Artigos de revistas sobre o tema "Collegio de architetti"

In this article, I present a newly discovered, late-sixteenth-century design drawing for the chapel of the Collegio Borromeo, in Pavia, Italy, and investigate it in the context of contemporary Catholic ecclesiastical architecture. Historiographically, the period is dominated by the church of the Gesù, in Rome, interpreted as a typological paradigm characterized by austere architecture and restrained decoration. This view is called into question by the Collegio's chapel. The initial design (represented by the drawing) drew from ancient sources in order to achieve spatial complexity. The realized chapel is spatially simpler, but ornately ornamented and decorated. The chapel differs from what is considered the norm, but is the chapel an anomaly, or are traditional understandings of the Gesù invalid? On investigation, it becomes evident that patrons may have established a number of criteria for their churches, but architects had a degree of freedom in designing them. In few if any contemporary cases, however, was architectural severity a goal for Catholic churches. With the example of the Collegio's chapel, these findings take on greater significance: the patron, Carlo Borromeo (1538-1584), was one of the most important in the history of ecclesiastical architecture. The chapel's architect, Pellegrino Tibaldi (1527-1596), restored, renovated, and built numerous sacred spaces for Borromeo. What they achieved demonstrates that Catholic reformers of the latter half of the sixteenth century sought architectural magnificence for buildings dedicated to the worship of God.

Purpose of the study: From the conceptualisation to the construction stage, clients have a wide range of expectations from architects, and sometimes not addressing or meeting these expectations can land both of them in conflicts of interest, which might affect the architect’s career. This study attempts to unfold the dynamics of the client-architect relationships, emphasizing clients’ expectations from architects. Methodology: This research has been conceptualised to cover various aspects of the client-architecture relationships through an in-depth literature review, followed by undertaking a survey. The literature review has touched upon different factors that shape the client-architect relationships, various architects’ theories, and how clients feel. The survey was conducted online amongst 29 architects and 12 clients to get their perspectives on the issue, giving more detailed insights into the topic. Main Findings: The findings have revealed that clients who’ll be personally occupying and using the space have the maximum expectations from the architects who’re designing that space, with these expectations spanning the entire process starting right from their initial interactions to post-occupancy. Most of these expectations and their consequent circumstances become complex where the budgets are strict and tight, as it is difficult for the clients and the architects to compensate for the losses. Novelty/Originality of this study: Architectural practice is an ever-evolving profession, where relationships between architects and clients are not static, but dynamic as per the changing working styles. This study represents a fresh angle of current practicing architects and their views, which may prove beneficial for architects stepping out from colleges to working industry.

ARCHITECT IN THE SOCIETY OF THE 18TH CENTURY GRAND DUCHY OF LITHUANIA The article deals with the problem of professional field of activity of an architect, the place of his profession in the system of crafts, sciences and arts, architects’ position in the society of the eighteenth century. Before the education reform undertaken by the Education Commission, architecture had not been developed into a separate subject that provided professional training in the schools of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The course in architecture was only a part of general education in Vilnius Jesuit Academy, in nobility schools of a military type, and Jesuit and Piarist Collegium Nobilium. There was not enough focus on architectural studies in these most important educational institutions of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania: a short course of up to two years provided only general and technical basis of the theory of architecture based on classical orders, and it was not capable of training high ranked professionals-practitioners. Until the eighties of the 18th century, to become an independent professional architect one had to continue his studies abroad. It is argued that the Enlightenment concept of a creator serving to the state and society as well as representing them has provided an important impetus to the growth of the value of the architect’s profession and its social status. While many eighteenth-century artists were still very close to craftsmen in terms of social status (it was considered, that they used to do specific tasks and earn a living by employing manual / physical, not intellectual / mental powers), architects, due to the specifics of their education – studies at the university and military careers (they were mostly employed as engineers) were granted titles of nobility. In the eighteenth century, the social and material position of the architect-creator, who had been liberated from the crafts guild system, had evolved considerably and created conditions for privileges and for the establishment in the rank of nobility. The nobilitation of architects, who usually also had the rank of an officer and executed significant orders in large estates, intensified especially during the period of the partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Experienced architects were desired and welcome guests in the manors of the nobles. Successful architects used to invest accumulated funds in real estate and manors with land. The architect was no longer just a hired employee but became a patron himself – the one who was initiating and partly financing construction. Keywords: architect, engineer, social status of an architect, Enlightenment, nobilitation.

This paper presents a description and analysis of the demography of the community of notable architects from the Renaissance to the present day. The comprehensive Macmillan Encyclopedia of Architects is used as the data source. As a historical description, the paper provides data on the growth in numbers and national composition of the architects included in the Encyclopedia; their activities outside architecture; their linkages, in the form of master-pupil and collegial relationships; and the pattern of their productivity through life. It shows unexpected patterns in the historical growth of this community. These are explained as the result of some simple but deep sociological properties.

“Professional Guiding Standards for Advanced Education Architecture in University Undergraduate Students” (2013 edition) indicates that the education system of architecture should include a section on “environment and site.” It should involve six learning components which are concepts of site and environment, site terrain classifications, environment of two tendencies, elements involved in the sites, elements of environmental impact, and site design.[1] As site design (drawing) has become a significant topic in the examination of registered architects, many domestic architecture colleges have set up site design courses as independent ones. After more than ten years of exploration and research in developing the education system of site design courses, teaching experiences and achievements have been acquired. Site design courses have been gradually integrated with general plan design, registered architect examination, and architectural programming. Teachers have specified relevant learning goals in the regular daily curriculum in addition to the basic and vocational education of architecture. In this way, the site design course would be more in line with the educational goals of architecture. This paper aims to analyze the education of site design courses in hope of developing the future architectural education.

The following article is an edited version of the keynote presented at the 13th International docomomo Conference that took place in Seoul, Korea, on September 2014. The paper discusses how “Western” architecture was first introduced to Korean soil: a French Catholic missionary-architect built the Seoul Cathedral at the end of the 19th century. American and Canadian architects built educational buildings for the Protestant missionary-founded colleges in Korea. Japanese civil servant architects built some public buildings during the colonial rule. The work of two prominent Korean architects, Kim Chung-Up and Kim Swoo-Geun are discussed. The author discusses his education at Mies van der Rohe’s Illinois Institute of Technology (IIT) in mid-1950s, his work for the Master during the 1960s, and his teaching at IIT 1966 and 1978. He describes how his dual position of teaching at IIT and working for Mies gave him the opportunity to work on three projects of importance: the Mies Retrospective in Berlin in 1968; the exhibition proposal for the extension of the Museum of Fine Arts in Houston of 1969; the Toronto-Dominion Bank executive floor and Banking Pavilion of 1966–1968. The author discusses several works of Mies van der Rohe to “demystify” the general perception that Mies was a rigid aesthetician: how Mies van der Rohe would arrive at design decisions not always sticking to the module, grid and geometry, contrary to the conventional reading of his architecture. The author then discusses five works from his three decades of practice with sac International in Seoul, highlighting where Mies’ influences might be found in these works: the Korea Military Academy Library of 1982; Seoul Hilton Hotel of 1983; the Weight-lifting Gymnasium for ‘88 Seoul Olympics of 1986; Kyongju Museum of Art of 1991; and the SK Group Office Building in Seoul of 1999. The paper also reflects on its relationship to the main theme of the recent International docomomo Conference in Seoul, Expansion and Conflict.

It took only a year after 2020’s racial justice uprisings for legislatures in half the states to attempt to ban teaching about systemic racism in US public schools, colleges, and universities. The boilerplate legislation disallows the teaching of “divisive concepts,” including the reality that systemic racism benefits white people. In what Patricia Williams calls “definitional theft,”1 architects of this conservative backlash appropriated “Critical Race Theory” as a catch-all label for those “divisive” concepts2 – even though, as many scholars and journalists attempted to publicly clarify, Critical Race Theory is a specific field of legal scholarship rarely taught in college, let alone elementary and secondary schools. As one of the founders of CRT, Kimberlé Crenshaw, proclaimed: “This is basically an effort to create a boogeyman and pour everything into that category that they believe will prompt fear, discomfort and repudiation on the part of parents and voters who are primed to respond to this hysteria that they’re trying to create.”3 The “definitional theft” isn’t even a secret strategy. One architect of the backlash, Christopher Rufo, announced it proudly in a public Twitter post: “We have successfully frozen their brand – ‘critical race theory’ – into the public conversation and are steadily driving up negative perceptions.”4

This article describes architectural project of Jesuit colleges by Giacomo Briano SI, a Jesuit architect from Modena, made for colleges in Polish Province of the Society of Jesus. Despite none of Braino’s projects was fully accomplished we can analyse his original urban and architectural solutions basing on many of his architectural drawings which are kept in the archives in Cracow, Vienna, Paris and Los Angeles.

De 2008 a 2017 Robert A.M. Stern Architects fue el responsable del diseño de dos nuevos colleges en la Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut. Los Colleges Benjamin Franklin y Pauli Murray se convirtieron en los colleges decimotercero y decimocuarto del campus universitario. La construcción de los colleges Benjamin Franklin y Pauli Murray implicó la combinación de las tecnologías de construcción más avanzadas con técnicas artesanales tradicionales. Llevamos a cabo una investigación exhaustiva para realizar nuestro trabajo y definir el carácter de cada uno de los colleges y el sinfín de detalles arquitectónicos que constituyen su diseño, desde adornos de piedra hasta vidrieras. En particular, el diseño y la fabricación de las nueve puertas de entrada metálicas ofrecen valiosas lecciones sobre investigación, artesanía y producción para diseños contemporáneos.

Architecture in Oxford between the Civil War and the early Georgian period presents a fascinating picture of great stylistic change and originality, as vernacular building traditions largely inherited from the Gothic of the Middle Ages were superseded by new design philosophies derived from Renaissance interpretations of classical architecture. The new architecture was driven by an increasingly élite and academic taste, largely dependent upon expensive foreign books and even more costly foreign travel, and necessitated fundamental changes to the established building practices of the colleges, which had hitherto relied largely on local master masons for both construction and design. As architecture ‘was something outside the ken of the average Oxford don’, knowledgeable men, especially those who had travelled abroad and seen modern buildings, became important arbiters of taste, and often drifted into architecture as a result. The first and most famous Oxford man to take this path was Christopher Wren of Wadham College in the 1660s, but he was followed a generation later by Henry Aldrich, Dean of Christ Church, after whose death in 1710 the mantle passed to George Clarke of All Souls College. It is with the significance of the latter two men’s activities at Christ Church that we will presently be concerned.

