Rozprawy doktorskie na temat „Young Drivers”

Internationally, young novice drivers (aged 17-25 years) are often overrepresented in road-related crash injury and fatality statistics. Compared with older, more experienced drivers, prominent contributors to young driver crash-risk is their lower perceived risk, higher engagement in risky driving behaviours (e.g., speeding), and poorer hazard perception skills. This thesis describes seven studies conducted to address three research aims. The first aim was to model and examine three psychological theories of personality, social–cognitive, and social-learning, to propose a new conceptual framework that explores how young novice drivers perceive driving risk, and whether they choose to engage or not in risky driving behaviours. In studies 1-4, using a sample of 643 young novice drivers (490 females) who held an Australian driver’s licence (Provisional-1, Provisional-2, or Open), models of: i) reinforcement sensitivity, ii) protection motivation, and iii) prototype willingness, were examined. From these models, factors of reward sensitivity, coping appraisal, threat appraisal, driver prototypes, and behavioural willingness predicted young driver perecived risk, and reported risky driving engagement. The second aim was to examine whether a developed and piloted brief hazard perception training session can improve Provisional-1 drivers (aged 17-25years) overall hazard perception knowledge, identification, response and handling to road user related driving hazards using a driving simulator. Educational, passive and active training methods incorporating a number of established behavioural change techniques were employed, while elements of process and product evaluation were undertaken. Also examined was whether any training group differences persisted at 2-3 week follow-up. In Study 5 a sample of 23 drivers (n=7 Provisional-1, n=7 Provisional-2, and n=9 Open licence) piloted and validated the training methods and hazard perception outcome measures. In Study 6, a brief training session was implemented with a sample of 52 (18 male) Provisional-1 licence drivers aged 17-25 years. Participants were equally randomised to four training conditions (pamphlet, passive, active, and no-training). Participants who received training significantly outperformed the no-training participants in hazard perception identification, response, and handling of hazards, in the simulator hazard perception test. When assessed again at a follow-up session (n=40), support was found for participants who received training that was higher in interactivity (passive and active training) outperforming the no-training participants and participants who only received an educational pamphlet in the hazard perception tests (static and simulator). The third aim was to evaluate whether the brief hazard perception training session’s key objectives were met using feedback from participants who completed the training session, and to identify whether factors identified from the new conceptual model (research aim 1) were associated with hazard perception performance. Study 7 evaluated the training session using feedback from drivers who participated in study 5 (N=52), and explored initial associations between protection motivation theory and the prototype willingness model for perceived risk, reported risky driving engagement, and hazard perception. This approach sought to expand the literature by examining factors associated with these three prominent young driver crash risk models to better adjust and address such factors in future training programs targeting safety outcomes. While potential correlates of hazard knowledge were examined, only three were found to share significant relationships: coping appraisal, previous traffic violations, and risky driver prototype similarity. From participant feedback, three key areas of learning were identified by participants: increased knowledge, awareness of new hazards, and greater awareness of driving laws and rules. A majority of participants in the training conditions also indicated that after the training session their understanding of driving hazard perception and driving related hazards had improved. Across training conditions, 91.5% (n=43) of participants who completed the evaluation measure indicated that they would recommend the session for other Provisional-1 drivers. Examining potential underlying influences for why young drivers are overrepresented in international injury and death tolls is important for road safety research and practice (e.g., driver-oriented interventions). Highlighted in this thesis are factors from the conceptual models that could be amenable to change in influencing young driver decision-making, perceived risk, and risky driving engagement, in addition to a brief training session that showed evidence of hazard perception improvement. These results may contribute to improved road safety initiatives, preventive strategies and interventions that focus on this vulnerable driver demographic.
Thesis (PhD Doctorate)
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
School of Applied Psychology
Griffith Health
Full Text

