Artigos de revistas sobre o tema "Aerial photography in submarine geology"

AbstractMorphological changes in bedforms composing a tidal delta at the northern entrance to Moreton Bay, Queensland have been studied by examining aerial photographs spanning a 26-year time period. The aerial photographs show the movements of 51 different sand-bank crestlines, and the morphological characteristics of both sand banks and sandwaves. From the orientation of sandwave crests to the sand-bank crestlines, zones of ebb- and flood-dominance in sand-transport direction are distinguished. The migration directions of the sand banks are predicted by considering the cross-sectional asymmetry of the sand banks together with their adjacent ebb/flood zones of net sand transport. The reliability of the predictions is tested by comparisons with sequential air photo data. When applied to 53 bedforms, the predictions achieved a high success rate, with 45 predicted migration directions matching those observed on the sequential aerial photographs. Bedform movement can be predicted, therefore, for any water depths in which submarine bedforms can be clearly seen on aerial photographs (< 10 m).Based upon their mobility, sand banks are classified into three categories: dynamic sand banks, which change quickly (within 2 years) and which have migration rates that are non-uniform along the bank crestline; progressive sand banks, which change slowly (from 2–10 years) and have migration rates that are uniform along their crestlines; and immobile sand banks, which change only over time intervals which exceed 10 years. Changes in sand-bank morphology occur by migration of the crestline together with growth and decay, and are considered to be linked with changes of larger ebb- and flood-dominant zones of net sand transport. The three different sand-bank types are characterized by distinctive heights, crestline lengths and wavelengths. They occur in different locations within Moreton Bay, possibly related to distance from external sand supplies and to relative tidal current and surface wave energy levels.

The aim of this work is to study the Turka quarry using terrestrial laser scanning, as well as to build a 3D model of the object. Method. The study of the outcrop was carried out with terrestrial laser scanning. The article describes the principles of operation of laser sensors and provides a classification of error sources. It also emphasizes the importance of achieving the maximum accuracy specified by scanner manufacturers. The location of the researched object. The studied quarry is located on the northern outskirts of the city of Turka, Lviv region. From the geological point of view, the object is situated in the Outer Ukrainian Carpathians that belong to the Carpathian mountain system. The inactive quarry is structurally confined to the north-western part of the Krosno nappe of the Ukrainian Carpathians. The characteristic Turka (Krosno) type of cross-section of the Oligocene-Miocene age is exposed in the walls of the quarry. This is a layering of massive packs of gray fine-grained sandstones with argillites and siltstones which are broken with joints. The joints are filled with longitudinal, transverse and differently oriented veins. They are often wedged out. Their thickness ranges from a few mm to 55 mm or more. Slickensides and leaching are observed along the cracks. The research results make it possible to analyze the geological structure without being directly near the object. The paper provides a workflow diagram of the terrestrial scanning workflow. This includes object reconnaissance, establishing and determining the coordinates of reference and control points. It also involves performing terrestrial 3D scanning, photographing an object, creating a cloud of points based on laser scanning data, developing a mash model based on point clouds and digital images. The accuracy of the mash model was defined by comparison of the coordinates of the control points obtained from the mash model and tacheometric survey. The absolute spatial difference does not exceed five centimeters. The scientific novelty and practical significance are in the creation of a virtual model of the Turka quarry. For the first time, terrestrial laser scanning technology was used for the research of this object. As a result, a 3D model was obtained, which can be used for further research in the field of geology, in particular structural geology, sedimentology, mineral reserve calculations and geotourism.

AbstractThe University of Surrey is situated on the northern slopes of Stag Hill, below Guildford Cathedral, which occupies the summit. During the investigation for the design of the University, it became apparent that the site was underlain by a large landslip, 500 m wide from east to west and extending 160 m from rear scarp to toe. Considerable effort was made to establish its geometry and extent (Skempton & Petley (1967), and Morgenstern & Tchalenko (1967)).In recent years it was realised that because the construction of the Cathedral extended over a long period of time, the likelihood of Stag Hill being covered by oblique aerial photography would be high. Some forty oblique aerial photographs, spanning the period 1949 to 1982, were collected and analysed together with vertical aerial photographs and topographic maps.Although the landslip is visible on vertical aerial photographs, individual elements are not easily identified. Using oblique photography, in particular that in which recognition of subdued topography has been enhanced by low sun angles, up to six phases of landslipping were identified.This paper uses this example to demonstrate the usefulness of aerial photography in site investigation and in particular the value of oblique photography, a topic which receives little attention in BS 5930:1981 considering how cost effective this tool can be.

On 26 December 2004, the eastern part of the Indian Ocean was hit by a tremendous tsunami created by a submarine earthquake of magnitude 9.1 on the Richter scale off the west coast of Sumatra. The tsunami also reached the western part of the Indian Ocean, including the coastal areas of eastern Africa. Along the coast of Kenya (Figs 1, 2) it resulted in a sudden increase in water level comparable to a high tide situation. This rather limited consequence was partly due to the great distance to the epicentre of the earthquake, and partly due to the low tide at the time of the impact. Hence the reefs that fringe two thirds of the coastline reduced the energy of the tsunami waves and protected the coastal areas. During the spring of 2005, staff members from the Geo- logical Survey of Denmark and Greenland (GEUS) carried out field work related to the project KenSea – development of a sensitivity atlas for coastal areas of Kenya (Tychsen 2006; Tychsen et al. 2006). Local fishermen and authorities often asked what would have been the effect if the tsunami had hit the coastal area during a high tide, and to answer the question GEUS and the Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute (KMFRI) initiated a tsunami damage projection project. The aim was to provide an important tool for contingency planning by national and local authorities in the implementation of a national early warning strategy. The tsunami damage projection project used the database of coastal resources – KenSeaBase – that was developed during the KenSea project. The topographical maps of Kenya at a scale of 1:50 000 have 20 m contour lines, which is insufficient for the tsunami run-up simulation modelling undertaken by the new tsunami project. Therefore new sets of aerial photographs were obtained, and new photogrammetric maps with contour lines with an equidistance of 1 m were drawn for a 6–8 km broad coastal zone. The tsunami modelling is based on the assumption that the height of a future tsunami wave would be comparable with the one that reached the coastal area of Kenya in December 2004. Based on the regional geology of the Indian Ocean, it appears that the epicentre for a possible future earthquake that could lead to a new tsunami would most likely be situated in the eastern part of the ocean. Furthermore, based on a seismological assessment it has been estimated that the largest tsunami that can be expected to reach eastern Africa would have a 50% larger amplitude than the 2004 tsunami.It was therefore decided to carry out the simulation modelling with a tsunami wave similar to that of the 2004 event, but with the wave reaching the coast at the highest astronomical tide (scenario 1) and a worst case with a 50% larger amplitude (scenario 2: Fig. 3). The 2004 tsunami documented that the coastal belt of mangrove swamps provided some protection to the coastline by reducing the energy of the tsunami. Hence we included in this study a scenario 3 (Fig. 4), in which the mangrove areas along the coastline were removed. Maps for the three scenarios have been produced and show the areas that would be flooded, the degree of flooding, and the distribution of buildings such as schools and hospitals in the flooded areas. In addition, the force and velocity of the wave were calculated (COWI 2006).

AbstractThis paper outlines selected remote sensing techniques and their application to civil engineering surveys.In BS 5930, emphasis has been placed on the interpretation of black and white aerial photography to provide information. However, other techniques such as true colour and false colour infrared photography, thermal infrared, radar and landsat satellite imagery may be useful in appropriate applications.

The task to assess rock mass jointing are currently usually solved in manual mode, which requires high qualification of the specialists and considerable time expenditures. Automation of such tasks is important in terms of reducing the time of image processing and obtaining additional information on the geomechanical state of the rock mass. The article discusses the possibilities of using computer vision and artificial intelligence technologies to assess jointing of the rock mass. For this purpose, aerial photography data obtained using unmanned aerial vehicles are used. The images are processed with the software developed by the authors, which performs tracing of the joints based on a neural network of a dedicated architecture. The results of processing aerial photography data are presented using the cases of coal strip mines in Kuzbass and open-pit mines of the Kola Peninsula. The use of neural network in processing of the aerial survey data of the rock masses has shown the promising potential of the method. After processing the data of tracing the jointing fields, it becomes possible to monitor the behavior of the rock mass by using the visualization tools for additional fields of characteristics, which allow to assess the nature of changes occurring under anthropogenic loads. The developed algorithms make it possible to significantly accelerate the processes of aerial survey data processing to assess the structural disturbance of the rock mass.

Aerial drone photography of an active pit within a sand and gravel quarry in DeSoto County, Mississippi, was conducted to better understand the Upland Complex, which is a high-level Pliocene terrace of the Mississippi River. The Upland Complex is of great interest economically, as it is the primary source of sand and gravel for Memphis, Tennessee and the surrounding region. The pit dimensions were approximately 820 ft (250 m) by 655 ft (200 m) and 79-ft (24 m) deep upon completion of the mining. Eight 3-D models of the pit were made at different times to illustrate the mining progression. Oblique and horizontal stereo aerial photography of the highwalls was conducted to produce 3-D models and high-resolution photomosaics of the highwalls for geologic mapping and interpretation. The mapped highwall geology included Pliocene Mississippi River bars consisting of sand, sand and gravel, and gravel ranging in thickness from 2 ft (0.6 m) to 32.8 ft (10 m), with variable cross-bed dip directions suggesting a meandering river environment of deposition. Pleistocene loess overlies the Pliocene sediment. The highwalls also revealed northerly-striking late Pliocene or Pleistocene tectonic folding, faulting, and probable earthquake liquefaction in northwestern Mississippi, where no Pliocene or Quaternary tectonic deformation had previously been reported. This study demonstrated Drone aerial photography as a quick, low cost, and safe means to study poorly accessible open-pit mining and to help understand the geology of the lower Mississippi River Valley.

