Teses / dissertações sobre o tema "Animals – economic aspects"

Thesis (MPhil)--University of Stellenbosch, 2011.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The main aim of this case study was to research the impact of the introduction of oxen for draught power on Eric Swarts’ Stellenbosch farm. The research objectives were designed to find out if the oxen helped to improve the quality of the soil, to determine their cost-effectiveness (compared to a tractor) and other social and managerial constraints and benefits associated with using them and also to make recommendations for small-scale farmers in developing countries. The literature review revealed that human society faces many serious sustainability challenges from ecosystem degradation and global warming, to massive poverty and social inequality. The global population is growing against a background of decreasing agricultural productivity due to degraded soils and the increased costs of farming. The adoption of farming methods that enhance ecosystem services and depend less on external inputs is therefore essential. Animal traction is still widely used among small-scale farmers in developing countries, but lacks policy and investment support to make it more efficient. There are currently widespread negative opinions about animal traction which regard it as a backward or old-fashioned technology. This research investigated the possibility of animal traction emerging as an affordable, environmentallyfriendly and appropriate technology for small-scale farming. The research is a case study with a qualitative, ethnographic research design in which participant observation was key in gathering research data. A cost-benefit analysis (CBA) was carried out to compare the cost-effectiveness of using oxen to either hiring or buying a tractor. The findings showed that oxen were a more cost-effective means of draught power than a tractor, not only in terms of capital costs but also maintenance and operational costs. The manure from the oxen was both an effective way of supplying crops with essential nutrients and improving soil biodiversity. The introduction of the oxen presented some challenges to the farmer concerning knowledge about how animals work and other managerial challenges, but these were overcome by learning through practice. It was found that the farmer will be able to make significant savings in soil-amendment costs and he can control the quality of the manure to suit his needs. It was concluded that small-scale farmers who choose animal traction over tractors as a means of draught power will realise many advantages in return.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die hoof doelwit van dié gevallestudie was om die impak van die ingebruikneming van osse as trekkrag op Eric Swarts se plaas te Stellenbosch na te vors. Die navorsingsteikens was ontwerp om uit te vind of die beeste gehelp het om die kwaliteit van die grond te verbeter, om hul lonendheid vas te stel (in vergelyking met ’n trekker) asook ander sosiale en bestuursbeperkings en -voordele wat met hul gebruik geassosieer word en ook met voorstelle vir kleinskaalboere in ontwikkelende lande voorendag te kom. Die literatuuroorsig navorsing het ontbloot dat die menslike samelewing met vele volhoubaarheidsuitdagings vanaf ekosistemiese agteruitgang en aardverhitting, tot swaar armoedigheid en sosiale ongelykhede gekonfronteer word. Die wêreld bevolking groei steeds ten spyte van die afname in landboukundige produktiwiteit as gevolg van verlaagde grondkwaliteit en die toenemende landboukoste. Die ingebruikneming van landboumetodes wat ekosistemiese dienste verhoog en minder staatmaak op eksterne insette is dus noodsaaklik. Dieretrekking word steeds algemeen in ontwikkelende landebenut, maar dit ontbreek beleids- en beggingsondersteuning om dit meer doeltreffend te maak. Daar is tans algemeen verbreide negatiewe sienswyse oor dieretrekksag wat dit as agterlike en oudmodiese tegnologie beskou. Dié navorsing het ondersoek ingestel om die moontlikheid van dieretrekking as ’n bekostigbare, omgewingsvriendelike en passende tegnologie vir kleinskaalboerdery vas te stel. Die navorsing is’n gevallestudie met kwalitatiwe, etnografiese navorsingsontwerp waarin deelnemerwaarneming kern is tot die insameling van data. ’n Kostewinsteanalise (KWA) was uitgevoer om die lonenheid van beeste te vergelyk met dié van of die huur of die koop van ’n trekker. Die bevindings het getoon dat beeste ’n lonender wyse van trekkrag as trekkers is, nie net in terme van kapitale koste nie, maar ook onderhouds en bedryfskoste. Die beesmis was beide ’n doeltreffende manier om die gevasse van nodige voedingstowwe te voorsien asook om grondbiodiversiteit te verbeter. Die ingebruikneming van beeste het sekere uitdagings vir die boere ingehou in verband met die kennis van hoe diere werk en ander bestuursuitdagings, maar dié was oorkom deur onderrig uit ondervinding. Daar was bevind dat die boer beduidende besparings kan maak aan grondaanvullingskoste hierdie jaar en dat hy die kwaliteit van die beesmis kan beheer om sy behoeftes dien. Die slotsom is dat kleinskaalboere wat kies om dieretrekking eerder as trekkers as trekkrag te gebruik, sal vele voordele hê.