Doctor of Philosophy
Department of Civil Engineering
Sunanda Dissanayake
Young drivers have elevated motor vehicle crash rates compared to other drivers. This dissertation investigated characteristics, contributory causes, and factors which increase the injury severity of young driver crashes in Kansas by comparing them with more experienced drivers. Crash data were obtained from the Kansas Department of Transportation. Young drivers were divided into two groups: 15-19 years (teen) and 20-24 years (young adult) for a detailed investigation. Using data from 2006 to 2009, frequencies, percentages, and crash rates were calculated for each characteristic and contributory cause. Contingency table analysis and odds ratios (OR) analysis were carried out to identify overly represented factors of young-driver crashes compared to experienced drivers. Young drivers were more likely to be involved in crashes due to failure to yield-right-of way, disregarding traffic signs/signals, turning, or lane changing, compared to experienced drivers. Ordered logistic regression models were developed to identify severity affecting factors in young driver crashes. According to model results, factors that decreased injury severity of the driver were seat belt use, driving at low speeds, driving newer vehicles, and driving with an adult passenger. The models also showed that alcohol involvement, driving on high-posted-speed-limit roadways, ejection at the time of crash, and trapping at the time of crash can increase young drivers’ injury severity. Based on identified critical factors, countermeasure ideas were suggested to improve the safety of young drivers. It is important for teen drivers and parents/guardians to gain better understanding about these critical factors that are helpful in preventing crashes and minimizing driving risk. Parents/guardians can consider high-risk conditions such as driving during dark, during weekends, on rural roads, on wet road surfaces, and on roadways with high speed limits, for planning teen driving. Protective devices, crash-worthy cars, and safer road infrastructures, such as rumble strips, and forgiving roadsides, will particularly reduce young drivers’ risk. Predictable traffic situations and low complexity resulting from improved road infrastructure are beneficial for young drivers. The effectiveness of Kansas Graduated Driver Licensing (GDL) system needs to be investigated in the future.

The overall aim was to elucidate the effects of vehicle passengers on young drivers. This generated two specific aims and four papers. The first aim was to investigate the crash risk for young drivers with passengers and to establish whether such accidents involve any special circumstances compared to those that occur without passengers. This goal was achieved by analysing accident and exposure data from two registers. The second objective was to analyse the group processes that develop between four young men in a vehicle and to ascertain how those interactions affect driving behaviour. Those issues were addressed by performing an observational study of twelve young men driving an instrumented vehicle in real traffic with and without passengers. The interactions between the vehicle occupants were video and audio recorded, and the driving behaviour was registered in various ways. The results show that drivers with passengers have a lower crash risk compared to those driving alone regardless of the driver’s age, although this effect is weaker for young drivers (especially males) than for other age groups. Compared to driving alone, driving with passengers for young drivers is more extensively associated with single-vehicle crashes that occur at night, on weekends, and in rural areas on roads with higher speed limits, and it leads to more severe outcomes. It has also been found that the passengers sometimes try to induce the young drivers to act in either safer or more dangerous ways, although the drivers very often resist urging and coaxing from their passengers. Cohesion is another factor that affect the driver-passenger group: a high level of cohesion, especially task cohesion, is associated with a low number of unsafe driving actions. Consequently, it seems that the presence of passengers is not enough to ensure safe driving—substantial group cohesion is also necessary for such behaviour.
Det övergripande syftet med denna avhandling var att studera passagerares effekt på unga förare, vilket genererade två delsyften och fyra delarbeten. Det första delsyftet var att undersöka olycksrisken för unga förare med passagerare och att ta reda på om dessa olyckor skedde under några speciella omständigheter. För att få svar på syftet gjordes en registerstudie där olycks- och exponeringsdata från två olika register analyserades. Det andra delsyftet var att analysera de grupprocesser som utvecklas mellan fyra unga män i en bil och att studera hur dessa interaktioner påverkar körbeteendet. Detta undersöktes med en observationsstudie där tolv unga män fick köra en instrumenterad bil i verklig trafik, både med och utan passagerare. Interaktionerna som uppstod i bilen spelades in med hjälp av videokameror och mikrofoner och körbeteendet registrerades med olika mätinstrument. Resultatet visar att förare med passagerare har en lägre olycksrisk jämfört med förare utan passagerare oavsett förarens ålder. Denna effekt är inte lika stark för unga förare (speciellt inte unga män) som den är för övriga åldersgrupper. Unga förares olyckor med passagerare är också mer vanligt förekommande under speciella omständigheter. Jämfört med olyckor utan passagerare sker de i större utsträckning under nattetid, under veckoslut, i tätbebyggt område, på vägar med hög hastighetsbegränsning, de är oftare singelolyckor och de får mer allvarliga konsekvenser. Vidare visar resultaten att passagerare ibland, på olika sätt, försöker få den unga föraren att köra på ett annat sätt än vad de gör vilket kan betyda ett säkrare eller ett mer trafikfarligt beteende. Det verkar dock som att förarna oftast står emot dessa övertalningsförsök och förolämpningar. En annan faktor som påverkar gruppen är kohesion: en hög grad av kohesion, speciellt uppgiftskohesion, visar sig leda till färre trafikfarliga körbeteenden. Med andra ord verkar det som att blotta närvaron av passagerare inte räcker för att få ett säkert körbeteende; det behövs även en betydande grad av kohesion.