AbstractSystematic, large-scale, aerial photography is now available for many areas of the exposed coalfields. In West Yorkshire 1:10000 or 1:10 560 scale cover is generally available, supplemented by 1:5000 and 1:3000 cover in more limited areas. Examination of aerial photographs, in conjunction with detailed geological mapping, has identified characteristic ground patterns associated with the existence of former shallow workings. These patterns are interpreted in terms of changes of style of mining with increasing depth.The presence of shallow mine workings is a major constraint on planning in areas of exposed coalfield. The examination of large scale aerial photographs offers a rapid reconnaissance method of identifying such workings.

The present work aims to evaluate the coastal dynamics along the Peró beach over the last 7,000 years, using shell-midden dating, sediment granulometric analysis, aerial photography from different ages, and field investigation to aid result interpretation and provide for clues on the adaptation of the methodology employed. Paleobeach reconstruction has been made possible by a combination of 14C age-dating and the interpretation of beach ridge disposition. Aerial photography from the years of 1959, 1976, and 2003 allow the evaluation of the present short-term coastline behavior, thus establishing the position of the paleobeach in relation to the current high-tide zone. Results indicate that the paleobeach situated in the present-day coastal plain dates from 3.373 - 3.000 cal A.P. Coastline variation in the 1959 - 1976 period consists of approximately 30m of accretion on its most significant point, while in the it eroded about 30m at the central beach sector during 1976 - 2003 period. In this context, results are considered satisfactory for the understanding of sedimentation dynamics at the Peró beach, in the city of Cabo Frio, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.

In this study, the objective or focal point is the number of reserves that have been mined and how to calculate the volume mined using the Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) method. In the evaluation of the volume mined using the UAV approach in Tumiyang village, Kebasen sub-district, Banyumas regency, Central Java province, this research was conducted using qualitative and quantitative methods related to the characteristics and modeling of sediment distribution from prospect block exploration. This research was conducted in the even semester of the 2020-2021 academic year, which is between October 2020 to March 2021. Based on the results of the study, it can be concluded that the data collection process using the UAV method requires a short time and complete initial information regarding the condition of the research area is very important for success. aerial photography data collection. The data obtained is aerial photo data and with supporting data such as topography and geology. Based on data processing, the mined volume obtained using supporting software is 32,313.55 m3, while the volume obtained when we calculate manually is 247,050.65 m3.

Following the devastating M7.2 earthquake that affected Haiti on 12 January 2010 two types of building damage assessment maps were produced: 1) area-based damage assessments using pre- and post-event satellite imagery and 2) detailed building-by-building damage assessments using post-event aerial photography. In this paper, we compare the reliability and the usability of area-based damage assessment maps from satellite imagery with respect to the detailed damage assessment from aerial data. The main objective is to better understand how cooperative rapid mapping can steer the more detailed assessments that are typical in determining postdisaster recovery and reconstruction efforts. The results of these experiments indicate that damage assessment maps based on satellite data are capable of capturing the damage pattern, mainly in areas with a high level of damaged and many collapsed structures. However, these maps cannot provide the level of information needed for the quantification of damage intensity.

AbstractOn the north shore of the St Lawrence Estuary (Québec, Canada), near the Betsiamites river delta, a large sub-aerial submarine landslide complex was mapped using multi-beam bathymetry and light detection and ranging (LiDAR) data. Previous analysis of this landslide complex revealed that, since 7250 cal years BP, at least four different landsliding events occurred to form the present morphology, in which over 2 km3 of material have been mobilized. The 7.25 cal ka BP landslide is of particular interest here: this landslide is entirely submarine and mobilized about 1.3 km3 of material, deposited over an area of 54 km2, which make this landslide the largest identified on the St Lawrence estuary seafloor. This landslide showed a runout distance of about 15 km. Landslide-generated tsunamis may be triggered by such a landslide, where a large volume of material is mobilized in a short time. Kinematic analysis of this landslide was previously performed, and here we use these analyses in order to perform tsunami wave generation and propagation modelling. It is shown in this analysis that, even if the mobilized volume is very high and there is a long runout, the tsunami generated is small with tsunami wave amplitudes of <1.5 m, except in the vicinity of the landslide. The highest tide elevation in this part of the St Lawrence Estuary is about 5.5 m, so the impact of such a tsunami wave may be limited.

Abstract Recent developments in image processing and digital photogrammetry offer to the geomorphologists increasingly accessible and effective tools for the spatio-temporal knowledge of landslides. These techniques were used to reconstitute the historical evolution of a complex flow slide occurring in the "Terres Noires" of the Barcelonnette basin. The lithological and morphological environment of the studied site is characteristic of the whole southern French Prealps where are largely present Jurassic marly formations. Six digital elevation models (D.E.M.) generated from stereoscopic couples of aerial photography, but also various ortho-images and perspective views, allow to follow the morphological evolution of the unstable slope since the years 1950's -- before the releasing of the landslide -- until our days. Besides multitemporal descriptions of the landscape and of the morphological processes occurred on this site, the implemented method appears particularly useful for the quantitative analysis of the instabilities. It appears notably as a powerful tool for the 3-D reconstruction of the landslide geometry and by the same occasion for the calculation of its volume.

Bayat, Klaten, Central Java, is one of three locations in Java with complete types of rocks exposed at the earth’s surface. All those rocks are scattered over a short distance in Bayat, revealing past processes of rock deformation (folding, fracturing, and faulting) and present-day processes of rock weathering and erosion. In this study, we present how clastic carbonate rock of the Oyo Formation at northern Jiwo Hills could be separated about ±15 km northern from its platforms as an indication of thrust fault growth. This study uses aerial photography for photogrammetry (drones) combined with structural geology and microfossil analyses (to know the exact formation) from the outcrop observation. Recent studies have certified that drones are one reliable observation tool in various aspects with better resolution, especially in structural geology studies. Aerial photogrammetry is very well done to see the exact condition of a wide area combined with high resolution on an outcrop scale. The result shows that the carbonate rocks are from Oyo Formation (N9–N11) with the Middle Neritic bathymetric zone. The structural geology phenomenon kinematically indicates the impact of the transpressional movement called flower structure. Based on subsurface interpretation, the authors hypothesize this area was the product of an imbrication thrust stack uplifted basement as the result of the thrust fault rather than horst or paleo-basement high.

AbstractGeomorphological mapping is a well established tool in terrain evaluation. A case record is presented in which high-oblique aerial photography from a light aircraft has been used for basic mapping of a 3 km length of coastline with the purpose of assessing relative landslide hazard.The cliffs at Budleigh Salterton, East Devon, are formed in a succession of Permo-Triassic mudstone, conglomerate and sandstone which dip gently eastwards along the coast. The coastline is divided into five units based on changes in the stratigraphic succession exposed in the cliff face; each unit correlating with distinctive geomorphological features and cliff profiles. Groundwater discharges, wave attack and weathering ensure that there is continuing geomorphological activity. This necessitates frequent updating of local hazard assessment.Overlapping aerial photographs of the cliff face have been taken at intervals during the past six years. With limited ground inspection these photographs provide adequate data for basic geomorphological mapping of the principal forms represented in the cliff. Successive series of photographs are used to follow the development of individual features and to identify the hazards present in each section of the cliff. Data from early Ordnance Survey maps, old photographs and personal reminiscences extend parts of the history of the coast back into the last century. The positions of landslides are controlled largely by geological and hydrological factors whereas the timing of events is often a function of external environmental triggering mechanisms such as weather, tide or waves.A classification of the relative hazard of cliff-top instability has been used to map hazard zones for the coastline. Together with the system of photographic data acquisition advocated, this provides a rapid and economic method to assist planning authorities in determining development strategy.

Abstract Mobility is an important element of landslide hazard and risk assessments yet has been seldom studied for shallow landslides and debris flows in tropical environments. In September 2017, Hurricane Maria triggered > 70,000 landslides across Puerto Rico. Using aerial imagery and a lidar digital elevation model (DEM), we mapped and characterized the mobility of debris slides and flows in four different geologic materials: (1) mudstone, siltstone, and sandstone; (2) submarine basalt and chert; (3) marine volcaniclastics; and (4) granodiorite. We used the ratio of landslide-fall height (H) to travel length (L), H/L, to assess the mobility of landslides in each material. Additionally, we differentiated between landslides with single and multiple source areas and landslides that either did or did not enter drainages. Overall, extreme rainfall contributed to the mobility of landslides during Hurricane Maria, and our results showed that the mobility of debris slides and flows in Puerto Rico increased linearly as a function of the number of source areas that coalesced. Additionally, landslides that entered drainages were more mobile than those that did not. We found that landslides in soils developed on marine volcaniclastics were the most mobile and landslides in soils on submarine basalt and chert were the least mobile. While landslides were generally small (< 100 m2) and displayed a wide range of H/L values (0.1–2), coalescence increased the mobility of landslides that transitioned to debris flows. The high but variable mobility of landslides that occurred during Hurricane Maria and the associated hazards highlight the importance of characterizing and understanding the factors influencing landslide mobility in Puerto Rico and other tropical environments.