Agriculture is still the main stay of the Burmese economy and the livestock sub-sector is an integral part of the agricultural sector. Use of draught cattle , which is the main source of power , is significantly related to the intensity of cultivation. Livestock are maintained by small farmers as part of mixed farming , in this way these two sectors are complementary and inter-dependent. The main objective of this study is to examine the aspects of the cattle economy of Burma since independence and the consequences of State policy in this field. Much has been done in the agricultural sector since independence, especially beginning from the early 1960s and effects have started to become noticeable since the late 1970s. The livestock sector is targeted to increase at an average annual growth rate of 5.34 percent in net value of output (at constant 1969-70 prices) during the Twenty - Year Plan (1974-75 to 1993-94). However, actual growth rate during the first decade (1974 - 75 to 1983 - 84 ) was 4.49 percent , less than the desired rate . Growth of agriculture has been substantial and growth in numbes of draught cattle though higher in recent decades than in the past is still not sufficient , because of the dispersion of land among the peasants. During the past decade, as the rate of expansion draught cattle was faster than that of total sown area, average sown area per yoke has been declining. Percapita consumption of meat is fairly low and percapita consumption of milk is very low, in fact lowest in the Asian region. To improve the situation, the State has been encouraging individuals and organizations to take up and or improve animal rearing for milk production. A milk processing plant is being established with Australian aid. Recent policy initiatives (since the late 1970s) and establishment of a separate Ministry of Livestock Breeding and Fisheries (in 1983) including initiatives like livestock insurance and loan schemes, the milk processing plant and improved breeding programmes should help to improve performance of the sector. Due to constraints of data availability this study has been restricted to an overall view of the sector°s performance . Periodic indepth studies of the sector (with appropriate data base) will help in identification of bottlenecks and formulation of appropriate corrective policy.

Includes bibliographical references (leaves 246-280) and index. Deals with the domestication of the goat and the history of the cashmere industry; investigates fibre physiology and production in general; and gives a detailed account of skin histology and fibre production of goats with particular reference to the cashmere-bearing animal; followed by research related to cashmere fibre production

The broad objective of the study was to determine the socio-economic importance, health and welfare aspects of donkeys used for carting in a peri-urban area. A survey was conducted among 71 donkey owners in Joza, a peri-urban area near Grahamstown in the Eastern Cape Province (ECP) of South Africa to investigate their perceptions on socio-economic importance, health and welfare aspects of donkeys used for transport. Two hundred and seventy-one donkeys used for carting were assessed through direct observation of health and behaviour parameters to determine their welfare status. Results revealed that donkeys are indeed of immense value to people, being used daily (54.93%) for income generation activities and at least once per month (7.08%) for domestic chores. Most of the respondents (32%) earned R 600.00 per week while 11% earned at least R 200.00 per week from carting using donkeys. Donkeys were used for carting of goods (90.14%) more than for manure (16.9%). Gender and age of owners significantly (P < 0.05) influence perceptions on source of income while education level influenced their perceptions on carting firewood, goods and water. Results on management practices and health problems encountered by working donkeys showed that most of the owners managed their animals poorly. Most donkeys were being beaten (74.65%) during work, made to travel long distances (43.66%), worked long hours (52.11%) without adequate water (59.10%) and feed supplements (83.10%). Wounds (95.97%), coughing (75.65%) and lameness (64.79%) were some of the health problems encountered by donkeys. Significant relationships (P ˂ 0.05) were observed between owners’ perceptions on management practices and health problems encountered by donkeys. Among the observed animals, 61% were thin and mostly apathetic (26.2%) than medium and fat animals. Responses to observer approaches were significantly associated with sex and body condition score (BCS), with stallions in good body condition being more aggressive. Donkeys having a BCS of 3-5 avoided chin contact either by kicking out or moving away. Results further showed that most of the donkeys were suffering from external injuries, with the hindquarters (39.85%), shoulder (32.10%) and spine (21.77%) being the mostly affected areas. The prevalence of wounds on tail-base, belly, flank and neck were seen in less than 13% of the animals. The prevalence of wounds was influenced by age and BCS of the animals. Young donkeys with good BCS were less affected than old donkeys. Lameness, poor coat condition, external parasites, abnormal mucous membrane and dental problems were observed in less than 30% of the animals. It was concluded that donkeys play a pivotal role economically and socially to the livelihoods of people in a peri-urban area (Joza) in terms of income generation and transportation. However, these animals are experiencing multiple health and welfare problems. Therefore, more access to veterinary services, training on donkey use and management, health and welfare promotion programs are of paramount importance in solving the problem of poor health and welfare in donkeys.