<span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;"> </span><p style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; text-justify: inter-ideograph;" class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: &quot;Arial&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; font-size: 11pt;">The bricks and mortar classroom has a long and storied history. The digital classroom is so new and different it may be wrong to even call it a “classroom”.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The authors argue that architecture influences behavior.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>So in constructing our new digital classrooms we must pay attention to the architecture and what job we want that architecture to do.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In thinking about the relation between instructional design and our pedagogical aims we must keep in mind that this new type of “space” may require us to rethink our views of both teaching and learning. </span></p><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;"> </span>

The Lancashire Independent College in Whalley Range, Manchester (1839-43), was built to train Congregational ministers. As the first of a number of Nonconformist educational institutions in the area, it illustrates Manchester‘s importance as a centre of higher education generally and Nonconformist education in particular. The building was designed by John Gould Irwin in Gothic style, mediated through references to All Souls College in Oxford by Nicholas Hawksmoor, whose architecture also inspired Irwins Theatre Royal in Manchester (1845). The College was later extended by Alfred Waterhouse, reflecting the growing success of the institution, which forged links with Owens College and went on to contribute, with other ministerial training colleges, to the Universitys Faculty of Theology established in 1904. The building illustrates an interesting strand in early nineteenth-century architectural style by a little-known architect, and has an important place in the history of higher education in north-west England.

The 1960s were a time of great change and growth in New Zealand's tertiary eduction sector, and the university-based discipline of architecture was in no way exempt from this progress. In response to the Parry Report of 1959-1960, the New Zealand government passed the 1961 Universities Act, which dissolved the federated University of New Zealand. This Act opened the way for the independence of the four universities of Auckland, Victoria, Canterbury and Otago, and the two allied agricultural colleges of Massey and Lincoln. Under the federated university system, Auckland University College had been the centre of architectural training, and had delivered extramural course through colleges in the other centres. As the "disproportionate number" of extramural and part-time study had been criticisms levelled by the Parry Report, it was obvious that another School of Architecture would now be required, but where? Ever an argumentative association, members of the New Zealand Institute of Architects engaged in a lively debate on the choice, positing Victoria University in Wellington, and Canterbury University in Christchurch, as the major contenders. By the end of the decade university-based architectural training would expand at both Auckland and (the new) Wellington Schools, New Zealand's first PhD in Architecture would be conferred on Dr John Dickson, and many of the careers of architects and architectural academics who went on to construct the discipline as it is today, had begun.

The article deals with the main problems and trends in development of software for landscape design in the context of accelerated introduction of BIM-technologies into the building and construction industry. It is shown that there is currently a significant lag in the development of computer BIM-products for landscape architects. The principal requirements which the modern BIM applications for landscape architects should meet and basic problems of their implementation are determined. It is argued that the decision to create a BIM application for landscape architects is possible the only by the world's leading developers of software products for the construction trade, such as Autodesk Inc. and Nemetschek and Trimble companies. It is also shown that all these developers are actively working towards improvement their existing architectural BIM applications in order to provide the possibility of their usage in landscape design. Analysis of the differences in the basic approaches used by the developers for this purpose revealed that Autodesk and Nemetschek prefer to improve their Autodesk Revit and Graphisoft ArchiCAD products, respectively, without engagement the third party developers whereas Trimble took approach with active participation of third parties – plug-ins developers to the SketchUp application. The conclusion of the article is that Autodesk Revit, Graphisoft ArchiCAD and Trimble SketchUp are promising applications for landscape design and, accordingly, for introducing them into the teaching process of colleges and universities. At the same time, it is revealed that the above-described approach by Trimble opens the prospect of the fastest conversion of SketchUp into a full-fledged BIM tool for landscape architects, and this should be taken into account when choosing an application for introducing into the educative process.

The ideology of deconstructivisim is a relatively new design style, and has a profound philosophical connotation. Deconstruction works usually pay attention to reflecting the diversity of buildings, and their design techniques are more exaggerated and weird to make people unable to understand their law. By the study of the deconstructive architects' design career, we can conclude as follow: the kind of trend has a great influence on architecture, also deeply affects modern design education; education philosophy of many famous architectural colleges in America and Europe with their students’ design works reflect design concept of the ideology. Southern California Institute of Architecture in Los Angeles is the homeland that deconstructive educators live up to their ideal. The design ideology of deconstruction has important status in the United States and far-reaching influence on American architectural education.

High moral and spiritual values are the most superb differentia of Islam. Islam first emphasizes the cultivation of moral and spiritual values and most of the teachings of Islam contain material for the moral and spiritual training of man and their aim is to shape man in terms of character. The main purpose of education is the moral and spiritual training of a person. In today's modern era, the importance of higher education institutions, especially colleges and universities, has become even more important to provide high moral and spiritual training to students. Because these students of higher educational institutions will be the architects of the future and role models for future generations, this work can be done well through the teaching of Islamic studies and Islamic subjects within institutions of higher education. It is also the primary responsibility of the teachers of the Islamic Departments to give high moral and spiritual training to the students in the light of the arguments of the Quran and Hadith and also to organize practical training for the students in their classes. Without developing high moral and spiritual values, they cannot prepare the students coming to colleges and universities for a better future. We can lay the foundation of modern and developed society only by having high moral and spiritual values.

Purpose – This article aims to present a review of the American campus in 2015 as the physical and facilities implications of the digital transformation of higher education begin to appear. Business conditions and technological changes are beginning to require changes in the traditional physical campus. Design/methodology/approach – The author provides observations and recommendations of a former university architect and campus planner on the physical adaptation of the American campus. Findings – Predictions of the demise of traditional colleges and universities will prove accurate for some as they shrivel or merge out of existence. The survivors will adapt their business models and modify their physical campuses to better match student and faculty needs. Originality/value – A physical adaptation of the American campus will result from digital transformation of higher education, as there is less need for synchronous place and time.

Jan Reisner (ca. 1655-1713) was a painter and architect. He was sent by King Jan III together with Jerzy Siemiginowski to study art at St. Luke Academy in Rome. He traveled to the Eternal City (where he arrived on February 24, 1678) with Prince Michał Radziwiłł’s retinue. Cardinal Carlo Barberini, who later became the protector of Regni Poloniae, was the guardian and protector of the artist during his studies in 1678-1682. In the architectural competition announced by the Academy in 1681 Reisner was awarded the fi prize in the fi class, and a little later he was accepted as a member of this prestigious university. He was awarded the Order of the Golden Spur (Aureatae Militiae Eques) and the title Aulae Lateranensis Comes, which was equivalent to becoming a nobleman. The architectural award was conferred by the jury of Concorso Academico, composed of the Academy’s principe painter Giuseppe Garzi, its secretary Giuseppe Gezzi, and the architects Gregorio Tommassini and Giovanni B. Menicucci. In the Archivio storico dell’Accademia di San Luca, preserved are three design drawings of a church made by Jan Reisner in pen and watercolor, showing the front elevation, longitudinal section, and a projection. Although they were made for the 1681 competition, they were labelled with the date 1682, when the prizes were already being awarded. Reisner’s design reflected the complicated trends in the architecture of the 1660s and 1670s, especially in the architectural education of St. Luke’s Academy. There, attempts were made to reconcile the classicistic tendencies promoted by the French court with the reference to the forms of mature Roman Baroque. As a result of this attempt to combine the features of the two traditions, an eclectic work was created, as well as other competition projects created by students of the St. Luke’s Academy. The architect designed the Barberini temple-mausoleum, on a circular plan with eight lower chapels opening inwards and a rectangular chancel. The inside of the rotund is divided into three parts: the main body with opening chapels, a tambour, and a dome with sketches of the Fall of Angels. Inside, there is an altar with a pillar-and-column canopy. The architectural origin of the building was determined by ancient buildings: the Pantheon (AD 125) and the Mausoleum of Constance (4th century AD). A modern school based of this model was opened by Andrea Palladio, who designed the Tempietto Barbaro in Maser from 1580. In the near future, the Santa Maria della Assunzione in Ariccia (1662-1664) by Bernini and Notre-Dame-de-l’Assomption (1670-1676) in Paris by Charles Errard could provide inspiration. In particular, the unrealized project of Carlo Fontana to adapt the Colosseum to the place of worship of the Holy Martyrs was undertaken by Clement X in connection with the celebration of the Holy Year in 1675. In the middle of the Flavius amphitheatre, he designed the elevation of a church in the form of an antique-styled rotunda, with a dome on a high tambour and a wreath of chapels encircling it. Equally important was the design of the fountain of the central church in Basque Loyola (Santuario di S. Ignazio a Loyola). In the Baroque realizations of the then Rome we find patterns for the architectural decoration of the Reisnerian church. In the layout and the artwork of the facades we notice the influence of the columnar Baroque facades, so common in different variants in the works of da Cortona, Borromini and Rainaldi. The monumental columnar facades built according to Carlo Rainaldi’s designs were newly completed: S. Andrea della Valle (1656 / 1662-1665 / 1666) and S. Maria in Campitelli (designed in 1658-1662 and executed in 1663-1667), and Borromini San Carlo alle Quatro Fontane (1667-1677). The angels supporting the garlands on the plinths of the tambour attic are modelled on the decoration of two churches of Bernini: S. Maria della Assunzione in Ariccia (1662-1664) and S. Andrea al Quirinale (1658-1670). The repertoire of mature Baroque also includes the window frames of the front facade of the floor in the form of interrupted beams and, with the header made in the form of sections capped with volutes. The design indicates that the chancel was to be laid out on a slightly elongated rectangle with rounded corners and covered with a ceiling with facets, with a cross-section similar to a heavily flattened dome. It is close to the solutions used by Borromini in the Collegio di Propaganda Fide and the Oratorio dei Filippini. The three oval windows decorated with C-shaped arches and with ribs coming out of the volute of the base of the dome, which were among the characteristic motifs of da Cortona, taken over from Michelangelo, are visible. The crowning lantern was given an original shape: a pear-shaped outline with three windows of the same shape, embraced by S-shaped elongated volutes, which belonged to the canonical motifs used behind da Cortona by the crowds of architects of late Baroque eclecticism. Along with learning architecture, which was typical at the Academy, Reisner learned painting and geodesy, thanks to which, after his return to Poland, he gained prestige and importance at the court of Jan III, then with the Płock Voivode Jan Krasiński. His promising architectural talent did gain prominence as an architect in Poland, although – like few students of St. Luke’s Academy – he received all the honors as a student and graduate.

Visual pollution refers to the negative impact of various environmental elements on the visual experience of individuals and the quality of the surroundings. This includes unsightly buildings and other man-made structures that disrupt natural beauty. The design of building facades plays a significant role in determining visual pollution. This study aimed to assess the impact of facade design on visual pollution by testing which facade design considerations most contribute to visual pollution in Peshawa-Qazi Street (100 m) in Erbil City. An online survey was conducted with 283 participants in six architectural departments within engineering colleges and other online engineering platforms in Erbil, Duhok, and Suleimani. Respondents included architectural students from the 3rd to 5th stage, academic staff, and professional architects. They rated the impact of individual facade elements, contextual integration, and other factors on visual pollution. A one-sample T-test was used to compare mean scores to a test value of (2.5). Results showed that all three categories of façade design considerations significantly increase visual pollution compared to the test value (p < 0.05). Considerations regarding the overall context of a facade had the most significant impact (mean of 1.93 higher than the test value), followed by other factors (mean of 1.79 higher) and individual elements (mean of 0.71 higher). To decrease visual pollution, it is recommended to the policymakers and municipalities to develop regulations, façade design guidelines and for architects to follow the principles of architectural form and composition regarding the integration of building facades with their surroundings, façade practical considerations, and refined composition of façade elements.