This pragmatic study consists of four cross-sectional and two inter-linked longitudinal studies designed to review two classroom-based interventions aimed at modifying driving related attitudes and self-reported driving behaviour. Subjects, (N=451), were divided into three groups. Subjects in Group 1 (N=176), learned to drive, passed the driving test and completed a questionnaire schedule. Group 2 subjects, (N=123), in addition to the above, attended classroom-based predriver training course while learning to drive. The subjects in Group 3, (N= 152), after learning to drive, received a classroom-based post-driver training course \\ithin three months of passing the driving test. Questionnaires were issued as the subjects started driver training (Time I), on passing the driving test (Time 2), three months post-test (Time 3) and nine months post-test (Time 4). The ftrst study, Time I, tested the predictive ability of Ajzen's (1985, 1988) Theory of Planned Behaviour with regard to the intentions of new drivers to conform to the social and legal conventions of driving and was successful in explaining 34% of the variance. Study two, Time 2, tested for increased driving knowledge and additional driving motives between groups for effects of the pre-driving test intervention. No support for this type of intervention was found. Study three, Time 3, assessed the performance of a post-test intervention informed by the Health Belief Model (Rosenstock, 1966) and Protection Motivation Theory (Rogers, 1975). Using the Drivers Skil1s Inventory (Lajunen and Summala, 1995), results revealed that subjects in Group 3 perceived themselves to be signiftcantly less skilled and less safe. Study four, Time 4, was designed to test for effects of both interventions at nine-months post-test The results revealed that only those subjects in Group 3 had better behavioural intentions with regard to speeding behaviour. Overall no support was found for pre-driver training. However, limited support was found for post-driver training in influencing self-reported driving behaviour.

Road trauma is recognized as a major public health problem worldwide (particularly for younger drivers), and risky driving has been identified as an important contributor to road crashes. It is often assumed that similar factors influence all risky driving behaviours, although direct and systematic examination of the differences between risky driving behaviours in terms of precipitating factors is lacking. The present thesis sought to undertake a systematic investigation of relevant factors in the prediction of four key risky driving behaviours (speeding, drink-driving, driving while fatigued, and not wearing seat belts). Four versions of a Risky Driving Questionnaire were developed to assess beliefs, personality factors and behavioural intentions, in relation to each of the four behaviours. Four versions of the Implicit Association Test were developed to assess attitudes toward each of the four behaviours, without reliance on self-report (in terms of the relative strength of pairs of associations). Data were collected from a student sample (N=215: Study 1), as well as urban (N=587) and rural (N=422) general population samples (Study 2), and regression models were examined for each of the four behaviours, with interaction terms to assess moderations involving perceived risk. Mediations involving gender were also assessed. Results indicate that different risky driving behaviours are predicted by different factors. For example, in the urban sample, speeding was predicted by driver anger and illusory invulnerability, drink driving was predicted by peer influence, driving while fatigued was predicted by the perceived benefits of not driving while fatigued, and not wearing seat belts was predicted by the (sensation seeking x illusory invulnerability) interaction. Results also suggest that different predictors of risky driving behaviours are relevant for different driver populations. For example, speeding was predicted by authority rebellion in the urban sample, and by sensation seeking in the rural sample. Observed moderations of perceived risk suggest that relationships between perceived risk and risky driving may differ for males versus females, and for low versus high sensation seekers. Findings suggest that future road safety interventions should be based on research of the determinants of individual risky driving behaviours, and in specific driver populations.