Il dibattito sullo sviluppo delle culture dell’età del Bronzo nel territorio dell’Emilia-Romagna sta portando una rinnovata attenzione sull’area romagnola. Le indagini si sono concentrate sull’area compresa tra il fiume Panaro e il Mare Adriatico, riconoscibile nell’odierna Romagna ed in parte della bassa pianura emiliana. Si trattava un territorio strategico, un vero e proprio crocevia socio-economico fra la cultura terramaricola e quelle centro italiche di Grotta Nuova. La presente ricerca di dottorato ha portato alla ricostruzione dei sistemi di gestione e di sfruttamento delle risorse animali in Emilia-Romagna durante l’Età del Bronzo, con particolare attenzione alla definizione della capacità portante ambientale dei diversi territori indagati e delle loro modalità di sfruttamento in relazione alla razionalizzazione della pratiche di allevamento. Sono state studiate in dettaglio le filiere di trasformazione dei prodotti animali primari e secondari definendo, quindi, i caratteri delle paleoeconomie locali nel processo di evoluzione della Romagna durante l’età del Bronzo. La ricerca si è basata sullo studio archeozoologico completo su 13 siti recentemente indagati, distribuiti nelle provincie di: Bologna, Ferrara, Ravenna, Forlì/Cesena e Rimini, e su una revisione completa delle evidenze archeozoologiche prodotte da studi pregressi. Le analisi non si sono limitate al riconoscimento delle specie, ma hanno teso all’individuazione ed alla valutazione di parametri complessi per ricostruire le strategie di abbattimento e le tecniche di sfruttamento e macellazione dei diversi gruppi animali. E’ stato possibile, quindi, valutare il peso ecologico di mandrie e greggi sul territorio e l’impatto economico ed ecologico di un allevamento sempre più sistematico e razionale, sia dal punto di vista dell’organizzazione territoriale degli insediamenti, sia per quanto riguarda le ripercussioni sulla gestione delle risorse agricole ed ambientali in generale.
The debate about the development of Bronze Age cultures in the Emilia-Romagna region (Italy) is leading to a renewed attention for Romagna. Research has focused on the area between the Panaro River and the Adriatic Sea, corresponding to present-day Romagna and southeastern Emilia provinces. It was a strategic area, an actual socio-economic crossroads between terramare culture and the Grotta Nuova cultures of central Italy. This doctoral research led to the reconstruction of the management and exploitation systems of animal resources in Emilia-Romagna during the Bronze Age, with a particular focus on the definition of the environmental carrying capacity of the different regions and on their exploitation methods for a rationalization of farming practices. The processing chains of primary and secondary products have been studied in detail, in order to define the character of local paleoeconomies within the evolution of the Romagna during Bronze Age. The research is based on the complete zooarchaeological study of 13 sites recently investigated, located in the provinces of Bologna, Ferrara, Ravenna, Forlì / Cesena and Rimini, and on the comprehensive reappraisal of the archaeological evidence produced by previous studies. Analyses have not been limited to the identification of the different species, but have aimed to the identification and the evaluation of complex parameters, in order to reconstruct the killing strategies and the techniques of exploitation and slaughtering of the different animal groups. The research allowed the evaluation of the impact of herds and flocks on the local environments and the economic and ecological impact of a more systematic and rational farming, for both the spatial organization of the settlements and for the consequence on the management of agricultural and environmental resources.

Il dibattito sullo sviluppo delle culture dell’età del Bronzo nel territorio dell’Emilia-Romagna sta portando una rinnovata attenzione sull’area romagnola. Le indagini si sono concentrate sull’area compresa tra il fiume Panaro e il Mare Adriatico, riconoscibile nell’odierna Romagna ed in parte della bassa pianura emiliana. Si trattava un territorio strategico, un vero e proprio crocevia socio-economico fra la cultura terramaricola e quelle centro italiche di Grotta Nuova. La presente ricerca di dottorato ha portato alla ricostruzione dei sistemi di gestione e di sfruttamento delle risorse animali in Emilia-Romagna durante l’Età del Bronzo, con particolare attenzione alla definizione della capacità portante ambientale dei diversi territori indagati e delle loro modalità di sfruttamento in relazione alla razionalizzazione della pratiche di allevamento. Sono state studiate in dettaglio le filiere di trasformazione dei prodotti animali primari e secondari definendo, quindi, i caratteri delle paleoeconomie locali nel processo di evoluzione della Romagna durante l’età del Bronzo. La ricerca si è basata sullo studio archeozoologico completo su 13 siti recentemente indagati, distribuiti nelle provincie di: Bologna, Ferrara, Ravenna, Forlì/Cesena e Rimini, e su una revisione completa delle evidenze archeozoologiche prodotte da studi pregressi. Le analisi non si sono limitate al riconoscimento delle specie, ma hanno teso all’individuazione ed alla valutazione di parametri complessi per ricostruire le strategie di abbattimento e le tecniche di sfruttamento e macellazione dei diversi gruppi animali. E’ stato possibile, quindi, valutare il peso ecologico di mandrie e greggi sul territorio e l’impatto economico ed ecologico di un allevamento sempre più sistematico e razionale, sia dal punto di vista dell’organizzazione territoriale degli insediamenti, sia per quanto riguarda le ripercussioni sulla gestione delle risorse agricole ed ambientali in generale.