This article provides a brief description of the expedition work conducted by the staff of the Institute of Volcanology and Seismology, FEBRAS, in the central part of the Eastern Volcanic belt of Kamchatka, and in the Kamchatka River valley in the Summer-Autumn of 2023. In order to study the conditions for the formation and discharge of thermal waters of large volcanic centers, to estimate the hydrothermal discharge of magmatic volatiles (primarily CO2), hydrochemical and gas testing was carried out on the thermal fields of the Kikhpinych and Bolshoi Semyachik volcanic massifs, and in the Uzon caldera. In parallel with geochemical sampling, aerial and infrared photography of thermal sites was carried out. To determine the degree of influence of volcanic and hydrothermal activity on the ion runoff into the Pacific Ocean, hydrochemical and hydrological works were carried out in the Kamchatka Riverv alley. A comprehensive study of unique alkaline cold springs was carried out in the Belaya River valley (Kamchatsky Peninsula). A large number of water and gas samples, sediments and mineral salts were collected for further analytical studies during the expedition works.

Side-looking, C-band synthetic-aperture radar (SAR) penetrates cloud and fog, and operates day or night, to produce pseudo-three-dimensional terrain images with enhanced topography and surface roughness. The images, which have a 20 m resolution and cover large areas, have been used to map the regional trends, patterns of lineaments, and terrain types over a 6200 km2 area of complex lithology, structure, and drift cover. Four lineament classes are differentiated. Glacial trends are clear, and bedrock structures (faults, fractures, joints, foliation, and folded bedding) with relief expression at the surface show through the drift as lineaments. They accurately reproduce most known features when compared with bedrock and Quatenary geology maps. Hitherto unrecognized structural elements are revealed. Tones and textures reflect minute surface roughness variations useful in terrain classification. SAR wide-swath-mode imagery is thus a valuable complement to aerial photography, and is superior in revealing hummocky moraine, ribbed moraine, boulder fields and stony till. Wider use of this imagery is encouraged.

On 27th November, 1939 Shell was awarded its first exploration concession in Australia. The initial holdings covered much of southern Queensland, including parts of the Eromanga, Surat and Bowen Basins. An exploration programme involving field geology, aerial photography, a gravity survey and shallow structural drilling preceded a 'deep test' in 1950, Morella-1, located in the Denison Trough near Springsure. In the course of the venture, Shell was responsible for the first effective application of several modern techniques to petroleum exploration in Australia, including geophysics, organic geochemistry and wireline logging. Although disappointing results led to relinquishment of this first area, Shell has continued to explore in Australia, initially through participation in the WAPET and North West Shelf consortia, and from 1962 in a series of other ventures throughout the country. The rewards, in terms of Shell equity reserves, total some 1.7 billion barrels of oil equivalent at an exploration cost since 1964 of 1.1 billion dollars (1988 equivalent value).

Preferential clearance of productive Acacia-dominated ecosystems was determined using digital land-system mapping and a 1994–1995 native vegetation remnant coverage from central Queensland. The previously mapped land systems are composed of complexes of land units, covering a range of productive potentials that are not individually mapped but defined according to their proportions within the land systems. Some land units were grouped into 11 ‘Acacia ecosystems’ composed of unique combinations of geology and vegetation dominated by brigalow (Acacia harpophylla F.Muell. ex Benth.), gidgee (A. cambagei R.T.Baker) or blackwood (A. argyrodendron Domin). Calculation of the remnant area of these Acacia ecosystems, assuming equal proportions of vegetation clearance of the land unit components within the land-system complexes (equal proportion calculation), was compared with a more accurate calculation based on interpretation of aerial photography (aerial-photograph calculation) data. The aerial photograph calculation of remnant area was 44% of the equal proportion calculation for brigalow on Tertiary clay and the ratio between these calculations was greater than 100% for only one Acacia ecosystem of relatively low production potential. The proportion of the remnant Acacia ecosystems relative to less productive ecosystems on tenures assigned to production (leasehold and freehold) was consistently lower than on other tenures. The use of mapping consisting of composite ecosystems with various production potentials for area-based assessment of vegetation clearance will overestimate the remnant areas of the relatively productive types unless a procedure such as that outlined here is used to correct for preferential clearance. This study provides near-complete and accurate data on the 1994–1995 status of Acacia ecosystems in central Queensland. Relative to their original area, values ranged from 6.8% for brigalow on Tertiary clay to 37.6% for gidgee–blackwood on alluvium.

Abstract —We present materials of aerial photography of Cape Rytyi, a unique and most mysterious place on the northwestern shore of Lake Baikal. Photogrammetric survey was carried out using a DJI Phantom 4 Pro V2.0 UAV and provided an orthophoto and a digital terrain model of an 11.074 km2 area. When deciphering the images obtained in the Rita River deltaic sediments composing the cape, surface ruptures trending north and northeast at 30–150 m from the shore of Lake Baikal were discovered. The ruptures are a clearly localized zone 2.9 km in total length. The performed analysis showed that the structural features of the zone obey the general laws of the development of faults resulted from prevailing extension. It has been established that the formation of the ruptures was predetermined by tectonics and is a secondary effect of resonant oscillations from the M = 5.2 earthquake of 08.13.1962, the epicenter of which was located ~35 km southeast of Cape Rytyi, in the Morskoi fault zone. The seismic event initiated the formation of surface ruptures, which led to a gravitational subsidence of coarse deposits of the fan in the shore zone. It is concluded that the development of modern geomorphologic forms in the peripheral part of the Rita River fan on land is similar to the formation of an underwater topography in the region of the Selenga River delta. It occurs under the influence of seismogenic rupturing and following gravitational movements, which intensify in a water-saturated environment and are subsequently complicated by erosion processes.

Abstract The Kheis Province is situated between the Namaqua-Natal Province and the western margin of the Kaapvaal Craton in the Northern Cape Province of South Africa. It has been described as a thin-skinned fold and thrust belt formed between 1800 and 1700 Ma. The lithostratigraphic subdivision of the rock units comprising the Kheis Province has been a source of much controversy. From detailed study of aerial photography and satellite imagery, as well as field-based studies, the outcrop patterns in the Kheis Province and Kaaien Terrane were reinterpreted and a new stratigraphic subdivision is outlined here. It is proposed that the structural Kaaien Terrane and Kheis Province should be combined into the Kheis Terrane and that the rocks occurring in the Kheis Terrane should be grouped together to form the new Keis supergroup, with the basal metaconglomerate of the Mapedi/Gamagara Formation recognised as the regional unconformity between the Keis supergroup and the underlying rocks of the Transvaal Supergroup in the Griqualand West area. The Keis supergroup is subdivided from the base upwards into the Elim-, Olifantshoek-, Groblershoop- and Wilgenhoutsdrif groups. The basal Elim group is composed of the Mapedi/Gamagara- and Lucknow formations. It is overlain with a regional erosional unconformity by the Olifantshoek group, which is made up of the Neylan-, Hartley-, Volop- and Top Dog formations. The Olifantshoek group is conformably overlain by the Groblershoop group which is comprised of three upward coarsening successions:the Faanshoek- and Faansgeluk formations,the Maraisdraai- and Vuilnek formations andthe Opwag- and Skurweberg formations. The Groblershoop group is in turn erosively overlain by the rocks of the Wilgenhoutsdrif Group, which include the basal erosive Groot Drink formation which is overlain by the Zonderhuis- and Leerkrans formations. The lithologies of the Keis supergroup are in faulted contact with the rocks of the younger Areachap Group of the ~1200 Ma Namaqua-Natal Metamorphic Province.

Abstract A new lithostratigraphic framework based upon a review of historic data, field mapping and remote sensing, including aerial photography, high-resolution airborne aeromagnetic and radiometric data, is proposed for the Archaean geology along the southeastern margin of the Kaapvaal Craton, South Africa. A synthesis of new and existing data reveals that previously accepted lithostratigraphic schemes require complete revision, with reinterpretations identifying multiple major shear zones and previously unidentified granitoid successions along the margin of the craton. In this new lithostratigraphic framework, lithologies of the Southern Syncline previously correlated with the Nsuze Group of the Pongola Supergroup, are redefined as greenstone lithologies associated with the Ilangwe Greenstone Belt. The geology of the Nkandla region can be subdivided into five distinct geophysical domains including: (i) an extension of the Ilangwe Greenstone Belt, (Domain 1) which is subdivided into; a lower volcanic succession, the Thathe Formation, comprising pillow and amygdaloidal volcanics; the adjoining Sabiza Formation, comprising pillow volcanics exposed in the southeast of the study area; the volcano-sedimentary Mtshwili Formation, which overlies the Thathe and Sabiza formations, consisting of quartz (sericite) schist, phyllite, metavolcanics and iron formation; the Nomangci Formation, which occurs as a region of highly deformed quartz-kyanite-sericite schists, and the Simbagwezi Formation, which comprises maroon to green phyllites and schists in the north of the study area. (ii) granitoids of the Impisi Granitoid Suite (Domain 2) which border the greenstone succession to the north, intruding the Nomangci and Simbagwezi formations. (iii) a southern complex of sheared granitoids termed the Umgabhi Granitoid Suite (Domain 3), which intrudes the Thathe, Sabiza and Mtshwili formations. (iv) The two remaining domains, comprise the Mesoproterozoic Mfongosi and Ntingwe Groups (Domain 4) and Mesoarchaean volcano-sedimentary sequences of the Pongola Supergroup (Domain 5).

