Literatura científica selecionada sobre o tema "18MND5 low alloy steel"

La fatigue est avec la corrosion sous contrainte le principal moteur des dégradations observées sur les composants du parc nucléaire français. Les chargements induisant de la fatigue oligocyclique dans les composants primaires sont d’origine thermique et peuvent être à rapport de charge négatif. La justification des composants vis-à-vis de la propagation de fissure en fatigue est actuellement effectuée de manière pénalisante, sans prise en compte du sillage plastique. Des travaux de R&amp;D sont donc requis pour améliorer les modèles de propagation en fatigue pour des chargements variables. C’est dans ce contexte que s’inscrivent les travaux présentés dans ce mémoire, avec une attention particulière portée aux effets de fermeture de fissure qui sont précisément à même de rendre compte des effets d’histoire. A cet effet, une campagne d’essais de référence à rapport de charge positif est d’abord mise en œuvre sur éprouvettes normalisées. Des essais de fissuration pilotés en déformation totale ont ensuite été conduits sur éprouvettes uniaxiales contenant un défaut initial. Un dispositif expérimental original utilisant les techniques de H-DIC (DIC enrichie en mécanique de la rupture) et le suivi de la différence de potentiel électrique permet de suivre la propagation de la fissure tout en évaluant les taux d’ouverture de fissure. Il est montré que pour les deux matériaux de l’étude les taux d’ouverture varient en fonction du niveau de sollicitation appliquée et du rapport de charge, et dans une moindre mesure de la profondeur de fissure. Une méthode couplant les résultats expérimentaux avec un modèle éléments finis développé sous Cast3M permet de définir des forces motrices fondées respectivement sur le facteur d’intensité de déformation et l’intégrale J. L’évaluation des forces motrices montrent l’importance de la prise en compte des effets de fermeture afin d’obtenir une loi de propagation réaliste pour les deux matériaux de l’étude. Une loi de propagation fondée sur l’intégrale Jeff est obtenue pour les deux matériaux et permet de s’affranchir de la dépendance au rapport de charge, niveau de déformation dans l’analyse de la propagation de fissure<br>Fatigue, along with stress corrosion is the main cause of degradation observed in the components of French nuclear power plants. The justification of components regarding fatigue crack propagation is currently considered in a penalising way without taking into account the loading history. The study of fatigue closure effects makes it possible to determine driving forces representative of crack propagation. Loads inducing low cycle fatigue in primary components are of thermal origin. A campaign of reference tests on standardised specimens was first carried out before controlled total deformation tests on uniaxial specimens. An experimental set-up using Heaviside-DIC and electrical potential difference monitoring techniques was used to monitor crack propagation while evaluating crack opening rates at the surface and averaged over the specimen. It is shown that for the two materials studied, crack opening rates vary as a function of the level of stress applied, the load ratio and, to a lesser extent the crack depth. The combination of experimental results and the development of finite-element models makes it possible to define and evaluate driving forces based on deformation intensity factors and the J integral. A new crack propagation driving force calculation method adapted to cases of confined plasticity at the crack tip and to cases of generalised plasticity has been defined, making it possible to obtain a unified propagation law for each material that does not depend on the load ratio or the stress level

Dans le contexte de l’industrie nucléaire, la présence éventuelle d’imperfections surfaciques pouvant être générées par des chutes ou frottements d’outils lors de la fabrication et la maintenance des composants se doit d’être justifiée vis-à-vis du phénomène de fatigue. L’objectif premier de cette étude est d’évaluer dans quelle mesure la présence d’imperfections de surface de l’ordre de quelques dixièmes de millimètre de profondeur peut impacter la durée de vie en fatigue oligocyclique. En parallèle, cette étude cherche à décrire, de manière qualitative et quantitative, l’amorçage et la propagation des fissures à partir de ces imperfections. Afin de répondre à ces objectifs, une campagne d’essais de fatigue uni-axiale, menée en contrôle de déformation totale imposée, a été mise en œuvre avec des éprouvettes cylindriques (Φ 9 mm). Les imperfections de surface ont été introduites artificiellement sur les éprouvettes à l’aide de deux dispositifs permettant l’usinage d’entailles de faibles dimensions. Afin de suivre les phases d’amorçage, de micro et de macro propagation des fissures à partir des imperfections de surface, la méthode du suivi de potentiel électrique a été principalement employée. Des actions expérimentales et numériques complémentaires ont été réalisées afin de calibrer le suivi de potentiel. Les résultats de la campagne d’essais réalisée mettent en évidence une influence significative de la présence d’imperfections sur la tenue en fatigue des éprouvettes étudiées. La mise en œuvre du suivi de potentiel électrique a permis de déterminer les cinétiques d’amorçage et de propagation à partir des