Young novice drivers - that is, drivers aged 16-25 years who are relatively inexperienced in driving on the road and have a novice (Learner, Provisional) driver's licence - have been overrepresented in car crash, injury and fatality statistics around the world for decades. There are numerous persistent characteristics evident in young novice driver crashes, fatalities and offences, including variables relating to the young driver themselves, broader social influences which include their passengers, the car they drive, and when and how they drive, and their risky driving behaviour in particular. Moreover, there are a range of psychosocial factors influencing the behaviour of young novice drivers, including the social influences of parents and peers, and person-related factors such as age-related factors, attitudes, and sensation seeking. Historically, a range of approaches have been developed to manage the risky driving behaviour of young novice drivers. Traditional measures predominantly relying upon education have had limited success in regulating the risky driving behaviour of the young novice driver. In contrast, interventions such as graduated driver licensing (GDL) which acknowledges young novice drivers' limitations - principally pertaining to their chronological and developmental age, and their driving inexperience - have shown to be effective in ameliorating this pervasive public health problem. In practice, GDL is a risk management tool that is designed to reduce driving at risky times (e.g., at night) or in risky driving conditions (e.g., with passengers), while still enabling novice drivers to obtain experience. In this regard, the GDL program in Queensland, Australia, was considerably enhanced in July 2007, and major additions to the program include mandated Learner practice of 100 hours recorded in a logbook, and passenger limits during night driving in the Provisional phase. Road safety researchers have also continued to consider the influential role played by the young driver's psychosocial characteristics, including psychological traits and states. In addition, whilst the majority of road safety user research is epidemiological in nature, contemporary road safety research is increasingly applying psychological and criminological theories. Importantly, such theories not only can guide young novice driver research, they can also inform the development and evaluation of countermeasures targeting their risky driving behaviour. The research is thus designed to explore the self-reported behaviours - and the personal, psychosocial, and structural influences upon the behaviours - of young novice drivers This thesis incorporates three stages of predominantly quantitative research to undertake a comprehensive investigation of the risky driving behaviour of young novices. Risky driving behaviour increases the likelihood of the young novice driver being involved in a crash which may harm themselves or other road users, and deliberate risky driving such as driving in excess of the posted speed limits is the focus of the program of research. The extant literature examining the nature of the risky behaviour of the young novice driver - and the contributing factors for this behaviour - while comprehensive, has not led to the development of a reliable instrument designed specifically to measure the risky behaviour of the young novice driver. Therefore the development and application of such a tool (the Behaviour of Young Novice Drivers Scale, or BYNDS) was foremost in the program of research. In addition to describing the driving behaviours of the young novice, a central theme of this program of research was identifying, describing, and quantifying personal, behavioural, and environmental influences upon young novice driver risky behaviour. Accordingly the 11 papers developed from the three stages of research which comprise this thesis are framed within Bandura's reciprocal determinism model which explicitly considers the reciprocal relationship between the environment, the person, and their behaviour. Stage One comprised the foundation research and operationalised quantitative and qualitative methodologies to finalise the instrument used in Stages Two and Three. The first part of Stage One involved an online survey which was completed by 761 young novice drivers who attended tertiary education institutions across Queensland. A reliable instrument for measuring the risky driving behaviour of young novices was developed (the BYNDS) and is currently being operationalised in young novice driver research in progress at the Centre for Injury Research and Prevention in Philadelphia, USA. In addition, regression analyses revealed that psychological distress influenced risky driving behaviour, and the differential influence of depression, anxiety, sensitivity to punishments and rewards, and sensation seeking propensity were explored. Path model analyses revealed that punishment sensitivity was mediated by anxiety and depression; and the influence of depression, anxiety, reward sensitivity and sensation seeking propensity were moderated by the gender of the driver. Specifically, for males, sensation seeking propensity, depression, and reward sensitivity were predictive of self-reported risky driving, whilst for females anxiety was also influential. In the second part of Stage One, 21 young novice drivers participated in individual and small group interviews. The normative influences of parents, peers, and the Police were explicated. Content analysis supported four themes of influence through punishments, rewards, and the behaviours and attitudes of parents and friends. The Police were also influential upon the risky driving behaviour of young novices. The findings of both parts of Stage One informed the research of Stage Two. Stage Two was a comprehensive investigation of the pre-Licence and Learner experiences, attitudes, and behaviours, of young novice drivers. In this stage, 1170 young novice drivers from across Queensland completed an online or paper survey exploring their experiences, behaviours and attitudes as a pre- and Learner driver. The majority of novices did not drive before they were licensed (pre-Licence driving) or as an unsupervised Learner, submitted accurate logbooks, intended to follow the road rules as a Provisional driver, and reported practicing predominantly at the end of the Learner period. The experience of Learners in the enhanced-GDL program were also examined and compared to those of Learner drivers who progressed through the former-GDL program (data collected previously by Bates, Watson, & King, 2009a). Importantly, current-GDL Learners reported significantly more driving practice and a longer Learner period, less difficulty obtaining practice, and less offence detection and crash involvement than Learners in the former-GDL program. The findings of Stage Two informed the research of Stage Three. Stage Three was a comprehensive exploration of the driving experiences, attitudes and behaviours of young novice drivers during their first six months of Provisional 1 licensure. In this stage, 390 of the 1170 young novice drivers from Stage Two completed another survey, and data collected during Stages Two and Three allowed a longitudinal investigation of self-reported risky driving behaviours, such as GDL-specific and general road rule compliance; risky behaviour such as pre-Licence driving, crash involvement and offence detection; and vehicle ownership, paying attention to Police presence, and punishment avoidance. Whilst the majority of Learner and Provisional drivers reported compliance with GDL-specific and general road rules, 33% of Learners and 50% of Provisional drivers reported speeding by 10-20 km/hr at least occasionally. Twelve percent of Learner drivers reported pre-Licence driving, and these drivers were significantly more risky as Learner and Provisional drivers. Ten percent of males and females reported being involved in a crash, and 10% of females and 18% of males had been detected for an offence, within the first six months of independent driving. Additionally, 75% of young novice drivers