Abstract. Porous sandstones are important reservoirs for geofluids. Interaction therein between deformation and cementation during diagenesis is critical since both processes can strongly reduce rock porosity and permeability, deteriorating reservoir quality. Deformation bands and fault-related diagenetic bodies, here called “structural and diagenetic heterogeneities”, affect fluid flow at a range of scales and potentially lead to reservoir compartmentalization, influencing flow buffering and sealing during the production of geofluids. We present two field-based studies from Loiano (northern Apennines, Italy) and Bollène (Provence, France) that elucidate the structural control exerted by deformation bands on fluid flow and diagenesis recorded by calcite nodules associated with the bands. We relied on careful in situ observations through geo-photography, string mapping, and unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) photography integrated with optical, scanning electron and cathodoluminescence microscopy, and stable isotope (δ13C and δ18O) analysis of nodules cement. In both case studies, one or more sets of deformation bands precede and control selective cement precipitation. Cement texture, cathodoluminescence patterns, and their isotopic composition suggest precipitation from meteoric fluids. In Loiano, deformation bands acted as low-permeability baffles to fluid flow and promoted selective cement precipitation. In Bollène, clusters of deformation bands restricted fluid flow and focused diagenesis to parallel-to-band compartments. Our work shows that deformation bands control flow patterns within a porous sandstone reservoir and this, in turn, affects how diagenetic heterogeneities are distributed within the porous rocks. This information is invaluable to assess the uncertainties in reservoir petrophysical properties, especially where structural and diagenetic heterogeneities are below seismic resolution.

This study concerns the design of a geocultural site in Huta Różaniecka. It is one of 166 sites prepared for the Kamienny Las na Roztoczu (Roztocze Stone Forest) Geopark project. The site is distinguished, on the one hand, by its interesting geology and geomorphology (exposures of Miocene sea shore with numerous fossils) and, on the other hand, by its quarries, stonemasonry traditions, and buildings (ruins of the Greek Catholic church). The aim of this paper is to present a model for building specialized documentation using a wide range of source materials, methods (field inventory, queries, interviews, high-precision Light Detection and Ranging-LiDAR measurements), tools (Leica ScanStation C10 laser scanner), and techniques (photography, Unmanned Aerial Vehicle-UAV, Terrestrial Laser Scanning-TLS). The applied research procedure model led to the construction of specialized documentation relating to the spatial dimension, natural features, and cultural context of the site. Taking into account the collected data, it should be concluded that the projected geocultural site at Huta Różaniecka, irrespective of the creation of a geopark, has great potential to build a tourist product that is attractive to a wide range of visitors.

This study presents the Episodic Voyage of Engineering Surveying and Cartography in India to know our past development in mapmaking and cartography, which is as old as Ptolemy’s expedition in the 2nd century AD in India. Starting from ropes and sticks to measure, plumb bobs to position, site rule for sighting, and clinometer for height measurement, the Indians and people from other countries, developed the present instruments and methodologies. They have evolved by gathering big data and up to making smart maps by today. The methodology employed is to collect data about the development of innovative technologies in the last 15th to 21st centuries. The journey commenced from Zareb, Kadi, etc. to the development of geo-informatics with the practices of Aerial photography, Geographical Information Systems (GIS), Remote Sensing (RS), Global Positioning Systems (GPS), Image Processing, Photogrammetry by unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), Light Detecting and Ranging (LiDAR), Web GIS, through large-scale map generation. The innovative practices have given a new direction to the subjects like geography, geology, urban planning, landscaping, and other human application services. The present study includes the search for the advances in surveying and map-making journey to date and the way forward. Eventually, the evolution of technologies will influence greatly the surveying and map-generating Present process. The application handling in the current geospatial ecosystem can be complied with by compiling large-scale maps 1:500, 1:1000, etc. through automation for better smart city planning in India. The change shall paddle the economic growth in different developing countries. However, the survey of marine territories of India is poorly researched.

The application of Augmented Reality (AR), a technology that complements and enriches the live view of a place with virtual elements, is a relatively new approach that has been demonstrated to be useful as an educational tool for the interpretation of geological and geographic features. In addition, it is a technology consistent with challenges related to enhancing the geotourism experience in geologically diverse terrains, and consistent with the sustainable use of resources in rural and natural areas. The focus of AR in this contribution is primarily for academic use. Here, we developed a pioneering AR project, at the San Isidro Pass, located in the north-west of the Iberian Peninsula, more specifically, in the central-eastern sector of the Cantabrian Mountain range (the Asturian Massif) and the northern slope of the Sierra de Sentiles. This is a high mountain area where the low incidence of Pliocene and Quaternary fluvial erosion has favored the preservation of a great geodiversity. In this case study, the approaches of geology and physical geography as subjects in official university studies have been used as a reference framework. Fieldwork was carried out to design an itinerary, or geotrail, of Points of Interest (POIs), that highlight the geological values of this montane region by visualising and interpreting nine glacial and periglacial landscapes using dynamic graphic resources (animated videos, panoramic and spherical tours and rotating and expandable 3D models combining conventional terrestrial photography and 360° photography, aerial photography, thematic cartography, etc.) composed by graphic processing software. The result is the design of AR tools which could be used by public and private entities as a product suitable for university teaching but also a work that could guide other geoeducational actions or institutional action for official heritage recognition. In isolation, these POIs function as ‘geosites’; when combined in sequence (POI 1 to POI 9), these POIs function as a ‘geotrail’ to highlight the diversity of glacial and periglacial landscapes and their sedimentary deposits; when viewed as an ensemble, POIs combine to be similar to a ‘geopark’ that emphasises glacial and periglacial landscapes and sedimentary deposits.

Abstract To evaluate ground deformation resulting from large (~10 m) coseismic strike-slip displacements, we focus on deformation of the Kekerengu fault during the November 2016 Mw 7.8 Kaikōura earthquake in New Zealand. Combining post-earthquake field observations with analysis of high-resolution aerial photography and topographic models, we describe the structural geology and geomorphology of the rupture zone. During the earthquake, fissured pressure bulges (“mole tracks”) initiated at stepovers between synthetic Riedel (R) faults. As slip accumulated, near-surface “rafts” of cohesive clay-rich sediment, bounded by R faults and capped by grassy turf, rotated about a vertical axis and were internally shortened, thus amplifying the bulges. The bulges are flanked by low-angle contractional faults that emplace the shortened mass of detached sediment outward over less-deformed ground. As slip accrued, turf rafts fragmented into blocks bounded by short secondary fractures striking at a high angle to the main fault trace that we interpret to have originated as antithetic Riedel (R′) faults. Eventually these blocks were dispersed into strongly sheared earth and variably rotated. Along the fault, clockwise rotation of these turf rafts within the rupture zone averaged ~20°–30°, accommodating a finite shear strain of 1.0–1.5 and a distributed strike slip of ~3–4 m. On strike-slip parts of the fault, internal shortening of the rafts averaged 1–2 m parallel to the R faults and ~1 m perpendicular to the main fault trace. Driven by distortional rotation, this contraction of the rafts exceeds the magnitude of fault heave. Turf rafts on slightly transtensional segments of the fault were also bulged and shortened—relationships that can be explained by a kinematic model involving “deformable slats.” In a paleoseismic trench cut perpendicular the fault, one would observe fissures, low-angle thrusts, and steeply dipping strike-slip faults—some cross-cutting one another—yet all may have formed during a single earthquake featuring a large strike-slip displacement.

Abstract The Walker Lane is a broad shear zone that accommodates a significant portion of North American–Pacific plate relative transform motion through a complex of fault systems and block rotations. Analysis of digital elevation models, constructed from both lidar data and structure-from-motion modeling of unmanned aerial vehicle photography, in conjunction with 10Be and 36Cl cosmogenic and optically stimulated luminescence dating define new Late Pleistocene to Holocene minimum strike-slip rates for the Benton Springs (1.5 ± 0.2 mm/yr), Petrified Springs (0.7 ± 0.1 mm/yr), Gumdrop Hills (0.9 +0.3/−0.2 mm/yr), and Indian Head (0.8 ± 0.1 mm/yr) faults of the central Walker Lane (Nevada, USA). Regional mapping of the fault traces within Quaternary deposits further show that the Indian Head and southern Benton Springs faults have had multiple Holocene ruptures, with inferred coseismic displacements of ∼3 m, while absence of displaced Holocene deposits along the Agai Pah, Gumdrop Hills, northern Benton Springs, and Petrified Springs faults suggest they have not. Combining these observations and comparing them with geodetic estimates of deformation across the central Walker Lane, indicates that at least one-third of the ∼8 mm/yr geodetic deformation budget has been focused across strike-slip faults, accommodated by only two of the five faults discussed here, during the Holocene, and possibly half from all the strike-slip faults during the Late Pleistocene. These results indicate secular variations of slip distribution and irregular recurrence intervals amongst the system of strike-slip faults. This makes the geodetic assessment of fault slip rates and return times of earthquakes on closely spaced strike-slip fault systems challenging. Moreover, it highlights the importance of understanding temporal variations of slip distribution within fault systems when comparing geologic and geodetic rates. Finally, the study provides examples of the importance and value in using observations of soil development in assessing the veracity of surface exposure ages determined with terrestrial cosmogenic nuclide analysis.

AbstractOn 22 March 2014, a massive, catastrophic landslide occurred near Oso, Washington, USA, sweeping more than 1 km across the adjacent valley flats and killing 43 people. For the following 5 weeks, hundreds of workers engaged in an exhaustive search, rescue, and recovery effort directly in the landslide runout path. These workers could not avoid the risks posed by additional large-scale slope collapses. In an effort to ensure worker safety, multiple agencies cooperated to swiftly deploy a monitoring and alerting system consisting of sensors, automated data processing and web-based display, along with defined communication protocols and clear calls to action for emergency management and search personnel. Guided by the principle that an accelerating landslide poses a greater threat than a steadily moving or stationary mass, the system was designed to detect ground motion and vibration using complementary monitoring techniques. Near real-time information was provided by continuous GPS, seismometers/geophones, and extensometers. This information was augmented by repeat-assessment techniques such as terrestrial and aerial laser scanning and time-lapse photography. Fortunately, no major additional landsliding occurred. However, we did detect small headscarp failures as well as slow movement of the remaining landslide mass with the monitoring system. This was an exceptional response situation and the lessons learned are applicable to other landslide disaster crises. They underscore the need for cogent landslide expertise and ready-to-deploy monitoring equipment, the value of using redundant monitoring techniques with distinct goals, the benefit of clearly defined communication protocols, and the importance of continued research into forecasting landslide behavior to allow timely warning.