The debate about the development of Bronze Age cultures in the Emilia-Romagna region (Italy) is leading to a renewed attention for Romagna. Research has focused on the area between the Panaro River and the Adriatic Sea, corresponding to present-day Romagna and southeastern Emilia provinces. It was a strategic area, an actual socio-economic crossroads between terramare culture and the Grotta Nuova cultures of central Italy. This doctoral research led to the reconstruction of the management and exploitation systems of animal resources in Emilia-Romagna during the Bronze Age, with a particular focus on the definition of the environmental carrying capacity of the different regions and on their exploitation methods for a rationalization of farming practices. The processing chains of primary and secondary products have been studied in detail, in order to define the character of local paleoeconomies within the evolution of the Romagna during Bronze Age. The research is based on the complete zooarchaeological study of 13 sites recently investigated, located in the provinces of Bologna, Ferrara, Ravenna, Forlì / Cesena and Rimini, and on the comprehensive reappraisal of the archaeological evidence produced by previous studies. Analyses have not been limited to the identification of the different species, but have aimed to the identification and the evaluation of complex parameters, in order to reconstruct the killing strategies and the techniques of exploitation and slaughtering of the different animal groups. The research allowed the evaluation of the impact of herds and flocks on the local environments and the economic and ecological impact of a more systematic and rational farming, for both the spatial organization of the settlements and for the consequence on the management of agricultural and environmental resources.

In central Mexico's semi-arid highlands, mesquite (Prosopis spp.) pods are utilized for food and livestock feed. In 1975, a union of 53 rural communities opened a storage and processing facility for mesquite pods. A study of the operation and the regional collection, sales, and use of mesquite was conducted to evaluate the industry's potential. Twenty-six communities were visited, and formal interviews were held with 35 subsistence farmers, 12 mesquite feed dealers, eight large-scale ranchers, and members of the mesquite union. The effect of climatic factors on mesquite pod harvests was analyzed. The study examined opportunity costs for land and labor and the costs and returns of improvements to the operation. The mesquite facility has increased income production for rural farmers and provided a local source of nutritious livestock feed. Potential improvements to the industry include pest control, production of mixed feeds, improved management, and marketing. Similar operations could succeed in areas with dense mesquite woodlands, a history of pod collection and use, and a need for seasonal income production.

Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Centro de Ciências Agrárias. Programa de Pós-Graduação em Agroecossistemas
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Esta dissertação teve como cenário um momento bastante marcante da economia brasileira, especialmente no setor rural. O País vivendo sob uma política de estabilização inflacionária, calcada principalmente na estabilidade da moeda e do preço dos produtos agrícolas; e no processo de globalização, que abre as fronteiras para os produtos externos, prejudicando as exportações, em virtude do custo da moeda nacional, equiparada com o dólar norte-americano. Neste quadro, nem um pouco favorável a investimentos, duas empresas avícolas do Estado lançam-se num processo de expansão da produção, levando consigo centenas de pequenos proprietários rurais, localizados na região Sul e Grande Florianópolis, no Estado de Santa Catarina. O objeto desta pesquisa foi a relação contratual entre as partes, num processo que envolve, ainda, o setor público, nas três esferas de governo, sociedade civil, seja ela local ou regional, técnicos envolvidos, empresas de prestação de serviço, entre tantos agentes. Atenção especial foi dada aos componentes passivos da cadeia, verificando a preocupação com o manejo das aves, seja pela densidade ou automação dos galinheiros, ou os resultados que a atividade provoca ao meio-ambiente. Medidas de controle dos dejetos da atividade, como, por exemplo, o processo de compostagem de carcaças. O que pudemos verificar, no contato com os produtores a que tivemos acesso, é que a atividade passa a oferecer uma alternativa de renda às pequenas propriedades, envolvendo-os num mercado muito maior do que eles, que cresce proporcionalmente ao aumento da população. Do outro lado, o grau de exigências adotado pelas empresas, visando a contratação dos novos parceiros, varia em função das condições sócio-econômicas de cada região e das oscilações e perspectivas do mercado. Num enfoque que não se enquadra na pesquisa cartesiana e laboratorial, procuramos observar a atividade dentro de um contexto interdisciplinar, o que resultou numa "colcha de retalhos". Era o risco e o desafio que a pesquisa apresentava.

The main millennium development goal is to eradicate extreme poverty and hunger in the world by 2015. South Africa is one of the countries that signed this pledge at the millennium summit in 2000. The Department of Agriculture, has initiated a number of projects to assist farmers and communities with reaching this goal. In the Northern Cape, the commercialization of goats is one such anchor project. The major activities of this project is to train farmers in applied and appropriate production practices, assist them with accessing markets and supporting them with improved livestock. The main aim of this research was to evaluate whether the project has achieved its outcome and whether this outcome, is having an impact on the livelihoods of the farmers involved in the project. After reviewing the literature on evaluation research and programme evaluation across time, the different paradigms and approaches, participatory methodology was used in this study. A case study approach was applied to evaluate the outcomes and effects of the training received by farmers, as part of the commercialization of goats programme. The results of the study proved that the training received by members of the Campbell Agricultural Co-operative Enterprises, changed their goat production practices. The training also had a secondary impact. Trained farmers were imparting (technology transfer) their acquired knowledge to other members of the co-operative. This appeared very effective as all members of the cooperative were farming more scientifically. These changes to the production practices had a positive impact on the livelihoods of the farmers, as their animals were of a better quality and they were able to sell their animals at different markets and for better prices. This has however not commercialized their farming operations as they are still faced with many challenges. These challenges are the lack of a proper marketing structure, access to financial assistance, proper infrastructure and adequate transport for the animals to mention a few. If the Department of Agriculture and Land Affairs is serious about assisting these farmers to move from the status of “emerging farmer” to “commercial farmer” they will have to look at addressing the problems experienced with financial access and access to adequate and appropriate transport.