reported owning their own car within six months of gaining their Provisional driver's licence. Vehicle owners reported significantly shorter Learner periods and more risky driving exposure as a Provisional driver. Paying attention to Police presence on the roads appeared normative for young novice drivers: 91% of Learners and 72% of Provisional drivers reported paying attention. Provisional drivers also reported they actively avoided the Police: 25% of males and 13% of females; 23% of rural drivers and 15% of urban drivers. Stage Three also allowed the refinement of the risky behaviour measurement tool (BYNDS) created in Stage One; the original reliable 44-item instrument was refined to a similarly reliable 36-item instrument. A longitudinal exploration of the influence of anxiety, depression, sensation seeking propensity and reward sensitivity upon the risky behaviour of the Provisional driver was also undertaken using data collected in Stages Two and Three. Consistent with the research of Stage One, structural equation modeling revealed anxiety, reward sensitivity and sensation seeking propensity predicted self-reported risky driving behaviour. Again, gender was a moderator, with only reward sensitivity predicting risky driving for males. A measurement model of Akers' social learning theory (SLT) was developed containing six subscales operationalising the four constructs of differential association, imitation, personal attitudes, and differential reinforcement, and the influence of parents and peers was captured within the items in a number of these constructs. Analyses exploring the nature and extent of the psychosocial influences of personal characteristics (step 1), Akers' SLT (step 2), and elements of the prototype/willingness model (PWM) (step 3) upon self-reported speeding by the Provisional driver in a hierarchical multiple regression model found the following significant predictors: gender (male), car ownership (own car), reward sensitivity (greater sensitivity), depression (greater depression), personal attitudes (more risky attitudes), and speeding (more speeding) as a Learner. The research findings have considerable implications for road safety researchers, policy-makers, mental health professionals and medical practitioners alike. A broad range of issues need to be considered when developing, implementing and evaluating interventions for both the intentional and unintentional risky driving behaviours of interest. While a variety of interventions have been historically utilised, including education, enforcement, rehabilitation and incentives, caution is warranted. A multi-faceted approach to improving novice road safety is more likely to be effective, and new and existing countermeasures should capitalise on the potential of parents, peers and Police to be a positive influence upon the risky behaviour of young novice drivers. However, the efficacy of some interventions remains undetermined at this time. Notwithstanding this caveat, countermeasures such as augmenting and strengthening Queensland's GDL program and targeting parents and adolescents particularly warrant further attention. The findings of the research program suggest that Queensland's current-GDL can be strengthened by increasing compliance of young novice drivers with existing conditions and restrictions. The rates of speeding reported by the young Learner driver are particularly alarming for a number of reasons. The Learner is inexperienced in driving, and travelling in excess of speed limits places them at greater risk as they are also inexperienced in detecting and responding appropriately to driving hazards. In addition, the Learner period should provide the foundation for a safe lifetime driving career, enabling the development and reinforcement of non-risky driving habits. Learners who sped reported speeding by greater margins, and at greater frequencies, when they were able to drive independently. Other strategies could also be considered to enhance Queensland's GDL program, addressing both the pre-Licence adolescent and their parents. Options that warrant further investigation to determine their likely effectiveness include screening and treatment of novice drivers by mental health professionals and/or medical practitioners; and general social skills training. Considering the self-reported pre-licence driving of the young novice driver, targeted education of parents may need to occur before their child obtains a Learner licence. It is noteworthy that those participants who reported risky driving during the Learner phase also were more likely to report risky driving behaviour during the Provisional phase; therefore it appears vital that the development of safe driving habits is encouraged from the beginning of the novice period. General education of parents and young novice drivers should inform them of the considerably-increased likelihood of risky driving behaviour, crashes and offences associated with having unlimited access to a vehicle in the early stages of intermediate licensure. Importantly, parents frequently purchase the car that is used by the Provisional driver, who typically lives at home with their parents, and therefore parents are ideally positioned to monitor the journeys of their young novice driver during this early stage of independent driving. Parents are pivotal in the development of their driving child: they are models who are imitated and are sources of attitudes, expectancies, rewards and punishments; and they provide the most driving instruction for the Learner. High rates of self-reported speeding by Learners suggests that GDL programs specifically consider the nature of supervision during the Learner period, encouraging supervisors to be vigilant to compliance with general and GDL-specific road rules, and especially driving in excess of speed limit. Attitudes towards driving are formed before the adolescent reaches the age when they can be legally licensed. Young novice drivers with risky personal attitudes towards driving reported more risky driving behaviour, suggesting that countermeasures should target such attitudes and that such interventions might be implemented before the adolescent is licensed. The risky behaviours and attitudes of friends were also found to be influential, and given that young novice drivers tend to carry their friends as their passengers, a group intervention such as provided in a school class context may prove more effective. Social skills interventions that encourage the novice to resist the negative influences of their friends and their peer passengers, and to not imitate the risky driving behaviour of their friends, may also be effective. The punishments and rewards anticipated from and administered by friends were also found to influence the self-reported risky behaviour of the young novice driver; therefore young persons could be encouraged to sanction the risky, and to reward the non-risky, driving of their novice friends. Adolescent health programs and related initiatives need to more specifically consider the risks associated with driving. Young novice drivers are also adolescents, a developmental period associated with depression and anxiety. Depression, anxiety, and sensation seeking propensity were found to be predictive of risky driving; therefore interventions targeting psychological distress, whilst discouraging the expression of sensation seeking propensity whilst driving, warrant development and trialing. In addition, given that reward sensitivity was also predictive, a scheme which rewards novice drivers for safe driving behaviour - rather than rewarding the novice through emotional and instrumental rewards for risky driving behaviour - requires further investigation. The Police were also influential in the risky driving behaviour of young novices. Young novice drivers who had been detected for an offence, and then avoided punishment, reacted differentially, with some drivers appearing to become less risky after the encounter, whilst for others their risky behaviour appeared to be reinforced and therefore was more likely to be performed again. Such drivers saw t