At present, U.S. postsecondary sorting is best evidenced by an increasingly stratified system of higher education. However, very little attention is paid to even deeper levels of stratification within colleges and universities where academic tracking and its consequences are manifest. Given this significant lack of attention to deepening levels of stratification within many of the most “accessible” postsecondary institutions in the U.S., the purpose of this article is threefold: (1) to introduce readers to the notion of academic tracking within the postsecondary sector, (2) to situate honors education within the U.S. postsecondary tracking structure, and (3) to demonstrate the depths of stratification within a system that is lauded as the contemporary architect of social mobility. Based upon qualitative data collected during the 2016–2017 academic year at one public 4-year “accessible” university, findings illustrate the persistence, structure, and depths of stratification as an unintended consequence of one university’s efforts to reconcile the competing goals of excellence and equity.

This study is based on the feedback from 3rd-year architectural undergraduate students at a leading architectural education college in India. An undergraduate degree in architecture in India leads to a professional license to practice as an architect in India. Fire safety is also a component of the architectural curriculum, but there are concerns worldwide that architecture colleges may somehow not give the impetus fire safety education may require. A studio-based, immersive pedagogy was created to make fire safety more relevant and easy to grasp for architecture students. This method used integrating the interventions from the country’s fire code into the design using students’ self-created design problems, with which they were familiar. This design-based immersive integration of the National Building Code 2016 and its fire provisions were tested in this study. The detailed course pedagogical structure has been presented. The study was tested using feedback from the students at the end of the semester using an 11-part questionnaire which 32 students answered in an anonymous mode. The results show an overall positive response where the students prefer a design-based integrated fire safety curriculum which introduces fire codes to the students in the applied format. This study paves the way for more replications of the studio design-based integration of fire codes into the curricula of architecture colleges. Further studies will require this technique to undergo further testing by involving practitioners who have undergone this pedagogy and testing the same in building projects.

<p>The Norwegian Evangelical-Lutheran Church in America decided in 1861 to build their first college close to the western frontier of The Upper Midwest. The site chosen was a bluff above Upper Iowa River, highly visible from Decorah, a small town founded only 12 years earlier, few years after the first settlers arrived. The college building became a relatively vast structure erected between 1862 and 1865, completed to its originally planned symmetrical composition in 1874. The building style and its composition were common among American colleges and universities further east in the US. It is also demonstrated how the Luther College building façade in composition and detailing shows clear influences from a specific German building. This particular building has been designated as especially typical of the German <em>Rundbogenstil</em> (<em>S</em>tyle of the Rounded Arch) with its great mix of various stylistic elements.</p><p>The architect was known as C. H. Griese from Cleveland, Ohio. He is identified as Charles Henry Griese (1821–1909), who immigrated from Germany about 1850 and was known as a mason and contractor, from now on also as an architect. In 1869, Griese also designed the three Norwegian Lutheran churches of Washington Prairie, Stavanger and Glenwood in rural Decorah. They represented a Neo Gothic style which was new to the area, and had an evident architectural character contrasting the more ordinary vernacular churches in the area. They signify a change of style and, like the college building, they demonstrate architectural ambitions new to these Norwegians, giving insight also into the general architectural and vernacular development in the area.</p>

During the years 1943–1946, the Chicago choreographer and ballet director Ruth Page created a compact, innovative vehicle for touring, a concert she called Dances with Words and Music. The programme consisted of solo dances accompanied by the poems of Dorothy Parker, Ogden Nash, e. e. cummings, Federico García Lorca, Langston Hughes, Hilaire Belloc, Edna St. Vincent Millay, and others. Page performed her danced poems, speaking the words herself and dialoguing with them in dance, in New York and Chicago, and at Jacob's Pillow. She also toured extensively to smaller cities scattered throughout the Midwest and South, sponsored by colleges and universities, as well as civic associations, independent producers, women's clubs, and USOs. I argue that Page's marriage of poetry and dance was not just a stopgap measure designed to keep her choreographic footing during the lean years when male dancers were enlisted. It was a deliberate strategy to position herself as a front-runner on the American scene – an architect of the American ballet with a sensitive ‘vernacular ear,’ a worldview, and, crucially, a perspective sympathetic to the psyches of young women and children.

Martin Luther and John Henry Newman sought to re-envision university education at unique times in history. While Newman set out to architect a truly Catholic University that co-opted facets of the Protestant ethic without falling into the "heresies" of Lutheranism, Luther and his circle of gifted academics sought to craft a distinctly Evangelical concept of the university that would shield studentsfrom the corruption of worldly values thought to have infiltrated the Catholic Church, Those concemed with ethical, comprehensive education for all face similar challenges today. How do we create an educational system of universal accessibility without discarding the moral foundation provided by a faith-based model? Luther's and Newman's ideas suggest that private colleges and universities will serve students and society well where they remain true to their theological traditions, while public institutions contribute by taking seriously the challenge of moral education and taking advantage of available religious resources. If the basic dilemma in the postmodem university is the lack of balance between heart and mind—the moral and the pragmatic, "ought" and "is "—then Newman's dialectical approach in particular offers an excellent first step toward the restoration of that balance.

В начале 1890-х гг. в исторических помещениях Музея училища барона Штиглица, известных как лоджии Рафаэля, преподавателями и учениками ЦУТР были исполнены потолочные росписи, в основу которых был положен популярный мотив ренессансного искусства — сочетание зодиакальных аллегорических изображений и гротескового орнамента. На сводах лоджий в медальонах в окружении гротесков запечатлены правящие колесницами античные боги, символизирую- щие планеты-управители зодиакальных созвездий. Иконографическими источниками создания изображений в лоджиях Рафаэля послужили: во-первых, росписи сводов зала приемов Гильдии менял в Перудже (Sala dell’Udienza del Nobile Collegio del Cambio), исполненные Пьетро Перуджино и его мастерской (1496–1500); во-вторых, аллегорические образы планет, написанные уче- никами Рафаэля — Перино дель Вага и Джованни дель Удине — в апартаментах Борджиа (зал Потификов, Sala dei Pontefici) в Ватикане (1520–1521). В статье исследуется своеобразие стилистических и иконографических решений потолочных росписей Лоджий Рафаэля в Музее училища барона А.Л. Штиглица (1885–1896, архитектор М.Е. Месмахер); дается оценка значению росписей в контексте художественных решений интерьеров Музея училища барона Штиглица. Особое внимание уделено участию в создании росписей в лоджиях Рафаэля ученика ЦУТР барона Штиглица Владислава Измайловича. In the early 1890s the teaching staff and students of the Baron Stieglitz Central School of Techical Drawings executed the ceiling paintings in the historical rooms of the Museum of the Baron Stieglitz School. The murals are based on a popular motif of Renaissance art, a combination of allegorical zodiacal images and grotesque ornaments. The medallions, placed on the vaults of loggia and surrounded by grotesques depict ancient gods ruling chariots and symbolizing the planets ruling the zodiacal constellations. The iconographic sources of the images in the Raphael Loggia were as follows: first, the paintings on the vaults of the Audience Hall of the Guild of Money Changers in Perugia (Sala dell’udienza del Nobile Collegio del Cambio) executed by Pietro Perugino and his workshop (1496-1500); second, the allegorical images of the planets painted by Raphael’s pupils - Perino del Vaga and Giovanni del Udine - in the Borgia Apartments (Sala dei Pontefici) in the Vatican (1520-1521). The article examines the stylistic and iconographic originality of the ceiling paintings in the Raphael Loggia at the Museum of the Baron Stieglitz School (1885-1895, architect Maximilian von Messmacher), and seeks to assess the significance of the murals in the context of the artistic solutions in the interiors of the Museum of the Baron Stieglitz School. Special attention is paid to the participation of Vladislav Izmailovich, then a student of the Baron Stieglitz Central School of Technical Drawing, in painting the murals in the Raphael Loggia.

Architectural education in India is largely envisioned as a technical-vocational course, leading to humanities-related courses like history, to remain alienated from students as well as practitioners. History of Architecture is a core subject in Bachelor of Architecture as per regulatory guidelines, but the program level outcomes are often limited to stylistic study of standard sets of examples of monumental structures from the past. This trend can be traced back to the colonial episteme started during the British programme of instruction and is ingrained in the educational system. This study enquires into the current state of history education at the undergraduate level in architectural schools in India and examines the continuing impact of colonisation on our production of knowledge. This is done by analysing the content of the architectural history curricula of colleges in India and discussions with academic practitioners who have been teaching the subject in those institutions. Unpacking the curricula and their influences on teaching, brought out the perpetuation of colonial biases embedded in architectural history education. The study argues that a well-designed history curriculum has the potential to contextualise design education and create critically aware architects, and thus take a step towards decolonising the practice itself.

Other than of customary CAD frameworks, new, cloud-based CAD frameworks have additionally been accessible for certain years. These CAD frameworks planned by the guideline of programming as a help (SaaS) contrast in some significant highlights from the customary CAD frameworks. Subsequently, these CAD frameworks are worked through a program and it isn't important to introduce the product on a PC. The CAD-information is put away in the cloud and not on a neighborhood PC or focal worker. This new methodology ought to likewise work with the sharing and the board of information. At long last, a considerable lot of these new CAD frameworks are accessible as freeware for instruction purposes, so the colleges can save permit costs. This commitment analyzes recently created, cloud-based CAD frameworks. With regards to a contextual analysis, the utilization of these new CAD frameworks are researched in the preparation of architects in plan training. Along these lines, the understudies look at a customary and a cloud-based CAD framework as a component of an activity of planning and 3D displaying of a pinion shaft. Accordingly, the understudies make a drawing with various perspectives on the pinion shaft. This appraisal assesses various models, for example, ease of use, instructional exercise backing and establishment exertion.

The contribution is focused on Alessandro Antonelli’s project for the seat of the new italian parliament in Turin. The project, unrealized, began back in 1860, when the annexation to the Piedmont of Tuscany and the Emilia asked for the building in the capital of a decent seat for the National Parliament. It had to be situated on the area of the ex Carignano garden, behind the homonym building and the “antonellian” Collegio delle Provincie, in the heart of the city, that comes to be as representative place of the absolutist and dynastic power, through the phases of XVIIIth century of amplification and architectural-urbanism new configuration. <br><br> To deepen therefore the knowledge of Antonelli’s project and to understand better the reasons that have brought to the choice to locate in Palazzo Carignano the Italian Parliament, is has been chosen to deepen the relationships between the building and the city, through a punctual iconografic and archivistic documentation that it has allowed to read the development of the building among XVIIth and XIXth century, also in relationship to the urban transformation, putting to comparison the various projects of the contest with the Baroque existence. Through the restitution of virtual images it has been possible to optimize the hypothesis, putting not only to fire the philosophy of the project, but above all Antonelli’s way to measure himself with such an incisive existence in the city as the “guariniano” Palazzo Carignano and to bring back the linguistic choice to the amplest circle of the works that the architect realized in the city of Turin.

