems. The shooter playing with a gun was the most common circumstance surrounding unintentional firearm deaths of both younger and older children. CONCLUSIONS Firearm injuries are an important public health problem, contributing substantially to premature death and disability of children. Understanding their nature and impact is a first step toward prevention.

The War on Terror’s aggressive surveillance of Arabs and Muslims as national security threats accelerated their becoming a racialized Other. The history of race-making in America has followed a pattern of groups differentiating themselves from lower-status nonwhites in order to gain membership as white. Iraqis who came to the Inland Empire’s majority-Latinx neighborhoods found themselves in an America they had not anticipated, prompting some to ask, “Where are the Americans?” While the Latinx-Iraqi interactions evoked frustration, confusion, and ambivalence toward an unexpected cultural reality, Iraqis were ultimately able to bridge differences and recognize many similarities with their Latinx neighbors, such as family values and hospitality. The youths frequently quoted the Arabic proverb “not all your fingers alike,” meaning that it is better to be accepting—after all, not all people are the same, everyone is different, just like the fingers on your hand.

The chapter is dedicated at analyzing the strategic use of new technologies in the United States. An evident synergy has been noted between the digital policy projects and the neo-liberal ideology wave that has traced origin in the fiscal crisis of the State in the 1970s. About four decades have transformed some political directions in true imperatives: public sector downsizing, cost-cutting in public agencies, decision-making privatization, and the principle of efficiency as a measure of collective action. If new public management has been imposed as a dominant paradigm for administrative restructuring, ICTs programs sustain reform objectives by putting emphasis on the sure advantages of technological applications. In addition to this, administrative reforms seem to be in continuity with some American historical tradition, in reasserting a central role of private actor in public activities and realizing a significant “fusion of political and economic power”. Digital era seems to have added a new chapter to the American corporate liberalism history, with the difference – and the aggravating circumstance – that private organizations have now more powerful instruments to control and regulate society. New technological instruments seem to be used essentially to produce a neo-liberal interpretation of government activities.

Digital media is expected to promote political participation in government. Around the world, from the United States to Europe, governments have been implementing e-government (use of of the Internet to make bureaucracy more efficient) and promising e-democracy (increased political participation by citizens). Does digital media enable citizens to participate more easily in government, or can authoritarian governments interfere with citizens' ability to speak freely and obtain information? This study of digital media in Russia will show that while digital media can be used by Russian citizens to gain information and express opinions, Kremlin ownership of print media, along with censorship laws and Internet surveillance, can stifle the growth of digital democracy. Though digital media appears to hold promise for increasing citizen participation, this study will show that greater consideration needs to be given to the power of authoritarian governments to suppress civic discourse on the Internet.

Utilities worldwide are using dry-cask storage systems to handle the ever-increasing number of discharged fuel assemblies from nuclear power plants. In the United States and possibly elsewhere, this trend will continue until an acceptable disposal path is established. The recent Fukushima nuclear power plant accident, specifically the events with the storage pools, may accelerate the drive to relocate more of the used fuel assemblies from pools into dry casks. Many of the newer cask systems incorporate dual-purpose (storage and transport) or multiple-purpose (storage, transport, and disposal) canister technologies. With the prospect looming for very long term storage — possibly over multiple decades — and deferred transport, condition- and performance-based aging management of cask structures and components is now a necessity that requires immediate attention. From the standpoint of consequences, one of the greatest concerns is the rupture of a substantial number of fuel rods that would affect fuel retrievability. Used fuel cladding may become susceptible to rupture due to radial-hydride-induced embrittlement caused by water-side corrosion during the reactor operation and subsequent drying/transfer process, through early stage of storage in a dry cask, especially for high burnup fuels. Radio frequency identification (RFID) is an automated data capture and remote-sensing technology ideally suited for monitoring sensitive assets on a long-term, continuous basis. One such system, called ARG-US, has been developed by Argonne National Laboratory for the U.S. Department of Energy’s Packaging Certification Program for tracking and monitoring drums containing sensitive nuclear and radioactive materials. The ARG-US RFID system is versatile and can be readily adapted for dry-cask monitoring applications. The current built-in sensor suite consists of seal, temperature, humidity, shock, and radiation sensors. With the universal asynchronous receiver/transmitter interface in the tag, other sensors can be easily added as needed. The system can promptly generate alarms when any of the sensor thresholds are violated. For performance and compliance records, the ARGUS RFID tags incorporate nonvolatile memories for storing sensory data and history events. Over the very long term, to affirmatively monitor the condition of the cask interior (particularly the integrity of cover gas and fuel-rod cladding), development of enabling technologies for such monitoring would be required. These new technologies may include radiation-hardened sensors, in-canister energy harvesting, and wireless means of transmitting the sensor data out of the canister/cask.