La tesis doctoral presenta un recorrido que va de lo particular a lo general en el que se parte de un interés -motivado por la vinculación personal con el objeto de estudio- en desentrañar las dificultades a las que se enfrentan las granjas familiares agropecuarias en Galicia para poder continuar dedicándose a la ganadería y a la agricultura, que desembocan en ocasiones en la desaparición de las propias explotaciones El punto de partida es intentar entender cuales son las características de estas explotaciones familiares, observar qué lugar ocupan dentro de la economía capitalista y qué contradicciones y ambigüedades pueden surgir desde ese lugar o desde las distintas esferas (de mercado, de la economía campesina o “tradicional”) en las que se enmarcan (Chayanov 1974) (Friedmann 1980) (Bernstein 1986) (Harrison 1979) (Iturra 1988) . A partir de este análisis, el interés se centra en observar ciertas contradicciones en torno a las relaciones económicas presentes en el contexto de las explotaciones gallegas, que dificultan el proceso productivo hasta el punto en ocasiones del desmantelamiento. Avanzando en esta idea surge la dimensión de la sostenibilidad, y se observa cómo la tensión que se produce entre los tres aspectos relevantes de la sostenibilidad - económica, social y medioambiental- es una cuestión que también dificulta el proceso productivo de estas granjas y su resiliencia. La perspectiva histórica surge como central para observar cómo este desarrollo en el que el proceso productivo se complica se gesta en un proceso de subordinación a las relaciones de producción capitalista. Para comprender este proceso ha sido fundamental el concepto de régimen alimentario (Friedmann 1989, 2016) (McMichael 1989, 2009, 2016), un análisis del sistema alimentario global en el que se pone de manifiesto tanto relaciones de poder como contradicciones clave generadoras de distintas crisis y transformaciones en la producción global y supranacional de alimentos. También tienen relevancia procesos a nivel nacional y regional que son analizados – desde el periodo de autarquía del régimen franquista hasta la actualidad- principalmente a través de dos hitos históricos como la Revolución Verde y la entrada en la Unión Europea. Ambos procesos son generadores de importantes cambios, conflictos y contradicciones en el marco de estas explotaciones familiares. Un concepto clave para entender todo el proceso que interesa observar es el concepto de precio justo. Tiene una importancia central porque es la principal reivindicación de estas ganaderas y ganaderos, y el elemento que estas personas entienden como capital e indispensable para poder subsistir y para poder continuar realizando su trabajo. Es decir, para lograr reproducir su familia y mantener una vida digna. El análisis llevado a cabo, ha permitido observar dos cuestiones relevantes: Por un lado la aparente dicotomía mercado/sociedad o valor de mercado/valor social, que si se observa en profundidad parece mostrar que estos elementos no son completamente estancos, existe entre ambos una considerable ambigüedad, un elemento y otro se solapan constantemente. Se pone de manifiesto que las prácticas y la realidad son mucho más complejas. Por otro lado destaca la constante sensación entre los miembros de estas explotaciones de “sentirse atrapados” (tanto en un sentido material como ideológico y moral) entre el mercado y el anhelo de conseguir alcanzar un nivel de vida que les permita cierto bienestar, pero sobre todo poder mantener su medio y modo de vida en el rural, en definitiva, poder continuar siendo ganaderas y ganaderos. El concepto de precio justo aparece aquí, como el elemento central que les permite expresar esta percepción. La complejidad y ambigüedad entre la dimensión del mercado y la esfera social que se ha revelado en el análisis, así como la posición del campesinado como permeable y no estanca, con prácticas carentes de una lógica completamente unitaria, se presentan como elementos esenciales para tener en cuenta en el análisis de las contradicciones presentes en las prácticas económicas. Esto es particularmente relevante en las situaciones –como la que se analiza-en la que estas contradicciones dificultan el proceso productivo dificultando la continuidad de un medio de vida.