This study examines the development trajectory and current trends of three-dimensional (3D) geological modelling. In recent years, due to the rising global energy demand and the increasing frequency of regional geological disasters, significant progress has been made in this field. The purpose of this study is to clarify the potential complexity of 3D geological modelling, identify persistent challenges, and propose potential avenues for improvement. The main objectives include simplifying the modelling process, improving model accuracy, integrating different data sources, and quantitatively evaluating model parameters. This study integrates global research in this field, focusing on the latest breakthroughs and applications in mineral exploration, engineering geology, geological disaster assessment, and military geosciences. For example, unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) tilt photography technology, multisource data fusion, 3D geological modelling method based on machine learning, etc. By identifying areas for improvement and making recommendations, this work aims to provide valuable insights to guide the future development of geological modelling toward a more comprehensive and accurate “Transparent Earth”. This review underscores the global applications of 3D geological modelling, highlighting its crucial role across various sectors such as mineral exploration, the oil and gas industry, urban planning, geological hazard assessment, and geoscientific research. The review emphasizes the sector-specific importance of this technology in enhancing modelling accuracy and efficiency, optimizing resource management, driving technological innovation, and improving disaster response capabilities. These insights provide a comprehensive understanding of how 3D geological modelling can significantly impact and benefit multiple industries worldwide.

The article analyzes the natural processes in the corridor of pipeline routes that can cause defects or accidents after the completion of construction or during the operation of the pipeline system. In the transition to a digital form of management of the processes of design, construction and operation of pipeline transport facilities, one of the most important tasks is to identify and control the dynamics of natural hazards processes (NHP). Because the system has significant impact on the flow of natural processes in corridor of the highway, they can become more active and cause accidents. The sources of negative impact on the main oil pipelines are exogenous and endogenous geological processes, as well as atmospheric processes, in the zone of influence of which the oil pipeline is located. It is advisable to use laser scanning to identify and monitor of hazards geological processes (HGP). Filling the NHP database is performed in stages: first, collection and synthesis of all available materials about geology, geomorphology, tectonics, engineering geology, hydrogeology, climate and vegetation of the researcher area is performed; then a digital terrain model (DEM) is created based on air laser scanning (VLS) and aerial photography (AP) by direct decoding features with the allocation of contours of territories subject to natural processes with the classification of their types; and, finally, lists, schemes, maps compiled by result of analysis qualitative and quantitative characteristics of geological processes that have received status of NHP or HGP for designed or operated structure. Decoding of dangerous geological processes according by VLS data performed in two stages: identification of the process and determination of its type by a set of decoding features, then comparison with the standard model from the catalog by location of identification primitives on the DEM and the reference model.

Topography is the most important component of the geographical shell, one of the main elements of geosystems, and the framework of a landscape. geomorphometry is a science, the subject of which is modeling and analyzing the topography and the relationships between topography and other components of geosystems. Currently, the apparatus of geomorphometry is widely used to solve various multi-scale problems of the Earth sciences. As part of the RFBR competition “Expansion”, we present an analytical review of the development of theory, methods, and applications of geomorphometry for the period of 2016–2021. For the analysis, we used a sample of 485 of the strongest and most original papers published in international journals belonging to the JCR Web of Science Core Collection quartile I and II (Q1–Q2), as well as monographs from leading international publishers. We analyze factors caused a progress in geomorphometry in recent years. These include widespread use of unmanned aerial survey and digital photogrammetry, development of tools and methods for survey of submarine topography, emergence of new publicly available digital elevation models (DEMs), development of new methods of DEM preprocessing for their filtering and noise suppression, development of methods of two-dimensional and three-dimensional visualization of DEMs, introduction of machine learning techniques, etc. We consider some aspects of the geomorphometric theory developed in 2016–2021. In particular, a new classification of morphometric values is presented. We discuss new computational methods for calculating morphometric models from DEM, as well as the problems facing the developers and users of such methods. We consider application of geomorphometry for solving multiscale problems of geomorphology, hydrology, soil science, geology, glaciology, speleology, plant science and forestry, zoogeography, oceanology, planetology, landslide studies, remote sensing, urban studies, and archaeology.

Viti Levu, the main island of Fiji, is located in a seismically active area within the Fiji Platform, a remnant island arc that lies in a diffuse plate boundary zone between the Pacific and Australian tectonic plates in the SW Pacific. The upper crust of Viti Levu is dissected by numerous intersecting fault/lineament zones mapped from remote sensing imagery of the land surface (topography, radar and aerial photos) and basement (magnetic) and have been subject to rigorous statistical tests of reproducibility and verification with field mapped fault data. Lineaments on the various imagery correlate with faults mapped in the field, and show spatial continuity between and beyond mapped faults, thereby providing a fuller coverage of regional structural patterns than previously known. Some fault/lineaments zones extend beyond the coastline to the offshore area from the SE Viti Levu study area. Multibeam bathymetry and seismic reflection data show the fault zones occur along and exert control on the location of a number of submarine canyons on the SE slope of Viti Levu. Evidence for Late Quaternary fault activity is only rarely observed in onshore SE Viti Levu (e.g. by displaced shoreline features), and in seismic reflection profiles from offshore. The principal fault sets in Viti Levu represent generations of regional tectonic faulting that pervade the Fiji Platform during and after the disruption of the proto Fijian arc in the Middle to Late Miocene (~15Ma). These fault sets combine to form a complex network of interlocking faults creating a fault mesh that divides the upper crust into a number of fault blocks ranging from ~2-30 km wide. It is inferred that the fault mesh evolved throughout the Neogene as a response to the anticlockwise rotation of the Fiji Platform through progressive development of different fault sets and intervening crustal block rotations. Regional tectonic deformation is presently accommodated in a distributed manner through the entire fault mesh. Low magnitude earthquakes (<M4) occur regularly and may represent ruptures along short linking segments of the fault mesh, while infrequent larger earthquakes (>M4) may result from complex rupture propagation through several linking fault segments of the mesh that lie close to optimum stress orientations. The interpreted model of distributed deformation through the fault mesh for the study area in SE Viti Levu is inferred to be characteristic of the style of active deformation that occurs throughout the entire Fiji Platform.