Education is a pre-requisite for the development of a country. The teacher is the backbone of the education system and is the architect of society. The progress of an organization depends upon the quality of its teachers. Today’s child is tomorrow’s citizen of the country. Teacher educators of the B.Ed. Colleges are the makers of the future teachers who are bound to have a vital influence on the children learning, shaping their attitude, and developing desirable behavior. To prepare efficient teachers in the 21st century, teacher educators need to be constantly topnotch in their profession. It can be possible, only if they can sustain their continuing professional development (CPD). It involves on-going divergent activities (formal, non-formal and informal) that aim at developing the teacher educator’s intellectual abilities (cognitive domain), self confidence, attitude, values, and interest (affective domain) and skills and competencies (psychomotor domain) for improving personality and to carry out the responsibilities of the teaching profession properly in accordance with the changing times and needs of the prospective teachers and society.” The present paper comes out with diverse programs and activities for teacher educators to sustain their CPD in the advent of complexities continually arising in the field of teacher education in the 21st century.

The notion of “Gothic survival” is still prevalent in literature on Gothic revival architecture in England. This concept implies the possibility of the unreflexive survival of Gothic architectural tradition in some distant provincial regions, where architects, searching connections with the past or folk traditions, could find it. This notion, dating back to the literature of the beginning of the 20th century, can be convincingly refuted by analyzing the meanings and purposes of different stages of Gothic revival. The article aims to demonstrate that the use of Gothic architectural forms in the second half of the 17th — beginning of the 18th century was initiated by intellectuals and had no connection to the preservation of artisan traditions.The courtiers of Elizabeth I, re-enacting mediaeval romances and Arthurian legends, conducted the earliest known Gothic revival. The relation between Eli­zabethan architecture and Gothic tradition has been discussed many times. And in later decades — du­ring the Stuart era, the Commonwealth and after the Restoration — Gothic colleges and churches were extensively built.Basing on the sources available, it can be assumed that, though there was not any chronological break in Gothic architectural tradition, Gothic revival had been ideologically biased from its very beginning. We can also say that the spread of classical architecture in England not only was unable to destroy the Gothic tradition, but also gave it new meanings and almost immediately made any appeal to Gothic forms an ideological statement.

Higher Education in Britain expanded dramatically during the 1950s and 1960s. The trigger for growth was the Barlow Report of 1946, which recommended an immediate doubling of the number of science students and an increase in the total number of student places, of which there had been c. 50,000 in 1939, to 70,000 by 1950 and 90,000 by 1955. The 1963 Robbins Report continued and accelerated this expansionist policy, proposing that half a million student places be created by 1980. In the event, although funding was less generous than Barlow had recommended, the numbers achieved were far greater, and 85,000 students were in Higher Education by 1950. The impetus for this growth, which included the foundation of seven new universities (the so-called ‘Shakespearean Seven’) and the enlargement of existing institutions, stemmed from an ambitious vision of the role of universities after the Second World War. Higher Education, and particularly scientific training, was seen as one way to maintain Britain’s position on the world stage. Equally important was the principle of widening access, and a concern to broaden the social base of university education found expression in a range of new approaches to design. Within this context, the universities of Oxford and Cambridge also witnessed significant expansion, but in a very particular way and with distinctive results on account of these universities’ collegiate structure. As elsewhere, buildings at Oxbridge for teaching and research were dependent on finance from the University Grants Committee, but the semi-autonomous colleges could draw on their own (sometimes considerable) resources when it came to building. Furthermore, college dons could exercise significantly more influence over the choice of architect than was possible elsewhere. The colleges of Oxford and Cambridge therefore provided an important environment in which new architectural ideas could be explored. An early contribution to the debate was made by the Erasmus Building, a residential block at Queens’ College, Cambridge, designed by Basil Spence in 1958 (Fig. 1). Although the history of Spence’s design is inextricably bound up with its Cambridge context, as an attempt to reformulate the collegiate ideal it also offers a foretaste of the debates that shaped the new universities in the decade that followed.

Resumen: Cuando los dirigentes republicanos accedieron al po­der uno de sus principales objetivos fue llevar a cabo una profunda reforma en la educación. El desarrollo de la política educativa republicana tuvo su reflejo en una amplia producción historiográfica posterior. Fueron algunos de los propios ejecutores de la refor­ma los que primeramente plasmaron por escrito su labor al frente del Ministerio de Instrucción Pública y Bellas Artes. Estos fueron los casos de Rodolfo Llopis y Marcelino Domingo. Tras estos primeros estudios habría que esperar a la caída de la Dictadura para que volviera a escribirse sobre la educación republicana. Las primeras investigaciones tuvieron un carácter general, transcurriendo algún tiempo hasta que co­menzaron a realizarse estudios centrados en localida­des concretas. El presente trabajo tiene como objetivo analizar la labor de los Ayuntamientos con respecto a la educación primaria durante el quinquenio republi­cano. Serán tres los ámbitos en los que centraremos nuestra atención: la puesta en funcionamiento de nuevos centros escolares, la sustitución de la ense­ñanza religiosa y la puesta en funcionamiento de las instituciones circumescolares.Palabras clave: Segunda República, Educación primaria, Ayuntamiento, colegios, laicismo, instituciones circumescolares.Abstract: When the Republican leaders acceded to power, one of their main objectives was a deep reform in education. The development of the Repub­lican educational policy is reflected in a sub­sequent, extensive historiographical corpus. It was in fact the same architects of the reform who first recorded this whilst at the head of the Ministry of Public Instruction and Fine Arts, namely, Rodolfo Llopis and Marcelino Domin­go. Following these first studies, we had to wait for the fall of the dictatorship for the history of republican educational reform to be continued. The first such research efforts were of a general character, and some time passed until it began to focus on specific localities. This paper aims to analyse the work of the local authorities with respect to primary education during the repub­lican period. Three areas will be central to this: the start-up of new schools, the substitution of religious education and the start-up of the extra-scholarly institutions.Key words: Second Republic, Primary Education, local authority, colleges, secularism, extra-scholarly institutions.

Problem statement. In this study, attention is focused on the Kharkiv theatre development in the 1940–1960’s, the activities of the theatrical entrepreneur Liudvih Mlotkovskyi and the directors of the Kharkov Theatre: Hendrikov, Alferaki, Petrovskyi, Lvov and Shcherbyna. The theatre directors served as intermediaries between the entrepreneur and the Provincial Offices authorities, while addressing issues of organization and contract negotiation with actors, maintenance of theatre premises. They played an important role on repertoire policies controlled with the censorship committee of the Tsar Russia. Research and publications. The subject of Kharkiv theatre as a part of Ukrainian theatre history development in noted period was highlighted in XIX century by the famous writer, literary critic, culture and public activist Hrigoriy Kvitka-Osnovianenko and by Mykola Cherniaiev – a journalist, literary and theatre critic, reviewer of the newspaper “Yuzhnyi krai” (one of the largest provincial newspapers of the XIX century), where his articles about history of theatre organization in Kharkiv was published. In the XX century this period is covered by famous theatre critics: Alexander Klinchin (in the monographs about the Ukrainian theatre prominent figures Mykhailo Shchepkin, Mykola Rybakov, Liubov Mlotkovska), Arkadii Pletniov (in the study “At the origin of the Kharkiv theatre”), Rostyslav Pylypchuk (in “Materials about the Ukrainian theatre history. From the foundation to the beginning of the twentieth century”), Yu. Polyakova (in numerous publications and the preface to M. Cherniaiev’s book “From Kharkiv’s theatrical antiquity”); ethnographers Andrii Paramonov, Volodymyr Titar (in “The materials for the Kharkiv Theatre history of 1780–1934”). The objective of this study is to attempt to supplement the scientific research of famous theatrical scholars (primarily A. Pletnov and M. Cherniaiev) with materials that were found in the Kharkiv region State Archives. The main material. Entrepreneur Liudvig Mlotkovskyi, who headed the Kharkiv theatre from the autumn of 1834 to the spring of 1843, played a significant role in the theatre history of above mentioned period. In 1839 Mlotkovskyi was allocated a piece of land in Kharkiv free of charge to build a theatre. The first stone building of the theater for 1020 seats was opened in 1841. Furthermore, the land was allocated to Mlotkovskyi’s ownership, he was obliged to comply with some terms among which was compulsory that the theatre director was appointed by the governor. As the first director of the new theatre the Count Hendrikov Oleksandr Ivanovych (1806–1881) was elected and approved. Unfortunately, no materials or documents about Hendrikov’s activity in the theatre were found. However, it is known that during the time of his directorship, due to difficulties and debts, the entrepreneur Mlotkovskyi left Kharkiv. The theatre’s premises were first leased to touring troupes (companies), and in 1853, Mlotkovsky donated it to his daughter, the dramatic actress Vera Liudvygovna Mlotkovska-Diukova. Thus, further theatrical activities in Kharkiv were connected with the Diukov’s entrepreneurial family and the managers of the theatre: Alferaki, Petrovskyi, Lviv and Shcherbyna. They faced the difficult task of theatre revival and getting back its fame. Mykola Dmytrovych Alferaki (1815–1860), Collegia Advisor, a nobleman, held the post from 1845 to 1849. As the director, he paid the debts and additionally invested his own money for the theatre development and improvement. From 1849 to 1856 Engineer-Lieutenant Colonel Petrovskyi was the director of the theater. Archival materials describing Petrovskyi’s directorship were located. He tried to save the situation by means of more democratic drama repertoire that was interesting for general public. Mykhailo PavlovychLvov (1819–1867) was the next theatre director appointed. He was an architect, the member of St. Petersburg Academy of Arts, the professor of Kharkiv University. Lvov purchased costumes, scenery, and library; he spent some money to restore the theatre premises. In addition to being in charge of the Kharkiv Theatre, Lvov rented Poltava Theatre and the railway station for 8 years. What his administration was like is not definitely known, but he served as the director to 1857. At the end of 1850’s and beginning of 1860’s the post of the theatre director was taken up by an experienced entrepreneur Ivan Oleksandrovych Shcherbyna (1821–1869). He had the theatre boxes reconstructed, started a permanent ballet company that worked in the theater for 3 years, alternating ballet performances with spectacles of touring companies and the permanent drama troupe stage enters. The time of Shcherbyna directorship at the Kharkiv Drama Theatre appeared to be the most favourable for the Ukrainian repertoire, when along with Russian drama products the plays by Ukrainian authors were staged, such as I. P. Kotliarevskyi, H. F. Kvitka-Osnovianenko, D. Dmytrenko etc. Conclusions. Basing on previously published studies of famous theatre critics and ethnographers and attempting to combine the results of their research with the materials found in Kharkiv State regional archive we conclude: Kharkiv was one of the provincial theatre art centers in the XIX century. Not only theatrical entrepreneurs, but also provincial authorities took part in theatre formation and development. The latters tried to control the repertoire policy through the theatre directors appointed by them. Despite the discouraging conditions connected with the difficulties and censorship oppression some progressive theatre directors, such as Petrovskyi and Shcherbyna, ignored the bans and staged prohibited by censorship dramas. It happened not only for the sake of commercial benefits, but also because the banned drama pieces were the most interesting for the general population, it were modern, democratic and satisfied the needs of the audience. This study does not claim to be complete. Its objectives are to combine some historical finds with modern researches about Kharkiv theatre development, and partly fill in the gaps relating to the activity of the entrepreneurs and directors who headed the Kharkiv theatre in 1840–1860s; the work in this direction will continued.