This research aims to unravel the many difficulties and problems that family farms in Galicia are facing in order to maintain their livelihood, which hinges on a combination of livestock farming and agriculture. This livelihood is at risk of disappearing, threatening the future of these farms. I try to understand the characteristics of these family farms and to unveil their place within a capitalist economy. To do this, this work explores the contradictions and ambiguities that emerge vis-à-vis the various spheres of relations wherein these farms operate (market, peasant or traditional economies), while paying particular attention to several contradictions around the economic relations that structure these Galician exploitations, which hamper their productive process to a point that, in many occasions, they are forced to close down. I examine two main issues in relation to these phenomena. On the one hand, there appears to be a dichotomy between market and society or market value and social value which, if explored in detail, seems to suggest that both elements are dynamic and encompass certain ambiguities and even some overlaps. This reveals that the actual practices of these farmers are more complex that it might seem at first sight. On the other hand, there is also a rather common feeling among members of these farms of “being trapped” (in a material, ideological and moral sense) between the market and the desire of a good life: a level of life that provides wellness and allows them to maintain their environment and lifestyle. In other words, a life that allows them to continue being farmers. There are two concepts that are central to my analysis of these different issues. The first one is the idea of sustainability and particularly the tensions between three relevant dimensions of sustainability: economic, social and environmental. These tensions render more complex and complicated the productive process of these farms and their resilience. The other key concept is the just price, which is the main demand of these farmers and the element that they consider centerpiece to subsist and maintain their livelihood; in other words, the key to the reproduction of their families and households and to having a decent life.

The research problem of this mini-dissertation involves the conflicts between human and wildlife populations and the trialing of ‘compensation’ payouts that are emerging as a critical test within the conservancy. Crop raiders such as elephants, buffaloes, hippopotamus, bush pigs and small rodents, diminish farmers’ resource bases and cash crops, while carnivores are responsible for livestock losses. The aim of the research is to assess the level of community understanding of the compensation scheme and the impact of human wildlife interaction within the conservancy. This mini-dissertation investigated the level of community understanding about the Human Animal Conservancy Self-Insurance Scheme (HACSIS), and the impact of human-wildlife conflicts within the Kwandu Conservancy. Some of the research data were obtained from the conservancy game guards’ event book system, and the actual field research data were collected from the 1st August to 20th August 2006. The researcher conducted a total of 35 interviews, whereby 32 involved face-to-face interviews with single individuals, and 3 separate focus group discussions that consisted of four, five and two conservancy members. The interviews averaged 30 minutes in length. Each interview was preceded by a careful explanation of the purposes of the work, stressing that the intent was to evaluate their understanding and perceptions on HACSIS, the impact of human-wildlife conflicts and to explore better management strategies. The researcher has taken into account that the communities might exaggerate the wildlife problem based on his previous experience with the adjacent conservancy, in the hopes of gaining more compensation – they also use the researcher as a way to vent their frustration at the problem. On the assumption that there may be an element of exaggeration verification of these was obtained from the Event Book System (a manual book used by the Community Game Guards for recording both crops and livestock incidents on daily basis). This mini-dissertation reveals that 74.3 % (n = 26) of respondents are aware of the existence of the HACSIS program and its role, while 17.1 % of respondents had no idea about the scheme’s presence and its involvement to minimize the impact felt by communities when they lose livestock to predators. The percentage of respondents who claimed that they had heard of the scheme’s existence but had no knowledge of its role was 8.6 %. In addition, most respondents (n = 15) claimed that the conservancy committee did not explain to them why their claim forms were rejected. In contrast, some respondents (n = 6) did received feedback on rejected claim forms. HACSIS was not formed to compensate livestock losses based on market value, nor was it intended as a ‘compensation’ scheme. Its aim was to test a conservancy-run process – local verification of claims and monitoring by conservancy committee and traditional authority. In addition, the authorization of payments for a type of ‘self-insurance’ is drawn from conservancy income to partially offset the losses of conservancy members versus the overall gains that wildlife brings to the conservancy (direct conservancy income and local jobs through tourism, trophy hunting, own use game harvesting). Conservancy committees and the support NGO, IRDNC, agreed on the amount to be refunded for animal losses before the scheme was started, initially using donor funding in the trial phases. The amount was deliberately kept low as it was acknowledged from the start that conservancies themselves would take over the repayments from their own income. Once the conservancy was used to its own income to finance the scheme, conservancy members could vote to increase amounts paid for predator losses. The crucial aspect, according to IRDNC, was that the process itself be tested and that the scheme be run by the conservancy, with Ministry of Environment and Tourism and IRDNC merely monitoring and providing assistance as needed. Compensation is based on this pre-determined amount that is less than the livestock value. However, the research reveals that respondents (n = 19) were dissatisfied with the amount paid (N$ 800-00 per ox killed), because they claim that the amount paid to relieve the immediate impact from wildlife is too little to sustain the affected member. In contrast, some respondents (n = 8) were satisfied with the amount paid as compensation. Despite criticisms about the amount paid for livestock losses, none of the respondents (n = 22) who were familiar with the scheme wanted it to be abolished. The respondents emphasized the need for the conservancy committee to review the amount paid as compensation, especially for cattle. They suggested an increase from the current N$ 800-00 to N$ 1000-00 per ox loss. The research reveals that community livestock management practices have not changed to deliberately benefit from the compensation. In fact community management strategies have improved because of the condition set by the review committee dealing with the compensation scheme. Wildlife