Abstract The Saint-Gilles breccias, on the western flank of Piton des Neiges volcano, are clearly identified as debris avalanche deposits. A petrographic, textural and structural analysis of the breccias and inter-bedded autochthonous lava flows enables us to distinguish at least four successive flank slides. The oldest deposit sampled the hydrothermally-altered inner parts of the volcano, and has a large volume. Failure was favored by the presence of a deep intensely-weathered layer. The younger deposits are from superficial sources, as their products are rarely hydrothermalized and are more vesicular. The breccia formation, and especially the progressive breaking up occurring during the debris avalanche displacement, indicates the existence of high speed transport. In the Cap La Houssaye coastal area, abrasion and striation of the underlying lava formation, as well as the packing features observed in the breccia, are considered to be deceleration structures. Introduction Huge landslides of volcano flanks, whether or not initiated by magmatic intrusions, have been recognized as catastrophic events since the 1980 Mount St Helens eruption. On oceanic shield volcanoes, the contribution of failure to the edifice-building process was proposed by Moore [1964] and suggested elsewhere for Hawaii [Lipman et al., 1985 ; Moore et al., 1989], Reunion island [Lénat et al., 1989], Etna [McGuire et al., 1991], and Canarias [Carracedo, 1994, 1996 ; Marty et al., 1996]. This contribution is particularly obvious in island volcanoes showing a U-shaped caldera open to the ocean. Several mechanisms inherent to the causes of failure have been proposed, such as dyke intrusion [McGuire et al., 1990 ; Iverson, 1995 ; Voight and Elsworth, 1997], caldera collapse [Marty et al., 1997], or volcanic spreading [Borgia et al., 1992 ; van Wyk de Vries and Francis, 1997]. Invariably, other factors have been proposed as favorable to volcanic destabilization, such as the probable occurrence of deep low-cohesion layers due to the existence of pyroclastic or hyaloclastic layers [Duffield et al., 1982 ; Siebert, 1984] or an old basement. Gravity spreading models are now frequently proposed to explain the destruction of volcanic edifices [Borgia et al., 1992 ; Merle and Borgia, 1996 ; van Wyk de Vries and Borgia, 1996 ; van Wyk de Vries and Francis, 1997], most of them taking into account basal or intra-volcanic weakness zones. We propose that in such a scenario, density heterogeneity should be an important factor governing the slow evolution of the volcanic pile. Clague and Denlinger [1994] proposed a olivine-rich ductile basal layer that influences the stability of volcano flanks. On Reunion island, a large volcanic landslide has been proposed to explain the peculiar morphology of Piton de la Fournaise-Grand Brûlé [Vincent and Kieffer, 1978]. Bathymetric surveys [Bachèlery and Montagionni, 1983 ; Lénat et al., 1989, 1990 ; Cochonnat et al., 1990 ; Lénat and Labazuy, 1990 ; Labazuy, 1991 ; Bachèlery, 1995 ; Ollier et al., 1998] have confirmed the offshore occurrence of debris avalanche deposits. Similar deposits are also known to exist along the western, northern and southwestern submarine flanks of the Piton des Neiges volcano. Unlike other deposits showing inland prolongation, “Saint-Gilles breccias” displays a well-preserved and non-weathered texture and structure. Because of striking analogies between the “Saint-Gilles breccias” and, for example, the Cantal stratovolcano debris avalanche deposits [Cantagrel, 1995], we conclude that these formations are the products of repeated avalanches during the Piton des Neiges basaltic period [Bachèlery et al., 1996]. We propose an interpretation of their origin, emplacement mechanism and their role in the evolutionary process of the western flank of Piton des Neiges. Volcano-structural setting Mechanical instability of oceanic volcanic edifices generates huge flank landslides, with lateral and mainly submarine transport of sub-aerial materials. These landslides participate in the building of the lower submarine slopes of the volcano. Geophysical surveys have detected low cohesion materials in most offshore Reunion island areas [Malengrau et al., 1999 ; de Voogd et al., 1999 ; Lénat et al., 2001] showing that these materials have largely contributed to the construction of offshore Reunion Island. Such deposits are also found in the inner part (“Cirques”) of Piton des Neiges [Maillot, 1999]. On the other hand, electric and electromagnetic soundings have revealed a deep extending conductor within the Piton de la Fournaise volcanic pile [Courteaud et al., 1997 ; Lenat et al., 2000]. Interpretations about the nature and origin of this conductor depend on its location. In the central caldera zone, as revealed by SP positive anomalies [Malengrau et al., 1994 ; Zlotnicki et al., 1994], the hydrothermal and magmatic complex is probably responsible for the observed low resistivities. Along the flanks, such a hypothesis may not be realistic. Courteaud [1996] suggests the occurrence of a deep argilized layer of volcano-detritic origin. In any case, the hydrothermal complex with high fluid pressures and secondary minerals appears as a potential weak zone that may contribute to the volcano’s instability [Lopez and Williams, 1993 ; Frank, 1995]. Chronology and stratigraphy Extent of the debris avalanche deposits The various breccias found at the western end of Reunion island, on the Piton des Neiges volcano flank, cover a 16 km2 area between Cap Marianne and Saint-Gilles (fig. 1). They are overlain upwards (&gt; 250 to 300 m) by trachyandesitic (mugearite) lava flows of Piton des Neiges differentiated series [Billard, 1974]. Some restricted breccia outcrops in deep valleys from Bernica to the north up to l’Hermitage to the south indicate the existence of larger extension of the debris avalanche deposits. Furthermore, breccias with similar “Saint-Gilles” facies appear down the Maïdo cliff to Mafate “Cirque” at an altitude 1300 m, beneath 600 m of mugearite and some olivine basalt flows. Unpublished electromagnetic data (CSAMT soundings) confirm the inland continuity of the “Saint-Gilles breccias” up to the Maïdo along the Piton des Neiges western flank, hidden by mugearitic flows. Available bathymetric surveys offshore Saint Paul – Saint Gilles areas show the obvious underwater prolongation of “Saint-Gilles breccias” : a shallow depth (&lt; 100 m) plateau followed by a slope with hummocky surface down to 2 500 m depth [Bachèlery et al., 1996 and fig. 2]. From this data, the total surface of “Saint-Gilles” debris avalanche deposits is estimated as more than 500 km2. Chronology A coastal cliff, from Ravine Bernica to Boucan Canot, provides the best outcrop of the northern part of “Saint-Gilles breccias”, with a clear inter-bedding of breccia units and lava formations (photo 1and fig. 3). – The lower breccia unit (Br I), of unknown thickness, has a remarkable friable aspect and a grayish color. – The first autochthonous lava formation (L1) consists in thin pahoehoe olivine basalt flows filling large valleys dug into “Br I”. The top of this formation is striated by the overlying “Br II” unit (photo 2). – Breccia unit “Br II” is interbedded between L1 and L2 olivine basalts. More compact and massive, “Br II” is characterized by a reddish matrix and dark blocks, with many curved fracture surfaces. – On “Br II” or directly on L1, picritic basalt flows L2 are found, filling narrow valleys. – Breccia unit “Br III” lies on “Br II” with a striking sheared contact plane visible along the main road (photo 3). It is a typical debris avalanche deposit with large imbricate blocks within a fine-grained beige matrix. – Once again, basaltic flows of lava formation L3 fill a valley dug into “Br III” near Petite Anse river. – Breccia unit “Br IV” rests on L3 at Petite Anse, but its contact with “Br III” elsewhere is not clear. The facies of this unit is very similar to the “Br III”. All the breccia units are covered by basaltic and trachyandesitic flows from the end of the Piton des Neiges basaltic series, and differentiated series. In the Saint-Gilles river, two formations are superposed : picritic basalts (L4) have flowed on the “Br IV” breccia unit, latter aphyric trachy-andesitic (mugearite) flows (L6) overlapped L4 and the breccia landforms, reaching in places the coastal area. To the north, at Plateau Caillou, plagioclase-phyric basalt flows (L5) are found between mugearite and breccias. Elsewhere on Piton des Neiges, such flows are symptomatic of the transition from the basaltic series to the differentiated series [Billard, 1974]. The occurrence of autochthonous basaltic formations L1 to L3, inter-bedded with “Saint-Gilles breccias”, enables us to distinguish at least four superposed breccia units. Although the emplacement age of the lower “Br I” is not known precisely, it is overlain and therefore older than Cap Marianne pahoehoe lavas (L1) dated at 0.452 Ma [Mc Dougall, 1971]. On the other hand, the upper breccia units are younger than the pahoehoe olivine basalt at Cap la Houssaye dated at 0,435 Ma but older than L5 plagioclasic basalts dated at 0.35 Ma. Geological description of the “breccia sequence” In the synthetic lithologic log (fig. 4) of the Saint-Gilles area, autochthonous lava formations are clearly broken into four separate breccia units. Lava formations. – L1 formation consists of numerous thin pahoehoe olivine-rich to aphyric basaltic flows. Both L2 and L3 formations are characterized by a few thicker (decametric) olivine (frequently picritic) basalt flows. Breccia units. – All breccia units display common characteristics such as the universal association of two facies (photo 4) : (i) a matrix – sandy to silty – facies containing a non-sorted mixture of non-stratified heterogeneous materials ranging from granular size to blocky elements, (ii) coherent large blocks and large pieces (‘block’ facies) of various lithology such as lava flow, scorias, pyroclastics or other breccias ; blocks displaying frequent “jigsaw” features. The lower breccia unit “Br 1” (fig. 4) has a more compact but very heterogeneous aspect, with a chaotic distribution of blocks in a less-developed matrix. This unit is characterized by a deep hydrothermal alteration with a lot of zeolites, chlorite, clays, calcite and oxides. The upper breccia units, “Br II” to “Br IV” (fig. 4) are less heterogeneous than “Br I” because their matrix facies are more voluminous and because the matrix clearly separates the bigger blocks. In both facies, a great diversity of fresh lithologic types such as picritic basalt, olivine-phyric basalt, plagioclase-phyric basalt and aphyric more or less vesicular basalts, gabbro, dunite are found, with no or only few slightly zeolitised blocks. Plurimetric to metric blocks are severely fractured, disintegrated into millimetric to decimetric angular pieces. The frequent polygenic aspect is due to block juxtaposition or imbrication. The abundant matrix is composed of crushed rocks and mineral elements, fine-grained (&lt; mm), showing frequent fluidity and bedding marks (photo 5). The very heterogeneous composition of the matrix is confirmed at a microscopic scale. On the contrary, cores of blocks appear as jigsaw-puzzle-like monolithologic pieces of various basaltic rocks. At their edges, disintegration leads to progressive mixing with neighboring blocks that feed the matrix. Discussion Originality of “Saint-Gilles breccias” “Saint-Gilles breccias” constitute one of the few cases [see also Cantagrel et al., 1999] of debris avalanche deposit outcroppings on the sub-aerial part of an oceanic shield volcano. The main part of the deposit is suspected to be offshore. Their hummocky surface in delineating parallel ridges can be compared to the one described offshore the Grand Brûlé area, east of Piton de la Fournaise [Bachèlery et al., 1996]. “Saint-Gilles breccias” were deposited after several Piton des Neiges flank slide events that were separated by basaltic flows. Repeated debris avalanches have also been proposed to explain Piton de la Fournaise offshore deposits [Lenat et al., 1990 ; Labazuy, 1991]. The occurrence of autochthonous interbedded lava formations is essential to interpret the thick piling up of slide material along Reunion volcano flanks as deposits of repeated avalanches at the same place, instead of as being the products of a single huge event. Many structural and textural features noticed in the upper breccia units reveal crucial information on the emplacement mechanism of debris avalanches. For instance, brecciated blocks are typical of progressive break-up during transport processes. Blocks can simply be fractured, or they can be so severely disintegrated that stretching and mixing with other blocks and matrix formation are observed. The observation of such phenomena implies the existence of numerous percussive events between rocks, as well as internal vibrations in the debris avalanche and therefore the existence of high-speed transport. Lava formations L1 underlying upper breccia units are truncated and strongly striated in a seaward direction (photo 2), parallel to the breccia morphological ridges. In the same way, internal contact surfaces between upper breccia units are shear planes underlain by cataclastic layers and lenses (photo 3). Such structures are interpreted as due to drastic deceleration effects of avalanches reaching a topographic leveling out in the coastal area. This concords with the occurrence of sub-vertical contact areas between the blocks and the matrix. These injections of matrix between the blocks are generated bottom-up from the shear plane at the moment of the sudden deceleration of the avalanche. Other fracture planes that are in accordance with the morphology of ridges, are found in “Br III” unit (see fig. 5). They are interpreted as the result of packing effects. Origin of flank failures Although the source area of breccia formations has not yet been clearly identified, it has to be in the central part of Piton des Neiges as seen in the western cliff of “cirque de Mafate”. Furthermore, “Br I” deeply weathered materials evidently come from the hydrothermalized core of the volcano. Though the “Br I” thickness is not known, the volume involved may be considerable and a part of this volume must constitute the main body of Saint-Gilles offshore deposits. The upper breccias units “Br II” to “Br IV” display very similar textures and lithologies, with dominant non-altered basaltic rocks from the “Phase II” building stage of Piton des Neiges [Billard, 1974]. These units are very thin in the coastal area of Cap La Houssaye (see fig. 2) despite a proximal facies (meaning a deposit in the transport zone nearer than the main deposit zone). They obviously originate from shallow flank slides of restricted extent. We suggest that the upper Saint-Gilles deposits are due to repeated events that produced thin high-speed debris avalanches. Emplacement modalities The morphology of “Saint-Gilles breccias”, or submarine deposits offshore Grand Brûlé (east of Piton de la Fournaise volcano), are typical of sliding movements along shallow depth shear planes (several hundred meters up to two kilometers) within the volcanic pile. But several levels of decollement are suggested by seismic refraction and reflection profiles offshore La Reunion, the deepest corresponding to the top of the preexisting oceanic sediments [de Voogt et al., 1999]. Until now, in Reunion Island, only shallow failures affecting the upper parts of volcanic edifices, with deposits on the lower slopes, have been positively identified. Conditions that trigger giant flank landslides affecting oceanic shields remain poorly understood but we can reasonably speculate that weak hydrothermally-altered layers in the inner part of the volcano favor these gravity-driven processes related to repeated dike injections. The “Saint-Gilles breccia” sequence is considered as a multiphase lateral collapse structure whose first event (“Br I”) was apparently the most voluminous. The corresponding deposit displays frequent hydrothermally-altered material symptomatic of originating from the Piton des Neiges core. Within Piton des Neiges, the low cohesive weathered layer is quite extensive [Nativel, 1978 ; Rançon, 1982] possibly reaching down the volcano flanks [Courteaud et al., 1997]. The interpretative scheme that we propose (fig. 6) in our evaluation of the conditions for the emplacement of Saint-Gilles sequence, takes into account the existence of such a mechanical discontinuity within the volcanic pile. We propose that the massive landslide failure of the west flank of Piton des Neiges volcano that produced the “Br I” breccia, provided efficient channels for younger Piton des Neiges lavas to reach the western and southwestern coastline. Morphological features, as well as radiometric data [Mc Dougall, 1971 ; Gillot and Nativel, 1982] and magnetic surveys [Lénat et al., 2001], yield evidence for preferential accumulation of lava during the last 0.5 m.y. (corresponding mainly to the differentiated series) in this part of the volcano. The relative asymmetry of Piton des Neiges was acquired by rift migration in response to the first huge landslide that produced the “Br I” unit of “Saint-Gilles breccia”, in the manner described by Lipman et al. [1990] for Mauna Loa volcano in Hawaii. The later repetition of flank collapses is consistent with similar structures on other oceanic islands. Since the first lateral collapse, the Piton des Neiges edifice was probably characterized by the existence of an asymmetrical steeper western flank where the old zeolite-rich “Br I” deposits possibly act as a detachment surface for later successive landslides which may have occurred recurrently over a short time interval.