This program of research aimed to contribute to reducing the high road trauma rate among young drivers by identifying ways to enhance their compliance with the existing road rules. Specifically, this research refined the application of deterrence theory to road safety and investigated both legal and non-legal factors that influence young driver's road rule compliance, with a focus on speeding, mobile phone use while driving and graduated driver licensing restrictions. The results present a number of theoretical implications for deterrence theory and practical implications for road safety.

Worldwide, young drivers are involved in more road traffic collisions than any other age group (Taubman & Katz, 2012). Comprehensive driver training and various forms of pre- and- post-test road safety interventions (RSIs) are in place, but young drivers continue to be involved in more at-fault, fatal collisions than older, newly qualified drivers (e.g. Emmerson, 2008; Braitman et al, 2008; Clarke et al, 2010). The evidence base to date is mixed regarding why young drivers are at a heightened risk of collision and so this thesis aims to provide further understanding about the factors underpinning young drivers’ engagement in risky driving. An evaluation of a young driver RSI, found that young males were less likely than young females to report safer attitudes and intentions after attending the RSI. We considered that this may be due to young males’ behaviour being motivated by a desire to seek rewards (e.g. the thrill of risky driving) rather than a fear of punishment which forms the basis of traditional RSIs. Two subsequent studies were conducted to ascertain whether a heightened sensitivity to reward might underpin the risk-taking behaviour of those most at risk. We found that young males and females scoring high on reward sensitivity reported engaging in more road traffic violations and displayed slower reaction times on a driving game; suggesting that young people may have a heightened sensitivity to reward, in general, and concurrently tend to accept a higher degree of risk than other drivers. We also found that reward sensitive young drivers rated road safety messages framed in terms of financial gains as most effective, suggesting that financial incentives may be a potential route to engage young drivers in the future. The findings from another study provided insight into the precise mechanisms at play in the relationship between young drivers and their peer passengers, and the evaluation of the pilot peer-to-peer RSI showed how it might be possible to improve young drivers’ intentions to drive safely by modifying the norm that risky driving is an appropriate way to attain social prestige within a peer group. The thesis offers a significant contribution to the literature by establishing empirically the effect of reward sensitivity on young drivers’ engagement in risky driving and suggesting multiple ways to better improve young drivers’ safety in the future.