Aim/Purpose: This paper provides the results of the preliminary analysis of the findings of an ongoing study that seeks to examine the social media use, cultural and political awareness, civic engagement, issue prioritization, and social activism of Gen Z students enrolled at four different institutional types located in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States. The aim of this study is to look at the group as a whole as well as compare findings across populations. The institutional types under consideration include a mid-sized majority serving or otherwise referred to as a traditionally white institution (TWI) located in a small coastal city on the Atlantic Ocean, a small Historically Black University (HBCU) located in a rural area, a large community college located in a county that is a mixture of rural and suburban and which sits on the border of Maryland and Pennsylvania, and graduating high school students enrolled in career and technical education (CTE) programs in a large urban area. This exploration is purposed to examine the behaviors and expectations of Gen Z students within a representative American region during a time of tremendous turmoil and civil unrest in the United States. Background: Over 74 million strong, Gen Z makes up almost one-quarter of the U.S. population. They already outnumber any current living generation and are the first true digital natives. Born after 1996 and through 2012, they are known for their short attention spans and heightened ability to multi-task. Raised in the age of the smart phone, they have been tethered to digital devices from a young age with most having the preponderance of their childhood milestones commemorated online. Often called Zoomers, they are more racially and ethnically diverse than any previous generation and are on track to be the most well-educated generation in history. Gen Zers in the United States have been found in the research to be progressive and pro-government and viewing increasing racial and ethnic diversity as positive change. Finally, they are less likely to hold xenophobic beliefs such as the notion of American exceptionalism and superiority that have been popular with by prior generations. The United States has been in a period of social and civil unrest in recent years with concerns over systematic racism, rampant inequalities, political polarization, xenophobia, police violence, sexual assault and harassment, and the growing epidemic of gun violence. Anxieties stirred by the COVID-19 pandemic further compounded these issues resulting in a powder keg explosion occurring throughout the summer of 2020 and leading well into 2021. As a result, the United States has deteriorated significantly in the Civil Unrest Index falling from 91st to 34th. The vitriol, polarization, protests, murders, and shootings have all occurred during Gen Z’s formative years, and the limited research available indicates that it has shaped their values and political views. Methodology: The Mid-Atlantic region is a portion of the United States that exists as the overlap between the northeastern and southeastern portions of the country. It includes the nation’s capital, as well as large urban centers, small cities, suburbs, and rural enclaves. It is one of the most socially, economically, racially, and culturally diverse parts of the United States and is often referred to as the “typically American region.” An electronic survey was administered to students from 2019 through 2021 attending a high school dual enrollment program, a minority serving institution, a majority serving institution, and a community college all located within the larger mid-Atlantic region. The survey included a combination of multiple response, Likert scaled, dichotomous, open ended, and ordinal questions. It was developed in the Survey Monkey system and reviewed by several content and methodological experts in order to examine bias, vagueness, or potential semantic problems. Finally, the survey was pilot tested prior to implementation in order to explore the efficacy of the research methodology. It was then modified accordingly prior to widespread distribution to potential participants. The surveys were administered to students enrolled in classes taught by the authors all of whom are educators. Participation was voluntary, optional, and anonymous. Over 800 individuals completed the survey with just over 700 usable results, after partial completes and the responses of individuals outside of the 18-24 age range were removed. Findings: Participants in this study overwhelmingly were users of social media. In descending order, YouTube, Instagram, Snapchat, Twitter, Facebook, Pinterest, WhatsApp, LinkedIn and Tik Tok were the most popular social media services reported as being used. When volume of use was considered, Instagram, Snapchat, YouTube and Twitter were the most cited with most participants reporting using Instagram and Snapchat multiple times a day. When asked to select which social media service they would use if forced to choose just one, the number one choice was YouTube followed by Instagram and Snapchat. Additionally, more than half of participants responded that they have uploaded a video to a video sharing site such as YouTube or Tik Tok. When asked about their familiarity with different technologies, participants overwhelmingly responded that they are “very familiar” with smart phones, searching the Web, social media, and email. About half the respondents said that they were “very familiar” with common computer applications such as the Microsoft Office Suite or Google Suite with another third saying that they were “somewhat familiar.” When asked about Learning Management Systems (LMS) like Blackboard, Course Compass, Canvas, Edmodo, Moodle, Course Sites, Google Classroom, Mindtap, Schoology, Absorb, D2L, itslearning, Otus, PowerSchool, or WizIQ, only 43% said they were “very familiar” with 31% responding that they were “somewhat familiar.” Finally, about half the students were either “very” or “somewhat” familiar with operating systems such as Windows. A few preferences with respect to technology in the teaching and learning process were explored in the survey. Most students (85%) responded that they want course announcements and reminders sent to their phones, 76% expect their courses to incorporate the use of technology, 