entailles artificiellement introduites. L’identification d’un paramètre représentatif de la force motrice de propagation dans le contexte de plasticité généralisée associé aux essais réalisés a par ailleurs permis d’exploiter les données relatives aux cinétiques de propagation dans une optique prédictive<br>Given the stringent requirements of high levels of safety in nuclear components, stakeholders of the French nuclear industry must anticipate the presence of residual surface imperfections in these components. Such imperfections could be introduced during manufacturing or maintenance operations. The incidence of surface irregularities on the fatigue strength of metallic components has tobe considered. Meanwhile, nuclear components can be loaded under low-cycle fatigue and large-scale plasticity conditions. The first objective of this work isthento assess to what extent the fatigue life of typical nuclear materials may be affected by the presence of such surface irregularities. In parallel, thisstudy aims at describing, qualitativelyand quantitatively, the crack initiation and propagation from these imperfections. In order to meet these objectives, a uni-axial fatigue test campaign, conducted under fully-reversed total axial strain control, in the air at room temperature, has been carried out on the cylindrical specimens (Φ 9 mm). Surface imperfections were artificially introduced onto the specimens. The electric potential trackingmethod has been mainly usedto monitor the crack initiation, micro and macro propagation phases from surface imperfections. Additional experimental and numerical actions have been carried out to calibrate the potential monitoring. The results of thetest campaigndemonstrate a significant influence of the presence of imperfections on the9 mm specimensfatigue strength. The useof electrical methodhas allowedto determine crackinitiation and growth ratesfrom surface imperfections. The identification of a representative parameter of the propagation driving force,in the context of generalized plasticity associated with the tests carried out,has also allowed to analysedata relating to propagation kinetics in a predictive perspective

Metal dusting is a kind of catastrophic corrosion phenomenon that can be observed in several of petrochemical processes. It occurs on iron-, nickel- and cobalt-base metals in carbonaceous atmospheres at high temperature when gaseous carbon activity is higher than one. The process is particularly rapid for ferritic alloys The aim of this project was to compare the dusting kinetics of pure iron and a 2.25Cr-1Mo alloy steel under CO-H2-H2O atmosphere at 650??C. Polished (3??m) samples of iron and the steel were exposed to flowing CO-H2-H2O gas atmospheres at 650??C, when the gases were supersaturated with respect to graphite. The partial pressure of CO was varied between 0.25 and 0.9 atm, and the carbon activity was varied from 2.35 to 16, in order to obtain a series of experimental conditions. In most experiments, pO2 was less than 7.37E-24 atm, and no iron oxide could form. However, Cr2O3 would always have been stable. When exposed to these gases, both iron and steel developed a surface scale of Fe3C which was buried beneath a deposit of carbon, containing iron-rich nanoparticles (the dust). Examination by Scanning Electron Microscopy allowed the observation of fine and coarse carbon nanotubes, and also spiral filaments. However, the morphology of the graphitic carbon was not sensitive to pCO and aC. Moreover, the carbon deposit was gas permeable, allowing continuing gas access to the underlying metal. At a fixed=4.5, the carburizing rate clearly increased with CO content from 0.25 to 0.68 atm. However, increasing the CO content to higher value led to decreased rates, indicating that carburizing rate reaches a maximum value at pCO=0.68 atm. When pCO was fixed at 0.25 atm and 0.68 atm, and carbon activity was varied. The induction period was extended by the formation of protective oxide layers at low values of carbon activity (aC= 2.35 and 2.55) where pO2 exceed the iron oxide formation value. For other reaction conditions, the carbon uptake rate for iron and steel did not increase with aC. The present work showed that the carbon deposition rates were not proportional to pCO or pCOpH2. Instead, the rate was affected by the partial pressure of all three reaction gases, and the carbon uptake rate for both materials could be expressed at r=k1pCOpH2+k2pCO2+k3pH22 and the rate constant k3 has a negative value, corresponding to coke gasification. From XRD analyses, it was found that cementite was the only iron-containing phase in the dusting product. The cementite particles acted as catalysts for carbon deposition from the gas. The same deposition process at the surface of the cementite layer led to its disintegration, thereby producing the particles. This disintegration process was faster on the steel than on pure iron. Consequently, the rates of both metal wastage and coke accumulation were faster for the steel. It is concluded that chromium and molybdenum do not stabilize the carbide but accelerate its disintegration process. It is suggested that Cr2O3 fine particles in the cementite layers provide more nucleation sites in the cementite layer on steel, explaining its more rapid dusting kinetics. However, appropriate methods of proving this assumption, such as TEM and FIB, are required.