incidents have increased because animals are habituated to techniques used by communities to deter them and this has contributed to high livestock incidents. For human-wildlife conflicts, the research acknowledges that the conflict exists. Between 2003-2005, the Kwandu Conservancy reported 1508 incidents of damage to crops by wildlife. Species that were responsible included elephants with 30.2 % damage, bush pigs (29.8 %), hippopotamus (12.7%), antelopes (12.7 %), porcupine (7.5 %), and baboons/monkeys (7.2 %). Most of the crops destroyed by crop raiders, as suggested by the respondents, were maize (30 %), sorghum (26 %), millet (17 %), groundnuts (14 %), pumpkins (8 %) and beans (5%). During the same period of crop losses, the conservancy reported 98 livestock incidents. Animals responsible for livestock incidents were crocodile with 32 incidents (32.7 %), then hyena (23 incidents, 23.5 %), leopard (22 incidents, 22.4 %) and lion (21 incidents, 21.4%). The role of community game guards was found to be extensive. From a total 35 responses, 74.3 % (n = 26) of members stated that community game guards effectively record incidents, chased problem-causing animals from the community crop fields by shouting or shooting in the air, and assessed or verified killed livestock for compensation purposes. In addition, community game guards conduct crop assessment for record-keeping purposes. The scheme for crop compensation is to be introduced in 2007. Currently there is no proper formula to use in assessing the value of crops and the method to use to compensate the affected members. Other methods used by communities to deter wildlife include sleeping in the field to guard crops, cracking a whip, construction of human statues, hanging tins on the fence, chilli coils, watchtowers and digging trenches. Respondents had different views on the best management practices for problem-causing animals. The response was generally based on the degree of threat that the animal posed. Most (43.8 %, n = 14) preferred the monitoring of problem-causing animals that are sighted in an area as a best practice, while 40.6 % (n = 13) of respondents preferred the animal to be captured and relocated to parks. Only 25.6 % (n = 5) of respondents preferred that the animal be destroyed. The management practices preferred by respondents when an animal kills a person are different from when an animal is simply sighted in the area. If an animal kills a person, only 12.5 % (n = 4) of respondents preferred that the animal be captured and relocated to parks, while 87.5 % (n = 28) of respondents preferred the problem-causing animal to be destroyed. None of the respondents suggested monitoring as the best management option for this degree of threat. In conclusion, the research revealed that Human Animal Conservancy Self Insurance Scheme does not treat the cause of the problem but the symptom. This approach does not decrease the level of the problem given that the cause of the problem is not addressed. Therefore, the researcher stressed the need to fully explore and implement the recent piloted lion, crocodile fencing, and elephant proof fencing and elephants chilli coil to address and reduce the problem within Kwandu Conservancy. In addition, the research revealed that the scheme has very lengthy delays before compensation is paid and the review panel does not arrange meetings on the stipulated dates. This causes a back-log in the number of claims that need to be reviewed and approved. On Human Wildlife Conflict the research findings recommend the need to strengthen and improve existing problem-causing animal management strategies that are in place. Innovative strategies include reducing the number of stray livestock at night and developing static fences. Communities should be advised, as is being done by IRDNC, to herd their livestock during the day and to build strong kraals. This is the most effective and cheapest way to prevent livestock from being taken by predators at night. Further more the research revealed that the combination and rotation of the methods yield high success rather than deploying a single method over a long period, for the prevention of crop losses methods include guarding the crop field, cracking a whip, shooting in the air, watchtowers, human statues and beating drums.
Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2006.

In 1993 and 1994 total, there were 247 people reported to have been bitten by animals in Benton County, Oregon. Of the 243 biting animals, 70 percent were dogs, 25 percent cats, and 5 percent other animals such as ferrets, mice, rats, bats, and skunks. Fifty-four percent of all bites occurred in Corvallis, a district of Benton County that contains 62 percent of Benton County's population. Over 50 percent of the animal bites were reported to the Benton County Health Department by local medical centers treating the wounds and by the local police department. Of the 247 animal bites investigated, 79 percent of the animals were quarantined. The average time for a health department official to investigate a bite was estimated to be 0.52 hours/bite and the average cost was $39/bite. The average cost of investigating animal bites was estimated to be $4789 per year (1.2 percent of the Environmental Health Division's total direct expenditures).
Graduation date: 1996

The production of forage in British Columbia plays and integral role in sustaining livestock herds within the province. Forage is an important component in the daily feed requirements of horses, sheep, and cattle. Fluctuations in the availability of forage due to drought or bad weather conditions can impose considerable costs on farmers who raise livestock. Wide—spread drought conditions can significantly limit the availability of forage crops within certain regions, causing prices within those regions to become inflated. Under standard insurance in British Columbia, farmers are only insured against shortfalls in production; there is no compensation provided against increases in the price of forage. For those purchasing forage, a Wide—Spread Drought (WSD) insurance scheme would provide insurance against the price—risk associated with drastic weather conditions. However, since forage prices are required to operate such a policy and are non—observable, a mechanism is needed in order to estimate them. A regional spatial price—equilibrium model which relates regional prices to regional production is developed in this thesis. The model will eventually be used to predict prices and hence determine whether a particular region is eligible for a payout under the WSD insurance scheme. A key assumption behind the model is that according to the ‘Law of One Price’; prices are perfectly arbitraged. In a competitive setting, in which agents maximize individual welfare, total welfare is maximized and prices between regions will not differ by more than the transportation costs. This spatial price—equilibrium model is applied to British Columbia forage production. The regions incorporated in the study include the Peace River, Central Interior, Cariboo—Chilcotin, Thompson—Okanagan, and Kootenay Regions. The Lower Mainland/Fraser Valley and Vancouver Island are excluded as they do not typically fall under the forage crop insurance plan in British Columbia.