71% want their courses to have course websites, and 71% said that they would rather watch a video than read a book chapter. When asked to consider the future, over 81% or respondents reported that technology will play a major role in their future career. Most participants considered themselves “informed” or “well informed” about current events although few considered themselves “very informed” or “well informed” about politics. When asked how they get their news, the most common forum reported for getting news and information about current events and politics was social media with 81% of respondents reporting. Gen Z is known to be an engaged generation and the participants in this study were not an exception. As such, it came as no surprise to discover that, in the past year more than 78% of respondents had educated friends or family about an important social or political issue, about half (48%) had donated to a cause of importance to them, more than a quarter (26%) had participated in a march or rally, and a quarter (26%) had actively boycotted a product or company. Further, about 37% consider themselves to be a social activist with another 41% responding that aren’t sure if they would consider themselves an activist and only 22% saying that they would not consider themselves an activist. When asked what issues were important to them, the most frequently cited were Black Lives Matter (75%), human trafficking (68%), sexual assault/harassment/Me Too (66.49%), gun violence (65.82%), women’s rights (65.15%), climate change (55.4%), immigration reform/deferred action for childhood arrivals (DACA) (48.8%), and LGBTQ+ rights (47.39%). When the schools were compared, there were only minor differences in social media use with the high school students indicating slightly more use of Tik Tok than the other participants. All groups were virtually equal when it came to how informed they perceived themselves about current events and politics. Consensus among groups existed with respect to how they get their news, and the community college and high school students were slightly more likely to have participated in a march, protest, or rally in the last 12 months than the university students. The community college and high school students were also slightly more likely to consider themselves social activists than the participants from either of the universities. When the importance of the issues was considered, significant differences based on institutional type were noted. Black Lives Matter (BLM) was identified as important by the largest portion of students attending the HBCU followed by the community college students and high school students. Less than half of the students attending the TWI considered BLM an important issue. Human trafficking was cited as important by a higher percentage of students attending the HBCU and urban high school than at the suburban and rural community college or the TWI. Sexual assault was considered important by the majority of students at all the schools with the percentage a bit smaller from the majority serving institution. About two thirds of the students at the high school, community college, and HBCU considered gun violence important versus about half the students at the majority serving institution. Women’s rights were reported as being important by more of the high school and HBCU participants than the community college or TWI. Climate change was considered important by about half the students at all schools with a slightly smaller portion reporting out the HBCU. Immigration reform/DACA was reported as important by half the high school, community college, and HBCU participants with only a third of the students from the majority serving institution citing it as an important issue. With respect to LGBTQ rights approximately half of the high school and community college participants cited it as important, 44.53% of the HBCU students, and only about a quarter of the students attending the majority serving institution. Contribution and Conclusion: This paper provides a timely investigation into the mindset of generation Z students living in the United States during a period of heightened civic unrest. This insight is useful to educators who should be informed about the generation of students that is currently populating higher education. The findings of this study are consistent with public opinion polls by Pew Research Center. According to the findings, the Gen Z students participating in this study are heavy users of multiple social media, expect technology to be integrated into teaching and learning, anticipate a future career where technology will play an important role, informed about current and political events, use social media as their main source for getting news and information, and fairly engaged in social activism. When institutional type was compared the students from the university with the more affluent and less diverse population were less likely to find social justice issues important than the other groups. Recommendations for Practitioners: During disruptive and contentious times, it is negligent to think that the abounding issues plaguing society are not important to our students. Gauging the issues of importance and levels of civic engagement provides us crucial information towards understanding the attitudes of students. Further, knowing how our students gain information, their social media usage, as well as how informed they are about current events and political issues can be used to more effectively communicate and educate. Recommendations for Researchers: As social media continues to proliferate daily life and become a vital means of news and information gathering, additional studies such as the one presented here are needed. Additionally, in other countries facing similarly turbulent times, measuring student interest, awareness, and engagement is highly informative. Impact on Society: During a highly contentious period replete with a large volume of civil unrest and compounded by a global pandemic, understanding the behaviors and attitudes of students can help us as higher education faculty be more attuned when it comes to the design and delivery of curriculum. Future Research This presentation presents preliminary findings. Data is still being collected and much more extensive statistical analyses will be performed.