These days, the science of photogrammetry is frequently used in a wide range of applications, including engineering geology, medication, security, navigation, and topographic surveying works. Drones have gradually become an effectual and frequent technique for obtaining a number of photogrammetric products, such as ortho-mosaics, Digital Elevation Model (DEM), and land detailed topographic maps. This paper investigates the possibility of employing low-cost amateur drones with 4K Ultra-High-Definition (UHD) video for topographic surveying works and creating DEM's. DJI Mavic 2 PRO drone with Hasselblad L1D-20C 20 MP camera has been used for covering an expected gas & oil pipeline route in the South of Libya with length of nearly 15 km and width of 200 m. 60 well-distributed high-quality 3D ground points, divided as 30 Ground Control Points (GCP's) and 30 check points, have been used for more stable and robust photogrammetric processing and for reliable evaluation, respectively. The camera has been calibrated twice, before and after executing the flight mission for trustworthy Interior Orientation Elements (IOE's). The recorded video has been split into smaller videos based on the capturing time of the required frames, and the small videos have been extracted to individual UHD photos using Matlab image tools. Leica Photogrammetric Suite (LPS) software has been used for all processing steps, except the automatic filtration of the generated tie points, which has been carried out using self-developed Matlab algorithm for epipolar geometry and 2D transformation based filters. Results show that DEM's with quality of nearly 1.2 to 2 decimeter in plane and elevation, respectively can be obtained using DJI Mavic 2 PRO drone, 4K UHD video taken by Hasselblad L1D-20C 20 MP camera, pixel ground footprint of 8 cm, and flight height of 350 m. This level of accuracy is appropriate for many engineering applications, such as initial-planning projects stretched on huge areas, urban development plans, GIS data collection, inventory of earth works materials, and 3D modeling. The obtained quality of the generated DEM depends on the flight height and the camera quality, IOE's, and resolution. Tests show that using 4K UHD video for photogrammetric applications can provide UHD extracted frames, similar to that captured singly, especially with fit flight speed and camera settings, namely: ISO sensitivity, shatter speed, and aperture size. Also, using video facilitates the aerial photography process, overcoming the difficulties of determining the suitable capturing time and location of individual photos in site. The other advantage is the ability of taking alternative frames if the selected images are not suitable for photogrammetric works in terms of tilting and blurring. The opportunity of changing the overlapping rates across the route is another important advantage of using video, especially for curvy routes. Moreover, using different groups of overlapped images for the same route helps for creating different DEM's for the same area, resulting more precise and dense topographic surveying works.

Kabupaten Bantul merupakan salah satu kabupaten yang berpotensi terjadi tanah longsor, tepatnya di daerah Srimartani, Kecamatan Piyungan. Penelitian ini dilakukan dengan tujuan untuk mendapatkan data dan informasi mengenai parameter metode geofisika daerah longsor dan mengetahui dugaan zona potensi longsor. Metode yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah survei lokasi, akuisisi metode seismik refraksi, akuisisi metode resistivitas, dan pemetaan foto udara (geospasial). Dari penampang bawah permukaan seismik refraksi metode hagiwara didapatkan bahwa lapisan lapuk pada daerah riset berupa soil dan pasir tuffan dikarenakan memiliki sifat permeable dan bidang gelincirnya yang bersifat impermeable. Pada penampang bawah metode seismik refraksi lapisan pertama yaitu soil dengan kecepatan V1 sekitar 313.8 m/s – 461.6 m/s dan lapisan kedua yaitu pasir dengan kecepatan V2 sekitar 459 m/s – 1567 m/s. Sementara penampang bawah permukaan metode resistivitas konfigurasi dipole – dipole didapatkan lapisan lapuk tersebut memiliki nilai resitivitas yang kecil dikarenakan lapisan tersebut bersifat lunak sehingga ada kemungkinan lapisan tersebut dalam kondisi basah. Pada penampang resistivitas memiliki nilai 126 ohm.m hingga lebih dari 301 ohm.m, daerah tersebut diperkirakan terdapat batuan breksi batuapung dari formasi semilir yang diduga sebagai bidang gelincir. Dari segi geologi, daerah penelitian sangat rentan terjadi tanah longsor dikarenakan kondisi lereng searah dengan kondisi struktur regional di daerah penelitian yaitu barat-timur, didukung oleh kondisi batuan yang ada berupa breksi batuapung dan tuff yang sangat rawan terjadi longsor. Dengan adanya penelitian ini, diharapkan dapat menambah pengetahuan mengenai antisipasi masyarakat dalam meminimalisir dampak yang ditimbulkan dari adanya tanah longsor. Bantul Regency is one of the districts that have the potential for landslides to occur, precisely in the Srimartani area, Piyungan District. This research was conducted with the aim of obtaining data and information about the parameters of the geophysical method of landslide areas and knowing the alleged landslide potential zone. The methods used in this research are site survey, seismic refraction acquisition method, resistivity method acquisition, and aerial photography (geospatial) mapping. From the subsurface seismic refraction of the Hagiwara method, it was found that the weathered layer in the research area was soil and sand due to its permeable properties and impermeable slip plane. . In the lower section of the seismic refraction method, the first layer is soil with a V1 velocity of around 313.8 m/s – 461.6 m/s and the second layer is sand with a V2 velocity of about 459 m/s – 1567 m/s. While the subsurface resistivity method of the dipole - dipole configuration found that the weathered layer has a small resistivity value because the layer is soft so there is a possibility that the layer is in a wet conditionIn the cross section resistivity has a value of 126 ohm.m to more than 301 ohm.m, the area is estimated to contain pumice breccia from the breccia formation which is thought to be a slip plane. In terms of geology, the research area is very susceptible to landslides because the slope conditions are in line with the regional structural conditions in the research area, namely west-east, supported by the existing rock conditions in the form of pumice breccia and tuff which are very prone to landslides. With this research, it is hoped that it can increase knowledge about community anticipation in minimizing the impact of landslides.