Dear readers, We are pleased to present to you Issue 2, 2022, of the scientific and analytical journal Burganov House. The Space of Culture. Upon the recommendation of the Expert Council of the Higher Attestation Commission, the journal is included in the List of Leading Peer-reviewed Scientific Journals and Publications in which the main scientific results of theses for the academic degrees of doctor and candidate of science must be published. The journal publishes scientific articles by leading specialists in various humanitarian fields, doctoral students, and graduate students. Research areas concern topical problems in multiple areas of culture, art, philology, and linguistics. This versatility of the review reveals the main specificity of the journal, which represents the current state of the cultural space. The issue opens with the article "NON-Realism of Alexander Burganov" by I.Sedova. The author believes that modern Russian sculpture, at its best, has long since moved away from direct depiction and has learned to speak about painful issues exclusively in the language of plastic arts. In this regard, the author naturally raises the question - what is the "realism in sculpture" concept today? In the process of analysing the plastic techniques of A.Burganov, the author managed to identify several patterns, including the principle of "opposition": realistic images, being in opposition to each other, begin to form the world of symbolism and surrealism. Summing up her research, the author introduces a new term, "symbolic realism", into scientific circulation. Fang Zhiyu studies the specificity of modern Chinese sculpture in the article "Traditions and Innovations in Modern Chinese Sculpture". The author believes that two directions are clearly visible in the creative work of modern Chinese sculptors. The first direction basically follows the creative method of sculptors who studied in France before the formation of the People's Republic of China; the second direction is based on traditional Chinese culture. In the formation of the modern plastic language of Chinese sculpture, both directions mutually enrich each other. In the article “On Two Viewpoints on the Dramaturgical Conflict Structure: from Hegel’s Aesthetics to the Identity of the Formalists”, V.Kolotaev analyses the nature of the dramaturgical conflict in Russian humanitarian knowledge, which occurred under the influence of aesthetic ideas about beauty, harmony, the sublime, the ideal, formulated by Hegel in Lectures on Aesthetics. The author believes that in line with classical ideas, the conflict was understood as a necessary condition for maintaining the compositional unity of the work and the development of the action. It led to the final equilibrium state of all its elements after the separation of the participants in the collision to the maximum distance. In addition to the aesthetic understanding of the conflict as the basis of the harmonic organisation of the text, the author analysed the idea of conflict as the primary condition for the development of all systems. Ding Liang continues the topic of dialogue in the space of culture between national tradition and world trends in the development of art. In the article “Analysis of Creative Education in Ceramics and Student Creativity in Colleges and Universities in China”, the author rightly argues that Chinese education and global arts education are closely related to each other in the face of the globalisation of culture and economy. A number of texts are devoted to the issues of musical culture. In the article "On the First Graduation of Vocalists of the Saratov Alekseyev Conservatory", A.Rudyakova recreates a picture of the early period of the Saratov Alekseyev Conservatory, founded in 1912, based on rare unpublished sources. In the article "Alexander Ryndin's 104 Psalm: the Problem of the Expression of Author's Will Within the Canon", I.Mertseva studies the problem of secularisation, which the traditional genres of Orthodox worship are exposed to, in connection with the renewal of the means of musical expressiveness of choral music. Biographical information about the composer and facts explaining the address to the composition on canonical liturgical texts are introduced into scientific use. The author uses an interdisciplinary approach typical of liturgical musicology, combining musicological analysis and interpretation of the liturgical text in the traditions of Russian liturgy. Also, the article provides an overview of the methods by which it is possible to study original works on canonical liturgical texts. In the article "Heraldic Motifs in Family Stained-glass Windows of the 16th Century of the von Disbach Family", D.Platonov considers the study and attribution of heraldic stained-glass windows of the Swiss Union of the 16th century, when the art of stained glass was in its heyday. The author notes that by this time, the formation of a new social class, the burghers, was completed and the rich families were able to have their own family coat of arms thanks to the special historical conditions of the Old Confederation development. Based on sources in the form of surviving armorials and official documents of the period under study, the author investigates the rules for the creation of heraldry, the artistic image, and the specifics of stained glass technology. In the article “Zaha Hadid in the United Arab Emirates. An Architect Ahead of Time”, J.Smolenkova considers the architect’s buildings from the point of view of innovative technologies, features of the artistic image and plastic design. Along with articles, this issue of the journal presents K.Lopatkina’s scientific review of the book “The Moscow Union of Artists. A Perspective from the 21st Century. Book Two” by B.Ioganson (Moscow: Booksmart, 2021). The reviewer believes that one of the essential tasks that the author of this monumental work solves is the need to demonstrate and prove that the Moscow Union of Artists was very different primarily because it included various artists. For the researcher, “the presence of a unique experience accumulated in the course of the life of this multifaceted and well-coordinated organism that regulates the artistic life of Moscow and spreads its influence far beyond the capital” comes to the fore. The publication is addressed to professionals specialising in the theory and practice of the fine arts and philology and all those interested in the arts and culture.