A study has been made of creep damge accumulation in two casts of l%.Cr-1/2%i.Mo low alloy steel. Creep tests and creep crack growth tests have been carried out at 823K to determine the nature of the damage accumulation and to attempt to relate microscopic damage mechanisms to the macroscopic fracture parameters. Four types of specimen were tested and failure of all occurred by the continuous nucleation. growth and coalescence of grain boundary cavities. A mechanism for the growth of cavities is suggested. based on grain boundary diffusion coupled with geometric constraint. The influence of continuous cavity nucleation has also been considered and it is suggested that this phenomenon initially increases the rate of diffusive cavity growth. However continuous nucleation decreases the growth rate once the latter becomes constrained. The effect of stress-state is also considered and increasing triaxiality is shown to have little effect on the unconstrained diffusive growth but it decreases the constrained growth rate by increasing the overall constraint in the specimen. Predicted growth rates give good agreement to those observed experimentally for both notched and un-notched creep specimens. Reasonable agreement is also observed to the predicted rupture lives although the predictions suggest notch strengthening whilst experimentally notch weakening is observed. This is thought to be due to non-uniform damage formation on loading. Based on the above concepts of cavity growth, constitutive equations are presented to predict the time dependence of creep strain. These are found to give good agreement to the experimentally determined strain rates, lending further support for the development of continuum damage mechanics as a means of assessing creep crack growth behaviour.

Ageing of low alloy steel in nuclear applications commonly takes the form as a hardening and an embrittlement of the material. This is due to the evolution of the microstructure during irradiation and at purely thermal conditions, as a combination or separate. Irradiation introduces evenly distributed solute clusters, while thermal ageing has been shown to yield a more inhomogeneous distribution. These clusters affect the dislocation motion within the material and results in a hardening and in more severe cases of ageing, also a decreased work hardening slope due to plastic strain localization into bands/channels. Embrittlement corresponds to decreased fracture toughness due to microstructural changes resulting from ageing. The thesis presents a possible framework for modeling of ageing effects in low alloy steels.In Paper I, a strain gradient plasticity framework is applied in order to capture length scale effects. The constitutive length scale is assumed to be related to the dislocation mean free path and the changes this undergoes during plastic deformation. Several evolution laws for the length scale were developed and implemented in a FEM-code considering 2D plane strain. This was used to solve a test problem of pure bending in order to investigate the effects of the length scale evolution. As all length scale evolution laws considered in this study results in a decreasing length scale; this leads to a loss of non-locality which causes an overall softening at cases where the strain gradient is dominating the solution. The results are in tentative agreement with phenomena of strain localization that is occurring in highly irradiated materials.In Paper II, the scalar stress measure for cleavage fracture is developed and generalized, here called the effective normal stress measure. This is used in a non-local weakest link model which is applied to two datasets from the literature in order to study the effects of the effective normal stress measure, as well as new experiments considering four-point bending of specimens containing a semi-elliptical surface crack. The model is shown to reproduce the failure probability of all considered datasets, i.e. well capable of transferring toughness information between different geometries.