This study presents a production function analysis of fresh milk producers in the Highlands of Eritrea for the year 2002, dealing with the most important factors of production. Most dairy farmers are located in the Central Zone and Southern Zone (Mendefera and Dekemhare) areas of the Highlands of Eritrea. To ensure representative production functions, the Highlands of Eritrea were divided into three respectively homogenous study areas, namely Central Zone, Mendefera and Dekemhare. Most data for this study were collected by survey using a questionnaire, as dairy farms' recorded data were scarce. The annual milk yield record and purchased concentrates per farmer were obtained from their respective milk collecting centres and Dairy Associations belonging to each study area. Basically, an attempt was made to pool the data of the three study areas, using dummy variables to test if the three study areas' regressions have a common intercept and a common slope. However, from the analysis, the intercept and slope dummy coefficients for the pooled data were found to be statistically significant at the 1 % and 5% levels of probability. Thus, it was not economically as well as statistically practical to pool the three areas' data to determine a common function that represents the sample dairy farmers of the Highlands of Eritrea as a whole. For this reason, a separate analysis was conducted for each study area. The analysis used the Cobb-Douglas function (double-log) form using multiple regressions. However, while analysing the data using ordinary least squares (OLS) regressions, strong intercorrelations were encountered among some factors of production. These intercorrelations resulted in some of the parameters having negative production coefficients where, a priori, all such coefficients are assumed to be non-negative. Thus, to tackle the multicollinearity problem, a ridge regression technique was used at different levels of the biasing constant, c, where the regression coefficients in the ridge trace start to stabilize and the variance inflation factor (VIF) of each parameter and the average of the VIFs are close to one. The final fitted model includes those variables, which were significant at the 1 % and 5% levels of probability. However, for the Mendefera study area those variables significant at 10% level of probability were included as their t-statistic values were considerably greater than one and nearly significant at the 5% level of probability. From the regression coefficients of the final fitted model for each study area, the elasticities of production with respect to the factors of production, ceteris paribus, were estimated. The highest response in production to a one percent change, ceteris paribus, is due to milking cows followed by concentrates and labour for the Central Zone Dairy farmers . However, for the Southern Zone (Mendefera and Dekemhare) the highest response next to milking cows came from forage and labour. The regression coefficients of all the factors of production in each study area were greater than zero and less than one, implying rational use of the resources. However, the sum of the elasticities of production was found to be greater than one for each area of production, indicating increasing returns to scale. Components of the production function and cost calculations including marginal product (MP), values of marginal product (VMP), marginal rate of substitution (MRS), least-cost combinations of inputs, profit maximizing combinations of inputs and the short-run cost functions for each category within the sample of dairy farmers in each study area were estimated. All the VMP's of the resources for the Central Zone dairy farmers were found to be greater than the corresponding unit price of the resources. This implies that the resources are utilized inadequately. However, for the Southern Zone (Mendefera and Dekemhare) the variable concentrates is over-utilized, as the VMP is less than the unit price of the input. The marginal rate of substitution of concentrates for forage, ceteris paribus, showed that the Central Zone sample dairy farmers were utilizing the two resources almost equally. But for the Southern Zone sample dairy farmers the MRS of the mentioned resources showed a higher dependence on concentrates than forage. From the least-cost combination of concentrates and forage analysis it was found that none of the sample of dairy farmers was allocating resources on a least-cost basis. The profit maximizing combination of inputs showed generally a considerable improvement of milk yield and margins for all the sample of dairy farmers relative to the present situations. However, the profit maximizing criteria (i.e. VMPx = Px), assumes perfect knowledge, a risk free environment and competitive marketing systems. This has to be considered when advising sample farmers as to the optimal combination of concentrates and forage. The short-run cost function also indicates use of resources at below optimum levels. When the average variable cost of the resources is less than the unit price of output, then use of the resources is in the rational area of production. Based on the analysis of the three study areas, the average variable cost of the lower one-third group of sample dairy farmers of the Southern Zone was found to be greater than the unit price of output. This means that the farmers were not covering the short-run costs of production. The MC of concentrates for the lower one-third group of sample dairy farmers was found to be greater than the price per litre of fresh milk in the Southern Zone. This implies more than optimum use of the input (i.e. where MC = Py).
Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2004.