Constant demand for new naval and commercial vessels has created special conditions for the Government-owned Soviet shipbuilding industry, which practically has not been affected by the world shipbuilding crisis. On the other hand, such chronic diseases of the centralized economy as lack of incentive, material shortage and poor workmanship cause specific problems for ship construction. Being technically and financially unable to rapidly improve the overall technology level and performance of the entire industry, the Soviets concentrate their efforts on certain important areas and have achieved significant results, especially in welding and cutting titanium and aluminum alloys, modular production methods, standardization, etc. All productivity improvement efforts are supported by an army of highly educated engineers and scientists at shipyards, in multiple scientific, research and design institutions. Discussion Edwin J. Petersen, Todd Pacific Shipyards Three years ago I addressed the Ship Production Symposium as chairman of the Ship Production Committee and outlined some major factors which had contributed to the U.S. shipbuilding industry's remarkable achievements in building and maintaining the world's largest naval and merchant fleets during the five-year period starting just before World War II. The factors were as follows:There was a national commitment to get the job done. The shipbuilding industry was recognized as a needed national resource. There was a dependable workload. Standardization was extensively and effectively utilized. Shipbuilding work was effectively organized. Although these lessons appear to have been lost by our Government since World War II, the paper indicates that the Soviet Union has picked up these principles and has applied them very well to its current shipbuilding program. The paper also gives testimony to the observation that the Soviet Government recognizes the strategic and economic importance of a strong merchant fleet as well as a powerful naval fleet. In reviewing the paper, I found great similarity between the Soviet shipbuilding productivity improvement efforts and our own efforts or goals under the National Shipbuilding Research Program in the following areas:welding technology, flexible automation (robotics), application of group technology, standardization, facilities development, and education and training. In some areas, the Soviet Union appears to be well ahead of the United States in improving the shipbuilding process. Most noteworthy among these is the stable long-and medium-range planning that is possible by virtue of the use and adherence to the "Table of Vessel Classes." It will be obvious to most who hear and read these comments what a vast and significant improvement in shipbuilding costs and schedules could be achieved with a relatively dependable 15year master ship procurement plan for the U.S. naval and merchant fleets. Another area where the Soviet Union appears to lead the United States is in the integration of ship component suppliers into the shipbuilding process. This has been recognized as a vital step by the National Shipbuilding Research Program, but so far we have not made significant progress. A necessary prerequisite for this "supplier integration" is extensive standardization of ship components, yet another area in which the Soviets have achieved significantly greater progress than we have. Additional areas of Soviet advantage are the presence of a multilevel research and development infrastructure well supported by highly educated scientists, engineering and technical personnel; and better integration of formally educated engineering and technical personnel into the ship production process. In his conclusion, the author lists a number of problems facing the Soviet economy that adversely affect shipbuilding productivity. Perhaps behind this listing we can delve out some potential U.S. shipbuilding advantages. First, production systems in U.S. shipyards (with the possible exception of naval shipyards) are probably more flexible and adjustable to meet new circumstances as a consequence of not being constrained by a burdensome centralized bureaucracy, as is the case with Soviet shipyards. Next, such initiatives as the Ship Production Committee's "Human Resources Innovation" projects stand a better chance of achieving product-oriented "production team" relationship among labor, management, and technical personnel than the more rigid Soviet system, especially in view of the ability of U.S. shipyard management to offer meaningful financial incentives without the kind of bureaucratic constraints imposed in the Soviet system. Finally, the current U.S. Navy/shipbuilding industry cooperative effort to develop a common engineering database should lead to a highly integrated and disciplined ship design, construction, operation, and maintenance system for naval ships (and subsequently for commercial ships) that will ultimately restore the U.S. shipbuilding process to a leadership position in the world marketplace (additional references [16] and [17]).On that tentatively positive note, it seems fitting to close this discussion with a question: Is the author aware of any similar Soviet effort to develop an integrated computer-aided design, production and logistics support system? The author is to be congratulated on an excellent, comprehensive insight into the Soviet shipbuilding process and productivity improvement efforts that should give us all adequate cause not to be complacent in our own efforts. Peter M. Palermo, Naval Sea Systems Command The author presents an interesting paper that unfortunately leaves this reader with a number of unanswered questions. The paper is a paradox. It depicts a system consisting of a highly educated work force, advanced fabrication processes including the use of standardized hull modules, sophisticated materials and welding processes, and yet in the author's words they suffer from "low productivity, poor product quality, . . . and the rigid production systems which resists the introduction of new ideas." Is it possible that incentive, motivation, and morale play an equally significant role in achieving quality and producibility advances? Can the author discuss underlying reasons for quality problems in particular—or can we assume that the learning curves of Figs. 5 and Fig. 6 are representative of quality improvement curves? It has been my general impression that quality will improve with application of high-tech fabrication procedures, enclosed fabrication ways, availability of highly educated welding engineers on the building ways, and that productivity would improve with the implementation of modular or zone outfitting techniques coupled with the quality improvements. Can the author give his impressions of the impact of these innovations in the U.S. shipbuilding industry vis-a-vis the Soviet industry? Many of the welding processes cited in the paper are also familiar to the free world, with certain notable exceptions concerning application in Navy shipbuilding. For example, (1) electroslag welding is generally confined to single-pass welding of heavy plates; application to thinner plates—l1/4 in. and less when certified—would permit its use in more applications than heretofore. (2) Electron beam welding is generally restricted to high-technology machinery parts; vacuum chamber size restricts its use for larger components (thus it must be assumed that the Soviets have solved the vacuum chamber problem or have much larger chambers). (3) Likewise, laser welding has had limited use in U.S. shipbuilding. An interesting theme that runs throughout the paper, but is not explicitly addressed, is the quality of Soviet ship fitting. The use of high-tech welding processes and the mention of "remote controlled tooling for welding and X-ray testing the butt, and for following painting" imply significant ship fitting capabilities for fitting and positioning. This is particularly true if modules are built in one facility, outfitted and assembled elsewhere depending on the type of ship required. Any comments concerning Soviet ship fitting capabilities would be appreciated. The discussion on modular construction seems to indicate that the Soviets have a "standard hull module" that is used for different types of vessels, and if the use of these hull modules permit increasing hull length without changes to the fore and aft ends, it can be assumed that they are based on a standard structural design. That being the case, the midship structure will be overdesigned for many applications and optimally designed for very few. Recognizing that the initial additional cost for such a piece of hull structure is relatively minimal, it cannot be forgotten that the lifecycle costs for transporting unnecessary hull weight around can have significant fuel cost impacts. If I perceived the modular construction approach correctly, then I am truly intrigued concerning the methods for handling the distributive systems. In particular, during conversion when the ship is lengthened, how are the electrical, fluid, communications, and other distributive systems broken down, reassembled and tested? "Quick connect couplings" for these type systems at the module breaks is one particular area where economies can be achieved when zone construction methods become the order of the day in U.S. Navy ships. The author's comments in this regard would be most welcome. The design process as presented is somewhat different than U.S. Navy practice. In U.S. practice, Preliminary and Contract design are developed by the Navy. Detail design, the development of the working drawings, is conducted by the lead shipbuilder. While the detail design drawings can be used by follow shipbuilders, flexibility is permitted to facilitate unique shipbuilding or outfitting procedures. Even the contract drawings supplied by the Navy can be modified— upon Navy approval—to permit application of unique shipbuilder capabilities. The large number of college-trained personnel entering the Soviet shipbuilding and allied fields annually is mind-boggling. According to the author's estimation, a minimum of about 6500 college graduates—5000 of which have M.S. degrees—enter these fields each year. It would be most interesting to see a breakdown of these figures—in particular, how many naval architects and welding engineers are included in these figures? These are disciplines with relatively few personnel entering the Navy design and shipbuilding field today. For example, in 1985 in all U.S. colleges and universities, there were only 928 graduates (B.S., M.S. and Ph.D.) in marine, naval architecture and ocean engineering and only 1872 graduates in materials and metallurgy. The number of these graduates that entered the U.S. shipbuilding field is unknown. Again, the author is to be congratulated for providing a very thought-provoking paper. Frank J. Long, Win/Win Strategies This paper serves not only as a chronicle of some of the productivity improvement efforts in Soviet shipbuilding but also as an important reminder of the fruits of those efforts. While most Americans have an appreciation of the strengths of the Russian Navy, this paper serves to bring into clearer focus the Russians' entire maritime might in its naval, commercial, and fishing fleets. Indeed, no other nation on earth has a greater maritime capability. It is generally acknowledged that the Soviet Navy is the largest in the world. When considering the fact that the commercial and fishing fleets are, in many military respects, arms of the naval fleet, we can more fully appreciate how awesome Soviet maritime power truly is. The expansion of its maritime capabilities is simply another but highly significant aspect of Soviet worldwide ambitions. The development and updating of "Setka Typov Su dov" (Table of Vessel Classes), which the author describes is a classic example of the Soviet planning process. As the author states, "A mighty fishing and commercial fleet was built in accordance with a 'Setka' which was originally developed in the 1960's. And an even more impressive example is the rapid expansion of the Soviet Navy." In my opinion it is not mere coincidence that the Russians embarked on this course in the 1960's. That was the beginning of the coldest of cold war periods—Francis Gary Power's U-2 plane was downed by the Russians on May 1, 1960; the mid-May 1960 Four Power Geneva Summit was a bust; the Berlin Wall was erected in 1961 and, in 1962, we had the Cuban Missile Crisis. The United States maritime embargo capability in that crisis undoubtedly influenced the Soviet's planning process. It is a natural and normal function of a state-controlled economy with its state-controlled industries to act to bring about the controlled productivity improvement developments in exactly the key areas discussed in the author's paper. As the author states, "All innovations at Soviet shipyards have originated at two main sources:domestic development andadaptation of new ideas introduced by leading foreign yards, or most likely a combination of both. Soviet shipbuilders are very fast learners; moreover, their own experience is quite substantial." The Ship Production Committee of SNAME has organized its panels to conduct research in many of these same areas for productivity improvement purposes. For example, addressing the areas of technology and equipment are Panels SP-1 and 3, Shipbuilding Facilities and Environmental Effects, and Panel SP-7, Shipbuilding Welding. Shipbuilding methods are the province of SP-2; outfitting and production aids and engineering and scientific support are the province of SP-4, Design Production Integration. As I read through the descriptions of the processes that led to the productivity improvements, I was hoping to learn more about the organizational structure of Soviet shipyards, the managerial hierarchy and how work is organized by function or by craft in the shipyard. (I would assume that for all intents and purposes, all Russian yards are organized in the same way.) American shipyard management is wedded to the notion that American shipbuilding suffers immeasurably from a productivity standpoint because of limitations on management's ability to assign workers across craft lines. It is unlikely that this limitation exists in Soviet shipyards. If it does not, how is the unfettered right of assignment optimized? What are the tangible, measurable results? I believe it would have been helpful, also, for the author to have dedicated some of the paper to one of the most important factors in improvement in the labor-intensive shipbuilding industry—the shipyard worker. There are several references to worker problems—absenteeism, labor shortage, poor workmanship, and labor discipline. The reader is left with the impression that the Russians believe that either those are unsolvable problems or have a priority ranking significantly inferior to the organizational, technical, and design efforts discussed. As a case in point, the author devotes a complete section to engineering education and professional training but makes no mention of education or training programs for blue-collar workers. It would seem that a paper on productivity improvement efforts in Soviet shipbuilding would address this most important element. My guess is that the Russians have considerable such efforts underway and it would be beneficial for us to learn of them.

Since ancient times, the Phlegraean Fields were one of the most popular travel destinations. For the particular geological characteristics of the territory, the nobility of ancient Rome built numerous pleasure villas, especially in the area between Pozzuoli, Baia and Bacoli, and later, in the modern and contemporary age, the travellers of the Grand Tour made the Phlegraean fields a real centre of tourism known all over the world. Over the centuries, through their travels, local and foreign scholars described the environment of the Phlegraean fields in their travel notebooks, often accompanied by sketches and drawings. In addition to these precious proofs, of particular interest are the articles published in the architecture and engineering periodicals within which projects of buildings are reported to be placed along the coastal strip, changing its original appearance. Through the analysis of bibliographic, documentary and iconographic sources, such as the guides of monsignor Pompeo Sarnelli, “La Guida de’ forestieri, curiosi di vedere, e di riconoscere le cose più memorabili di Pozzuoli, Baja, Cuma, Miseno, Gaeta. Ed altri luoghi circonvicini”, and canon Andrea de Jorio, “Guida di Pozzuoli e contorno”, the drawings of the French architect Prosper Barbot and the periodical “Bollettino del Collegio degli Ingegneri e Architetti in Napoli”, this paper intends to illustrate the environment of the Phlegraean fields during the XVIII and XIX centuries, making a comparison with the environment of the contemporary urban context. From the comparison of the sources it emerged how the image of the Phlegrean landscape has rapidly changed over the centuries. Today, most of the archaeological monuments and the same coastline are covered by a poor quality contemporary building, the result of the lack of control of the institutions, and which today gives the image of an environment of great but disordered beauty.

Freund Vilmos (1846 –1920), Gottfried Semper tanítványa a dualizmus korabeli Budapest egyik igen termékeny építőművésze volt. Több mint félszáz épületet alkotott a fővárosban. Főleg olasz neoreneszánsz stílusban tervezte meg épületeit. 1900 után már szinte egyáltalán nem alkotott építészként. Építészi tapasztalata megszerzését követően, 1891 körül egyre aktívabb szakmapolitikai tevékenységbe kezdett. Tanulmányunk ismerteti a Fővárosi Középítési Bizottmány szerepét, majd Freund itt végzett munkáját mutatja be, beszédeinek nagyrészt az egykorú Fővárosi Közlönyben megjelent szó szerinti rögzítése alapján. Először a gyakor lati, technológiai ügyek terén tett felszólalásait ismertetjük. Itt többek között kiviláglik Freund útburkolatokkal kapcsolatos komoly tudása, és az, hogy figyelemmel kísérte azon útvonalak állapotát, ahol általa tervezett paloták álltak. Ezt követik a más építészek plánumaival és épületeivel kapcsolatos megszólalásai. A vele egykorú vagy nála fiatalabb alkotók műveivel kapcsolatos javaslatait, illetve véleményét ismerhetjük meg. Végül pedig a „legizgalmasabb” témát, a városrendezés terén elhangzott hozzászólásait tárgyaljuk. Meglepő, hogy néhány, városképileg igen meghatározó épület létrejöttében vagy megépült formájuknak kialakításában is szerepe volt. Például az új tőzsdepalota kezdeményezését és Szabadság térre helyezését két másik építész (Hauszmann Alajos és Quittner Zsigmond) mellett ő kezdeményezte. A piaristák Duna-korzón álló épületének megjelenésére is hatással volt. Freund az igen jelentős építészeti életművén kívül a szakmapolitikai tevékenységével is figyelemre méltót alkotott Budapesten.Vilmos Freund (1846–1920) was a prominent Hungarian architect who lived during the period of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. He was a student of Gottfried Semper. The majority of the buildings by Freund were built in Budapest. His most preferred style was the Italian Neo-Renaissance. From about 1891 he had an architectural political carrier too. After 1900 he radically reduced the number of his designing work. This study is written about his work in the Metropolitan Commission of Public Architecture (Fővárosi Középítési Bizottmány). His speeches in this commission survived until today as word-by-word recordings published in the old bulletins. The first chapter deals with his speeches in relation to practical, technological affairs for example the paving of the roads of Budapest. He reported his opinion of the designs by other architects, this is the topic of the second chapter. Finally, we can read about his speeches about the great city planning actions. It is interesting that several buildings of Budapest were constructed because he and a few of his colleges initiated them.