<br>Åldring av låglegerade stål i kärntekniska användningsområden framträder typiskt som ett hårdnande och en försprödning av materialet. Detta på grund av utvecklingen av mikrostrukturen under bestrålning och under rent termiska förhållanden. Bestrålning introducerar jämt fördelade kluster av legeringsämnen. Termisk åldring har däremot visats ge upphov till en mer ojämn fördelning. Klustren hämmar dislokationsrörelsen i materialet och ger därigenom upphov till en ökning av materialets sträckgräns, vid en mer påtaglig åldring det även leda till ett sänkt arbetshårdnande på grund av lokalisering av plastisk töjning i s.k. kanaler/band. Försprödning är en sänkning av materialets brottseghet som en följd av de mikrostrukturella förändringar som sker vid åldring. Arbetet som presenteras i den här avhandlingen har gjorts i syfte till att ta fram ett möjligt ramverk för modellering av låglegerade stål.I Artikel I, används en töjningsgradientbaserad plasticitetsteori för att kunna fånga längdskalebeteenden. Längdskalan i teorin antas vara relaterad till dislokationernas medelfria väg och den förändring den genomgår vid plastisk deformation. Flera utvecklingslagar för längdskalan har analyserats och implementerats i en finita element kod för 2D plan deformation. Denna implementering har använts för att lösa ett testproblem bestående av ren böjning med syfte att undersöka effekterna av utvecklingen hos längdskalan. Alla de utvecklingslagar som presenteras i artikeln ger en minskande längdskala, vilket leder till vad som valt att kallas förlust av icke-lokalitet. Fenomenet leder till ett övergripande mjuknande vid fall där den plastiska töjningsgradienten har stor inverkan på lösningen. Resultaten är i preliminär överenstämmelse med de typer av lokalisering av plastisk töjning som observerats i starkt bestrålade material.I Artikel II utvecklas ett generaliserat spänningsmått i syfte att beskriva klyvbrott, här benämnt effektivt normalspänningsmått. Detta har använts i samband med en icke-lokal svagaste länk modell, som har applicerats på två experimentella studier från den öppna litteraturen i syfte att studera effekterna av det effektiva normalspänningsmåttet. Utöver detta presenteras även nya experiment på ytspruckna provstavar under fyrpunktsböj. I artikeln visas att modellen återskapar sannolikheten för brott för alla undersökta experimentuppställningar, d.v.s. modellen visas vara väl duglig för att överföra brottseghet mellan geometrier.<br><p>QC 20190312</p>

Pin on disc wear machines were used to study the boundary lubricated friction and wear of AISI 52100 steel sliding partners. Boundary conditions were obtained by using speed and load combinations which resulted in friction coefficients in excess of 0.1. Lubrication was achieved using zero, 15 and 1000 ppm concentrations of an organic dimeric acid additive in a hydrocarbon base stock. Experiments were performed for sliding speeds of 0.2, 0.35 and 0.5 m/s for a range of loads up to 220 N. Wear rate, frictional force and pin temperature were continually monitored throughout tests and where possible complementary methods of measurement were used to improve accuracy. A number of analytical techniques were used to examine wear surfaces, debris and lubricants, namely: Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES), Powder X-ray Diffraction (XRD), X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS), optical microscopy, Back scattered Electron Detection (BSED) and several metallographic techniques. Friction forces and wear rates were found to vary linearly with load for any given combination of speed and additive concentration. The additive itself was found to act as a surface oxidation inhibitor and as a lubricity enhancer, particularly in the case of the higher (1000 ppm) concentration. Wear was found to be due to a mild oxidational mechanism at low additive concentrations and a more severe metallic mechanism at higher concentrations with evidence of metallic delamination in the latter case. Scuffing loads were found to increase with increasing additive concentration and decrease with increasing speed as would be predicted by classical models of additive behaviour as an organo-metallic soap film. Heat flow considerations tended to suggest that surface temperature was not the overriding controlling factor in oxidational wear and a model is proposed which suggests oxygen concentration in the lubricant is the controlling factor in oxide growth and wear.