This paper is the first of two exploring nuclear escalation risks in connection with the space domain, with a focus on China, Russia and the United States. Space systems are used for multiple civilian and military purposes, including missions related to nuclear deterrence. Consequently, real and perceived military operations targeting space systems may create pathways to nuclear escalation. China, Russia and the USA possess both nuclear weapons and counterspace capabilities and are at risk of being drawn into war with each other through regional conflicts and great power competition. These states have integrated space systems into their nuclear deterrence practices to varying degrees for missile early warning, communications, intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance (ISR), and navigation. These space systems can be vulnerable to attack or interference through counterspace capabilities, including direct-ascent and co-orbital anti-satellite (ASAT) weapons, directed-energy weapons, electronic interference and cyber operations. Each of the three states’ space systems has varying strategic value. Each system is also vulnerable to the known counterspace capabilities of the others. Assessment of these varying values and vulnerabilities lays the ground for further analysis on escalation pathways and risk-reduction measures

Forced by the 1997 Southeast Asian crisis to recognize the external vulnerabilities that openness to volatile capital flows result in and upset over the post-crisis policy responses imposed by the IMF, countries in the sub-region saw the need for a regional financial safety net that can pre-empt or mitigate future crises. At the outset, the aim of the initiative, then led by Japan, was to create a facility or design a mechanism that was independent of the United States and the IMF, since the former was less concerned with vulnerabilities in Asia than it was in Latin America and that the latter’s recommendations proved damaging for countries in the region. But US opposition and inherited geopolitical tensions in the region blocked Japan’s initial proposal to establish an Asian Monetary Fund, a kind of regional IMF. As an alternative, the ASEAN+3 grouping (ASEAN members plus China, Japan and South Korea) opted for more flexible arrangements, at the core of which was a network of multilateral and bilateral central bank swap agreements. While central bank swap agreements have played a role in crisis management, the effort to make them the central instruments of a cooperatively established regional safety net, the Chiang Mai Initiative, failed. During the crises of 2008 and 2020 countries covered by the Initiative chose not to rely on the facility, preferring to turn to multilateral institutions such as the ADB, World Bank and IMF or enter into bilateral agreements within and outside the region for assistance. The fundamental problem was that because of an effort to appease the US and the IMF and the use of the IMF as a foil against the dominance of a regional power like Japan, the regional arrangement was not a real alternative to traditional sources of balance of payments support. In particular, access to significant financial assistance under the arrangement required a country to be supported first by an IMF program and be subject to the IMF’s conditions and surveillance. The failure of the multilateral effort meant that a specifically Asian safety net independent of the US and the IMF had to be one constructed by a regional power involving support for a network of bilateral agreements. Japan was the first regional power to seek to build such a network through it post-1997 Miyazawa Initiative. But its own complex relationship with the US meant that its intervention could not be sustained, more so because of the crisis that engulfed Japan in 1990. But the prospect of regional independence in crisis resolution has revived with the rise of China as a regional and global power. This time both economics and China’s independence from the US seem to improve prospects of successful regional cooperation to address financial vulnerability. A history of tensions between China and its neighbours and the fear of Chinese dominance may yet lead to one more failure. But, as of now, the Belt and Road Initiative, China’s support for a large number of bilateral swap arrangements and its participation in the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership seem to suggest that Asian countries may finally come into their own.