In the early twentieth century, Thomas Ashby published extensively on the Roman roads of Italy. The BSR Director was determined to create a lasting record of the ancient Roman road network before it was lost forever. Yet Ashby's research vision was grand and it was too ambitious a task for one man to accomplish on his own. This paper investigates the crucial role of BSR scholars in Ashby's research. It discusses his relationship with the community of residents and scholars at the BSR in the pre- and post-World War I years, especially those with whom he collaborated in order to survey, map and record the Roman roads and their surrounding countryside. Focus is given to Ashby's research on roads like the Via Flaminia and Via Appia as this work highlights his methodology, the collegial environment at the BSR during his directorship, and his successful collaboration with award-holders. To date, the role of these BSR scholars has largely been underrated. Yet there were BSR award-holders — historians, archaeologists and architects — who helped to keep Ashby's research vision alive. Without them, he could not have produced such a comprehensive and impressive body of work on Italy's Roman roads.

Abstract Promoting “mass entrepreneurship and innovation” in the context of the new norm of the Internet era is the inescapable trend of the moment. In order to provide the atmosphere and circumstances for innovation and creation education in educational institutions, this study first investigates the application of curricular ideology and politics in innovation and creative education. This is primarily expressed in the leading of innovation and creation education ideals. The set of data on college students’ innovation and entrepreneurial is then pre-processed in accordance with the hierarchical analysis method to obtain the data judgment matrix, and when combined with the fuzzy detailed evaluation method, a science-based system of college students’ innovation and creation education quality assessment model system is created. The initial data set was obtained through a sample survey, and the specific analysis of the connotation traits and interaction between innovation and creation education and ideological and political education of colleges and universities was conducted by using hierarchical analysis. The results show that the reliability coefficient is 0.926 with good reliability, and the validity KMO is 0.946 and passes the signature verification. Ideologic and political theory courses, daily ideologic and political education and self-efficacy were significantly and positively correlated at the level of 0.01. This study is a joint effort to endorse the deepening of innovation and the creation of education reform in higher education. This has a significant historical impact on cultivating socialist architects and successors with thorough moral, intellectual, physical, and artistic development.