Doctor of Philosophy
Department of Civil Engineering
Sunanda Dissanayake
Young drivers are over-represented in crashes when compared to other age group drivers. Distracted driving is one of the major causes of traffic crashes by young drivers. The objective of this study was to assess the hazards of distracted driving among teenage (15–20 year old) and young-adult (21–26 year old) drivers in Kansas. This study used five years of crash data from the Kansas Crash and Analysis Reporting System (KCARS) database from 2011 to 2015. A multinomial logit modeling was used to identify the odds that a driver with a certain type of distraction would be involved in one of the three most common crash types: rear-end, angular, and single-vehicle crashes. Furthermore, ordered logistic modeling was used to analyze the crash data to identify the odds of more severe injuries for teenage and young-adult distracted drivers and their passengers involved in crashes. Survey data was used to develop a structural equation model (SEM) to define the relationship among young drivers’ characteristics (e.g., participants’ socioeconomic and demographic status), attitudes, and behaviors associated with distracted driving and cell phone use while driving. Preliminary analysis showed that more than 12% of the total young drivers’ crashes were distraction-affected crashes. According to the multinomial logit model results, most distraction types for teenage and young-adult drivers are related to rear-end or angular collisions. However, when distracted by cell phones at night, teenage drivers had a greater probability of being involved in single-vehicle crashes. In addition, when teenage drivers drove with their peers as front-seat passengers and were distracted in/on vehicle or by other electronic devices, they were more likely to be involved in single-vehicle crashes. Young-adult drivers distracted in/on vehicle or by cell phones under different conditions such as while driving old or sport utility vehicles, on curved roads, or at intersections, they were more likely to be involved in single-vehicle or angular crashes. Whereas, when they were inattentive during the weekend, rear-end collisions were the most likely collision type. According to the results of the ordered logistic model, teenage and young-adult drivers were more likely to be severely injured in cell phone-related crashes. More specifically, female teenage drivers had a greater probability of being severely injured than male teenage drivers when they were distracted by a cell phone, inside the vehicle, or were inattentive. Young-adult drivers that were distracted on road construction work zones by a cell phone or inside the vehicle, they and their passengers had a greater likelihood of sustaining a severe injury. The SEM results revealed that teenage drivers are more prone than young-adult drivers to drive while distracted and are less likely to support the Kansas laws that ban cell phone use while driving. Also, the model results showed that young drivers who have been involved in crashes or near-crashes during the previous year are more likely to drive while distracted. These results indicate that distractions create threats to the lives of young Kansas drivers, their passengers, and other road users.

Young drivers are over represented in traffic crashes throughout the world and despite considerable efforts to date, there is still considerable work to be undertaken to develop interventions that will aid in the reduction of this road trauma. Historically, road safety research has been more focused on evaluative research rather than the application of theory and this has effects on the success of interventions. This research used a well supported social psychological theory (Theory of Planned Behavior [TPB]) to investigate the relationship between attitudes and behavior in young drivers with a view to determining if there was an opportunity to move towards acceptable and appropriate interventions to reduce young drivers' involvement in traffic crashes.

Introduction: This study moves to examine the prevalence of risky driving behaviors and deficiency of communication pertinent to topics related to safe driving among adolescents in central Appalachia. Even though plenty of research displays the consequences associated with driving, drivers continue to take part in risky behaviors such as texting while driving, riding in a vehicle without wearing a seatbelt, and riding in a vehicle with someone who has been drinking. Methods: Participants of the study included three high schools in Southwest Virginia consisting of 385 11th and 12th grade students. Students were administered a paper-pencil survey either during homeroom or last period with questions taken from the Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance Survey. Results: The results of the study indicate the frequent occurrence of young drivers engaging in risky driving behaviors associated with texting while driving and not wearing a seatbelt as both passenger and driver in a vehicle. Additionally, the results of the study indicate that there is a lack of healthcare provider communication related to risks associated with driving. This information is crucial because the data demonstrates the missed opportunity to provide better education to adolescents on how they can prevent harm to their lives or the lives of other citizens while driving. Conclusion: After analyzing these results, it becomes evident that more education about safe driving behaviors is crucial for benefiting the young drivers of this region. Because road injury is the leading cause of death among adolescents, it is paramount to provide educational resources to young drivers to decrease the impact of injuries and deaths related to risky driving behaviors. There resides a missed opportunity to educate adolescents about behaviors that may risk their lives or those of their peers and loved ones. In addition, researchers can conduct further studies to examine effective safe driving education programs to decrease the risk behaviors commonly engaged in by adolescent drivers.

This thesis took a novel approach to examining factors associated with risky attitudes and risky road use in China by investigating the economic and political background status of a sample of young Chinese drivers. Using data from an online survey significant relationships are found between some family background factors and road safety variables. Correlation analysis, ANOVA, hierarchical regression analysis and structural equation modelling are applied in this study, with culture, personality and demographic variables as additional factors for a better understanding of the key findings. The findings are discussed in light of China's political management system and potential education opportunities for young drivers.