In 2022, the Swiss branch of the international publishing house Springer published a book, a collection of papers entitled Military Geoscience: A Multifaceted Approach to the Study of Warfare. It consists of selected contributions by international researchers in the field of military geoscience, presented at the 13th International Conference on Military Geosciences, held in Padua in June 2019. The first paper is by the editors, Aldin Bondesan and Judy Ehlen, and provides a brief overview of understanding the concept of military geoscience as an application of geology and geography to the military domain, and the historical development of the discipline. It should also be pointed out that the International Conferences on Military Geosciences (ICMG), which organises this biennial international conference, has over the past two decades also covered other aspects, such as conflict archaeology. The publication is further divided into three parts. The first part comprises three contributions covering military geoscience up to the 20th century. The first paper, by Chris Fuhriman and Jason Ridgeway, provides an insights into the Battle of Marathon through topography visualisation. The geography of the Marathon field, the valley between Mt. Cotroni and Mt. Agrieliki, allowed the Greek defenders to nullify the advantage of the Persian cavalry and archers, who were unable to develop their full potential. This is followed by a paper by Judy Ehlen, who explores the geological background of the Anglo-British coastal fortification system along the English Channel, focusing on the Portsmouth area of Hampshire. The author thus points out that changes in artillery technology and naval tactics between the 16th and 19th centuries necessitated changes in the construction of coastal fortifications, both in terms of the form of the fortifications and the method of construction, including the choice of basic building materials, as well as the siting of the fortifications in space. The next article is then dedicated to the Monte Baldo Fortress in north-eastern Italy, between Lake Garda and the Adige River. In his article, Francesco Premi analyses the presence of the fortress in the transition area between the Germanic world and the Mediterranean, and the importance of this part of Italy (at the southernmost part of the pre-Alpine mountains) in military history, as reflected in the large number of important military and war relics and monuments. The second part of the book, which is the most comprehensive, focuses on the two World Wars and consists of nine papers. The first paper in this part provides an analysis of the operation of trench warfare training camps in the Aube region of France. The group of authors, Jérôme Brenot, Yves Desfossés, Robin Perarnau, Marc Lozano and Alain Devos, initially note that static warfare training camps have not received much attention so far. Using aerial photography of the region dating from 1948 and surviving World War II photographic material, they identified some 20 sites where soldiers of the Entente forces were trained for front-line service in trenches. Combined archaeological and sociological fieldwork followed, confirming the presence of these camps, both through preserved remains and the collective memory. The second paper in this volume also concerns the survey on trenches, located in northern Italy in the Venezia Tridentina Veneto area in northern Italy. The authors Luigi Magnini, Giulia Rovera, Armando De Guio and Giovanni Azzalin thus use digital classification methods and archaeology to determine how Italian and Austro-Hungarian First World War trenches have been preserved or, in case they have disappeared, why this was the case, both from the point of view of the natural features as well as from the anthropological point of view of the restoration of the pre-war settings. The next paper, by Paolo Macini and Paolo Sammuri, analyses the activities of the miners and pioneers of the Italian Corps of Engineers during the First World War, in particular with regard to innovative approaches to underground mine warfare. In the Dolomites, the Italian engineers, using various listening devices, drilling machinery and geophysical methods, developed a system for drilling underground mine chambers, which they intended to use and actually used to destroy parts of Austro-Hungarian positions. The paper by Elena Dai Prà, Nicola Gabellieri and Matteo Boschian Bailo concerns the Italian Army's operations during the First World War. It focuses on the use of tactical maps with emphasis on typological classification, the use of symbols, and digital cartography. The authors thus analysed the tactical maps of the Italian Third Army, which were being constantly updated by plotting the changes in positions and tactical movements of both sides. These changes were examined both in terms of the use of new symbols and the analysis of the movements. This is followed by a geographical presentation of the Italian Army's activities during the First World War. The authors Paolo Plini, Sabina Di Franco and Rosamaria Salvatori have thus collected 21,856 toponyms by analysing documents and maps. The locations were also geolocated to give an overview of the places where the Italian Army operated during the First World War. The analysis initially revealed the complexity of the events on the battlefields, but also that the sources had misidentified the places of operation, as toponyms were misidentified, especially in the case of homonyms. Consequently, the area of operation was misidentified as well. In this respect, the case of Vipava was highlighted, which can refer to both a river and a settlement. The following paper is the first on the Second World War. It is the article by H. A. P. Smith on Italian prisoners of war in South Africa. The author outlines the circumstances in which Italian soldiers arrived to and lived in the southern African continent, and the contribution they made to the local environment and the society, and the remnants of their presence preserved to the present day. In their article, William W. Doe III and Michael R. Czaja analyse the history, geography and significance of Camp Hale in the state of Colorado. In doing so, they focus on the analysis of the military organization and its impact on the local community. Camp Hale was thus the first military installation of the U.S. Army, designated to test and train U.S. soldiers in mountain and alpine warfare. It was here that the U.S. 10th Mountain Division was formed, which concluded its war path on Slovenian soil. The Division's presence in this former camp, which was in military use also after the war until 1965, and in the surrounding area is still visible through numerous monuments. This is followed by a paper by Hermann Häusler, who deals with German military geography and geology on the Eastern Front of the Second World War. A good year before the German attack on the Soviet Union, German and Austrian military geologists began an analysis of the topography, population and infrastructure of the European part of the Soviet Union, which led to a series of publications, including maps showing the suitability of the terrain for military operations. During the war, military geological teams then followed the frontline units and carried out geotechnical tasks such as water supply, construction of fortifications, supply of building materials for transport infrastructure, and analysis of the suitability of the terrain for all-terrain driving of tracked and other vehicles. The same author also authored a paper in the next chapter, this time focusing on the activities of German military geologists in the Adriatic area. Similarly to his first contribution, the author presents the work of military geologists in northern Italy and north-western Slovenia. He also focuses on the construction of fortification systems in northern Italy and presents the work of karst hunters in the Operational Zone of the Adriatic Littoral. Part 3 covers the 21st century with five different papers (chapters). The first paper by Alexander K. Stewart deals with the operations of the U.S. Army specialised teams in Afghanistan. These Agribusiness Development Teams (ADTs) carried out a specialised form of counter-guerrilla warfare in which they sought to improve the conditions for the development of local communities through agricultural assistance to the local population. In this way, they were also counteracting support for the Taliban. The author notes that, in the decade after the programme's launch, the project had only a 19% success rate. However, he stresses that such forms of civil-military cooperation should be present in future operations. The next chapter, by Francis A. Galgan, analyses the activities of modern pirates through military-geographical or geological methods. Pirates, who pose a major international security threat, are present in four regions of the world: South and South-East Asia, East Africa and the Gulf of Guinea. Building on the data on pirate attacks between 1997 and 2017, the author shows the temporal and spatial patterns of pirate activities, as well as the influence of the geography of coastal areas on their activities. This is followed by another chapter with a maritime topic. Mark Stephen Blaine discusses the geography of territorial disputes in the South China Sea. Through a presentation of international law, the strategic importance of the sea (sea lanes, natural resources) and the overlapping territorial claims of China, Taiwan, Malaysia, Vietnam and Indonesia, the author shows the increasing level of conflict in the area and calls for the utmost efforts to be made to prevent the outbreak of hostilities or war. M. H. Bulmer's paper analyses the Turkish Armed Forces' activities in Syria from the perspective of military geology. The author focuses on the Kurdish forces' defence projects, which mainly involved the construction of gun trenches, observation towers or points, tunnels and underground facilities, as well as on the Turkish armed forces' actions against this military infrastructure. This involved both mountain and underground warfare activities. While these defensive infrastructures proved to be successful during the guerrilla warfare period, direct Turkish attacks on these installations demonstrated their vulnerability. The last chapter deals with the current operational needs and limitations of military geosciences from the perspective of the Austrian Armed Forces. Friedrich Teichmann points out that the global operational interest of states determines the need for accurate geo-data as well as geo-support in case of rapidly evolving requirements. In this context, geoscience must respond to new forms of threats, both asymmetric and cyber, at a time when resources for geospatial services are limited, which also requires greater synergy and an innovative approach to finding solutions among multiple stakeholders. This also includes increased digitisation, including the use of satellite and other space technologies. The number of chapters in the publication illustrates the breadth and depth of military geoscience, as well as the relevance of geoscience to past, present and future conflicts or military operations and missions. The current military operations in Ukraine demonstrate the need to take into account the geo-geological realities of the environment and that terrain remains one of the decisive factors for success on the battlefield, irrespective of the technological developments in military engineering and technology. This can also be an incentive for Slovenian researchers and the Slovenian Armed Forces to increase research activities in the field of military geosciences, especially in view of the rich military and war history in the geographically and geologically diverse territory of Slovenia.

Efficient and accurate extraction of discontinuity geometric parameters is significant for evaluating the stability and seepage characteristics of a rock mass. Traditional means of rock discontinuity measurement are susceptible to the influence of terrain and have issues such as high operational workload and low efficiency. An approach was proposed to comprehensively and efficiently obtain the geometric parameter information of the discontinuity, using an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV), which consists of the following five procedures: (1) measurement of a rock slope with UAV, (2) creation of three‐dimensional (3D) point cloud model for the slope, (3) voxel filtering of point cloud data, (4) planar segmentation based on modified region growing (MRG) algorithm, and (5) acquisition of parameter set of the discontinuity (orientation, trace length, and spacing). A new code, FacetDetect, has been developed based on this method to identify discontinuity from a 3D point cloud. Meanwhile, the trace length and spacing are calculated by the code written in Python. A comparison with the three‐point method reveals that most errors are less than 3° for dip angles and dip directions. These deviations are reasonable and confirm the reliability of the method. Overall, this method is a valuable reference for automatic discontinuity interpretation and related fields.