“As the old technologies become automatic and invisible, we find ourselves more concerned with fighting or embracing what’s new”—Dennis Baron, From Pencils to Pixels: The Stage of Literacy Technologies What constitutes a computer, as we have come to expect it? Are they necessarily monolithic “beige boxes”, connected to computer monitors, sitting on computer desks, located in computer rooms or computer labs? In order for a device to be considered a true computer, does it need to have a keyboard and mouse? If this were 1991 or earlier, our collective perception of what computers are and are not would largely be framed by this “beige box” model: computers are stationary, slab-like, and heavy, and their natural habitats must be in rooms specifically designated for that purpose. In 1992, when Apple introduced the first PowerBook, our perception began to change. Certainly there had been other portable computers prior to that, such as the Osborne 1, but these were more luggable than portable, weighing just slightly less than a typical sewing machine. The PowerBook and subsequent waves of laptops, personal digital assistants (PDAs), and so-called smart phones from numerous other companies have steadily forced us to rethink and redefine what a computer is and is not, how we interact with them, and the manner in which these tools might be used in the classroom. However, this reconceptualization of computers is far from over, and is in fact steadily evolving as new devices are introduced, adopted, and subsequently adapted for uses beyond of their original purpose. Pat Crowe’s Book Reader project, for example, has morphed Nintendo’s GameBoy and GameBoy Advance into a viable electronic book platform, complete with images, sound, and multi-language support. (Crowe, 2003) His goal was to take this existing technology previously framed only within the context of proprietary adolescent entertainment, and repurpose it for open, flexible uses typically associated with learning and literacy. Similar efforts are underway to repurpose Microsoft’s Xbox, perhaps the ultimate symbol of “closed” technology given Microsoft’s propensity for proprietary code, in order to make it a viable platform for Open Source Software (OSS). However, these efforts are not forgone conclusions, and are in fact typical of the ongoing battle over who controls the technology we own in our homes, and how open source solutions are often at odds with a largely proprietary world. In late 2001, Microsoft launched the Xbox with a multimillion dollar publicity drive featuring events, commercials, live models, and statements claiming this new console gaming platform would “change video games the way MTV changed music”. (Chan, 2001) The Xbox launched with the following technical specifications: 733mhz Pentium III 64mb RAM, 8 or 10gb internal hard disk drive CD/DVD ROM drive (speed unknown) Nvidia graphics processor, with HDTV support 4 USB 1.1 ports (adapter required), AC3 audio 10/100 ethernet port, Optional 56k modem (TechTV, 2001) While current computers dwarf these specifications in virtually all areas now, for 2001 these were roughly on par with many desktop systems. The retail price at the time was $299, but steadily dropped to nearly half that with additional price cuts anticipated. Based on these features, the preponderance of “off the shelf” parts and components used, and the relatively reasonable price, numerous programmers quickly became interested in seeing it if was possible to run Linux and additional OSS on the Xbox. In each case, the goal has been similar: exceed the original purpose of the Xbox, to determine if and how well it might be used for basic computing tasks. If these attempts prove to be successful, the Xbox could allow institutions to dramatically increase the student-to-computer ratio in select environments, or allow individuals who could not otherwise afford a computer to instead buy and Xbox, download and install Linux, and use this new device to write, create, and innovate . This drive to literally and metaphorically “open” the Xbox comes from many directions. Such efforts include Andrew Huang’s self-published “Hacking the Xbox” book in which, under the auspices of reverse engineering, Huang analyzes the architecture of the Xbox, detailing step-by-step instructions for flashing the ROM, upgrading the hard drive and/or RAM, and generally prepping the device for use as an information appliance. Additional initiatives include Lindows CEO Michael Robertson’s $200,000 prize to encourage Linux development on the Xbox, and the Xbox Linux Project at SourceForge. What is Linux? Linux is an alternative operating system initially developed in 1991 by Linus Benedict Torvalds. Linux was based off a derivative of the MINIX operating system, which in turn was a derivative of UNIX. (Hasan 2003) Linux is currently available for Intel-based systems that would normally run versions of Windows, PowerPC-based systems that would normally run Apple’s Mac OS, and a host of other handheld, cell phone, or so-called “embedded” systems. Linux distributions are based almost exclusively on open source software, graphic user interfaces, and middleware components. While there are commercial Linux distributions available, these mainly just package the freely available operating system with bundled technical support, manuals, some exclusive or proprietary commercial applications, and related services. Anyone can still download and install numerous Linux distributions at no cost, provided they do not need technical support beyond the community / enthusiast level. Typical Linux distributions come with open source web browsers, word processors and related productivity applications (such as those found in OpenOffice.org), and related tools for accessing email, organizing schedules and contacts, etc. Certain Linux distributions are more or less designed for network administrators, system engineers, and similar “power users” somewhat distanced from that of our students. However, several distributions including Lycoris, Mandrake, LindowsOS, and other are specifically tailored as regular, desktop operating systems, with regular, everyday computer users in mind. As Linux has no draconian “product activation key” method of authentication, or digital rights management-laden features associated with installation and implementation on typical desktop and laptop systems, Linux is becoming an ideal choice both individually and institutionally. It still faces an uphill battle in terms of achieving widespread acceptance as a desktop operating system. As Finnie points out in Desktop Linux Edges Into The Mainstream: “to attract users, you need ease of installation, ease of device configuration, and intuitive, full-featured desktop user controls. It’s all coming, but slowly. With each new version, desktop Linux comes closer to entering the mainstream. It’s anyone’s guess as to when critical mass will be reached, but you can feel the inevitability: There’s pent-up demand for something different.” (Finnie 2003) Linux is already spreading rapidly in numerous capacities, in numerous countries. Linux has “taken hold wherever computer users desire freedom, and wherever there is demand for inexpensive software.” Reports from technology research company IDG indicate that roughly a third of computers in Central and South America run Linux. Several countries, including Mexico, Brazil, and Argentina, have all but mandated that state-owned institutions adopt open source software whenever possible to “give their people the tools and education to compete with the rest of the world.” (Hills 2001) The Goal Less than a year after Microsoft introduced the The Xbox, the Xbox Linux project formed. The Xbox Linux Project has a goal of developing and distributing Linux for the Xbox gaming console, “so that it can be used for many tasks that Microsoft don’t want you to be able to do. ...as a desktop computer, for email and browsing the web from your TV, as a (web) server” (Xbox Linux Project 2002). Since the Linux operating system is open source, meaning it can freely be tinkered with and distributed, those who opt to download and install Linux on their Xbox can do so with relatively little overhead in terms of cost or time. Additionally, Linux itself looks very “windows-like”, making for fairly low learning curve. To help increase overall awareness of this project and assist in diffusing it, the Xbox Linux Project offers step-by-step installation instructions, with the end result being a system capable of using common peripherals such as a keyboard and mouse, scanner, printer, a “webcam and a DVD burner, connected to a VGA monitor; 100% compatible with a standard Linux PC, all PC (USB) hardware and PC software that works with Linux.” (Xbox Linux Project 2002) Such a system could have tremendous potential for technology literacy. Pairing an Xbox with Linux and OpenOffice.org, for example, would provide our students essentially the same capability any of them would expect from a regular desktop computer. They could send and receive email, communicate using instant messaging IRC, or newsgroup clients, and browse Internet sites just as they normally would. In fact, the overall browsing experience for Linux users is substantially better than that for most Windows users. Internet Explorer, the default browser on all systems running Windows-base operating systems, lacks basic features standard in virtually all competing browsers. Native blocking of “pop-up” advertisements is still not yet possible in Internet Explorer without the aid of a third-party utility. Tabbed browsing, which involves the ability to easily open and sort through multiple Web pages in the same window, often with a single mouse click, is also missing from Internet Explorer. The same can be said for a robust download manager, “find as you type”, and a variety of additional features. Mozilla, Netscape, Firefox, Konqueror, and essentially all other OSS browsers for Linux have these features. Of course, most of these browsers are also available for Windows, but Internet Explorer is still considered the standard browser for the platform. If the Xbox Linux Project becomes widely diffused, our students could edit and save Microsoft Word files in OpenOffice.org’s Writer program, and do the same with PowerPoint and Excel files in similar OpenOffice.org components. They could access instructor comments originally created in Microsoft Word documents, and in turn could add their own comments and send the documents back to their instructors. They could even perform many functions not yet capable in Microsoft Office, including saving files in PDF or Flash format without needing Adobe’s Acrobat product or Macromedia’s Flash Studio MX. Additionally, by way of this project, the Xbox can also serve as “a Linux server for HTTP/FTP/SMB/NFS, serving data such as MP3/MPEG4/DivX, or a router, or both; without a monitor or keyboard or mouse connected.” (Xbox Linux Project 2003) In a very real sense, our students could use these inexpensive systems previously framed only within the context of entertainment, for educational purposes typically associated with computer-mediated learning. Problems: Control and Access The existing rhetoric of technological control surrounding current and emerging technologies appears to be stifling many of these efforts before they can even be brought to the public. This rhetoric of control is largely typified by overly-restrictive digital rights management (DRM) schemes antithetical to education, and the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA). Combined,both are currently being used as technical and legal clubs against these efforts. Microsoft, for example, has taken a dim view of any efforts to adapt the Xbox to Linux. Microsoft CEO Steve Ballmer, who has repeatedly referred to Linux as a cancer and has equated OSS as being un-American, stated, “Given the way the economic model works - and that is a subsidy followed, essentially, by fees for every piece of software sold - our license framework has to do that.” (Becker 2003) Since the Xbox is based on a subsidy model, meaning that Microsoft actually sells the hardware at a loss and instead generates revenue off software sales, Ballmer launched a series of concerted legal attacks against the Xbox Linux Project and similar efforts. In 2002, Nintendo, Sony, and Microsoft simultaneously sued Lik Sang, Inc., a Hong Kong-based company that produces programmable cartridges and “mod chips” for the PlayStation II, Xbox, and Game Cube. Nintendo states that its company alone loses over $650 million each year due to piracy of their console gaming titles, which typically originate in China, Paraguay, and Mexico. (GameIndustry.biz) Currently, many attempts to “mod” the Xbox required the use of such chips. As Lik Sang is one of the only suppliers, initial efforts to adapt the Xbox to Linux slowed considerably. Despite that fact that such chips can still be ordered and shipped here by less conventional means, it does not change that fact that the chips themselves would be illegal in the U.S. due to the anticircumvention clause in the DMCA itself, which is designed specifically to protect any DRM-wrapped content, regardless of context. The Xbox Linux Project then attempted to get Microsoft to officially sanction their efforts. They were not only rebuffed, but Microsoft then opted to hire programmers specifically to create technological countermeasures for the Xbox, to defeat additional attempts at installing OSS on it. Undeterred, the Xbox Linux Project eventually arrived at a method of installing and booting Linux without the use of mod chips, and have taken a more defiant tone now with Microsoft regarding their circumvention efforts. (Lettice 2002) They state that “Microsoft does not want you to use the Xbox as a Linux computer, therefore it has some anti-Linux-protection built in, but it can be circumvented easily, so that an Xbox can be used as what it is: an IBM PC.” (Xbox Linux Project 2003) Problems: Learning Curves and Usability In spite of the difficulties imposed by the combined technological and legal attacks on this project, it has succeeded at infiltrating this closed system with OSS. It has done so beyond the mere prototype level, too, as evidenced by the Xbox Linux Project now having both complete, step-by-step instructions available for users to modify their own Xbox systems, and an alternate plan catering to those who have the interest in modifying their systems, but not the time or technical inclinations. Specifically, this option involves users mailing their Xbox systems to community volunteers within the Xbox Linux Project, and basically having these volunteers perform the necessary software preparation or actually do the full Linux installation for them, free of charge (presumably not including shipping). This particular aspect of the project, dubbed “Users Help Users”, appears to be fairly new. Yet, it already lists over sixty volunteers capable and willing to perform this service, since “Many users don’t have the possibility, expertise or hardware” to perform these modifications. Amazingly enough, in some cases these volunteers are barely out of junior high school. One such volunteer stipulates that those seeking his assistance keep in mind that he is “just 14” and that when performing these modifications he “...will not always be finished by the next day”. (Steil 2003) In addition to this interesting if somewhat unusual level of community-driven support, there are currently several Linux-based options available for the Xbox. The two that are perhaps the most developed are GentooX, which is based of the popular Gentoo Linux distribution, and Ed’s Debian, based off the Debian GNU / Linux distribution. Both Gentoo and Debian are “seasoned” distributions that have been available for some time now, though Daniel Robbins, Chief Architect of Gentoo, refers to the product as actually being a “metadistribution” of Linux, due to its high degree of adaptability and configurability. (Gentoo 2004) Specifically, the Robbins asserts that Gentoo is capable of being “customized for just about any application or need. ...an ideal secure server, development workstation, professional desktop, gaming system, embedded solution or something else—whatever you need it to be.” (Robbins 2004) He further states that the whole point of Gentoo is to provide a better, more usable Linux experience than that found in many other distributions. Robbins states that: “The goal of Gentoo is to design tools and systems that allow a user to do their work pleasantly and efficiently as possible, as they see fit. Our tools should be a joy to use, and should help the user to appreciate the richness of the Linux and free software community, and the flexibility of free software. ...Put another way, the Gentoo philosophy is to create better tools. When a tool is doing its job perfectly, you might not even be very aware of its presence, because it does not interfere and make its presence known, nor does it force you to interact with it when you don’t want it to. The tool serves the user rather than the user serving the tool.” (Robbins 2004) There is also a so-called “live CD” Linux distribution suitable for the Xbox, called dyne:bolic, and an in-progress release of Slackware Linux, as well. According to the Xbox Linux Project, the only difference between the standard releases of these distributions and their Xbox counterparts is that “...the install process – and naturally the bootloader, the kernel and the kernel modules – are all customized for the Xbox.” (Xbox Linux Project, 2003) Of course, even if Gentoo is as user-friendly as Robbins purports, even if the Linux kernel itself has become significantly more robust and efficient, and even if Microsoft again drops the retail price of the Xbox, is this really a feasible solution in the classroom? Does the Xbox Linux Project have an army of 14 year olds willing to modify dozens, perhaps hundreds of these systems for use in secondary schools and higher education? Of course not. If such an institutional rollout were to be undertaken, it would require significant support from not only faculty, but Department Chairs, Deans, IT staff, and quite possible Chief Information Officers. Disk images would need to be customized for each institution to reflect their respective needs, ranging from setting specific home pages on web browsers, to bookmarks, to custom back-up and / or disk re-imaging scripts, to network authentication. This would be no small task. Yet, the steps mentioned above are essentially no different than what would be required of any IT staff when creating a new disk image for a computer lab, be it one for a Windows-based system or a Mac OS X-based one. The primary difference would be Linux itself—nothing more, nothing less. The institutional difficulties in undertaking such an effort would likely be encountered prior to even purchasing a single Xbox, in that they would involve the same difficulties associated with any new hardware or software initiative: staffing, budget, and support. If the institutional in question is either unwilling or unable to address these three factors, it would not matter if the Xbox itself was as free as Linux. An Open Future, or a Closed one? It is unclear how far the Xbox Linux Project will be allowed to go in their efforts to invade an essentially a proprietary system with OSS. Unlike Sony, which has made deliberate steps to commercialize similar efforts for their PlayStation 2 console, Microsoft appears resolute in fighting OSS on the Xbox by any means necessary. They will continue to crack down on any companies selling so-called mod chips, and will continue to employ technological protections to keep the Xbox “closed”. Despite clear evidence to the contrary, in all likelihood Microsoft continue to equate any OSS efforts directed at the Xbox with piracy-related motivations. Additionally, Microsoft’s successor to the Xbox would likely include additional anticircumvention technologies incorporated into it that could set the Xbox Linux Project back by months, years, or could stop it cold. Of course, it is difficult to say with any degree of certainty how this “Xbox 2” (perhaps a more appropriate name might be “Nextbox”) will impact this project. Regardless of how this device evolves, there can be little doubt of the value of Linux, OpenOffice.org, and other OSS to teaching and learning with technology. This value exists not only in terms of price, but in increased freedom from policies and technologies of control. New Linux distributions from Gentoo, Mandrake, Lycoris, Lindows, and other companies are just now starting to focus their efforts on Linux as user-friendly, easy to use desktop operating systems, rather than just server or “techno-geek” environments suitable for advanced programmers and computer operators. While metaphorically opening the Xbox may not be for everyone, and may not be a suitable computing solution for all, I believe we as educators must promote and encourage such efforts whenever possible. I suggest this because I believe we need to exercise our professional influence and ultimately shape the future of technology literacy, either individually as faculty and collectively as departments, colleges, or institutions. Moran and Fitzsimmons-Hunter argue this very point in Writing Teachers, Schools, Access, and Change. One of their fundamental provisions they use to define “access” asserts that there must be a willingness for teachers and students to “fight for the technologies that they need to pursue their goals for their own teaching and learning.” (Taylor / Ward 160) Regardless of whether or not this debate is grounded in the “beige boxes” of the past, or the Xboxes of the present, much is at stake. Private corporations should not be in a position to control the manner in which we use legally-purchased technologies, regardless of whether or not these technologies are then repurposed for literacy uses. I believe the exigency associated with this control, and the ongoing evolution of what is and is not a computer, dictates that we assert ourselves more actively into this discussion. We must take steps to provide our students with the best possible computer-mediated learning experience, however seemingly unorthodox the technological means might be, so that they may think critically, communicate effectively, and participate actively in society and in their future careers. About the Author Paul Cesarini is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Visual Communication & Technology Education, Bowling Green State University, Ohio Email: pcesari@bgnet.bgsu.edu Works Cited http://xbox-linux.sourceforge.net/docs/debian.php>.Baron, Denis. “From Pencils to Pixels: The Stages of Literacy Technologies.” Passions Pedagogies and 21st Century Technologies. Hawisher, Gail E., and Cynthia L. Selfe, Eds. Utah: Utah State University Press, 1999. 15 – 33. Becker, David. “Ballmer: Mod Chips Threaten Xbox”. News.com. 21 Oct 2002. http://news.com.com/2100-1040-962797.php>. http://news.com.com/2100-1040-978957.html?tag=nl>. http://archive.infoworld.com/articles/hn/xml/02/08/13/020813hnchina.xml>. http://www.neoseeker.com/news/story/1062/>. http://www.bookreader.co.uk>.Finni, Scott. “Desktop Linux Edges Into The Mainstream”. TechWeb. 8 Apr 2003. http://www.techweb.com/tech/software/20030408_software. http://www.theregister.co.uk/content/archive/29439.html http://gentoox.shallax.com/. http://ragib.hypermart.net/linux/. http://www.itworld.com/Comp/2362/LWD010424latinlinux/pfindex.html. http://www.xbox-linux.sourceforge.net. http://www.theregister.co.uk/content/archive/27487.html. http://www.theregister.co.uk/content/archive/26078.html. http://www.us.playstation.com/peripherals.aspx?id=SCPH-97047. http://www.techtv.com/extendedplay/reviews/story/0,24330,3356862,00.html. http://www.wired.com/news/business/0,1367,61984,00.html. http://www.gentoo.org/main/en/about.xml http://www.gentoo.org/main/en/philosophy.xml http://techupdate.zdnet.com/techupdate/stories/main/0,14179,2869075,00.html. http://xbox-linux.sourceforge.net/docs/usershelpusers.html http://www.cnn.com/2002/TECH/fun.games/12/16/gamers.liksang/. Citation reference for this article MLA Style Cesarini, Paul. "“Opening” the Xbox" M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture <http://www.media-culture.org.au/0406/08_Cesarini.php>. APA Style Cesarini, P. (2004, Jul1). “Opening” the Xbox. M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture, 7, <http://www.media-culture.org.au/0406/08_Cesarini.php>