Young drivers have markedly higher motor vehicle crash-risk and crash involvement rates than do older drivers, and are severely over-represented in both morbidity and mortality rates related to vehicle crashes. Underpinning these findings is the tendency for young drivers to engage in more risk-taking whilst driving than older drivers. The current research focuses on unsafe driving behaviours. Unsafe driving behaviours satisfy Arnett’s (1992) three criteria of recklessness: they lack mainstream social approval and may even involve violations of the law; they carry strong connotations of negative consequences by placing drivers and/or their passengers at risk of morbidity, mortality, and other negative outcomes; and, by definition, they involve deliberate deviations from safe driving. Examples of these behaviours include speeding, tailgating, driving whilst using a mobile phone, driving whilst under the influence of alcohol and other psychoactive substances, and driving whilst tired or fatigued, all of which compromise both driving performance and driving safety. These are also more common amongst younger than older drivers. The current dissertation describes an application of Mischel and Shoda’s (1995) Cognitive-Affective Personality System (CAPS) to unsafe driving behaviours. CAPS is a meta-theoretical framework that fuses research from cognitive-social theory, as well as research on connectionism and activation. CAPS posits that personality consists of a mental representation comprised of a stable system of processes or dispositions, called Cognitive-Affective Units (CAUs), which mediate the relationship between features of the situation and subsequent behaviours. The CAPS model is distinctive in that it allows researchers to evaluate multiple, relevant predictors within a comprehensive, general framework and allows for the assessment of their inter-relations.
Thesis (PhD Doctorate)
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
School of Applied Psychology
Griffith Health
Full Text

Public Health
Ph.D.
The use of mobile communication devices (MCDs) by drivers is a significant public health problem. Research suggests that MCD use plays a role in almost 400,000 traffic crashes each year, resulting in over 3,000 deaths (NHTSA, 2013). Drivers using an MCD are as much as four times more likely to crash as other motorists (Redelmeier & Tibshirani, 1997). Since 2001 forty-eight states have adopted one or more laws aimed at reducing the use of MCDs by drivers, many of which have been strengthened through subsequent amendments. Evaluations have yielded a mixed picture of their effectiveness (Braitman & McCartt, 2010; Highway Loss Data Institute, 2010; McCartt & Geary, 2004; McCartt, Hellinga, Strouse, & Farmer, 2010). Existing studies, however, have been limited by various design features. This study employs time-series methods to explore whether laws prohibiting use of MCDs by young drivers effectively reduce crash fatalities. The quasi-experimental design relies on an identification strategy that is common in empirical legal studies but has not yet been applied to laws regulating driver MCD use. The implementation of the identification strategy leverages the developing concept of legal epidemiology. Four state laws are ultimately evaluated. The primary analytic approach is difference-in-difference. In two of the four instances, there is some evidence suggesting a protective effect could be attributed to the law. However, this evidence was limited and differed in relation to specification choices. These findings cast doubt on some fifty state panel analyses that have suggested that laws are effectively decreasing MCD use and associated harms.
Temple University--Theses

Young drivers are early technology adopters. Rapid developments in consumer-oriented technologies (COTs) provide opportunities to encourage safer driving amongst them. Safer driving can potentially reduce road trauma. This thesis focused on using a smartphone safe-driving app and VR software as intervention tools in two separate COTs-based interventions. The undertaken approach closely mimicked their use in real-life conditions. The targeted behaviours were speeding and driving under the influence of alcohol or drugs. By evaluating the two interventions, this multidisciplinary research contributed to a better understanding of the effect of using the two examples of COTs outside the laboratory.

Recent evidence in the road safety research literature indicates that skills in hazard perception, visual search and attention may be developing executive functions in young novice drivers before the age of 25 years, contributing to their unintentional risk taking behaviour and subsequent high crash rates. The present research aimed to investigate these skills, whether they are predictive of each other, and whether hazard perception can be improved through road commentary training. Twenty-two young novice drivers and eight experienced drivers were recruited as participants in this study. The experienced drivers performed significantly better than the novice drivers on the hazard detection task that was specifically designed for the study. Their visual search skills were also examined and compared using the Visual Search and Attention Test, with the experienced drivers performing significantly better than the novice drivers. Interestingly, a significant positive correlation was found between the scores of the participants on the hazard detection task and the Visual Search and Attention Test which may indicate that the hazard detection skills can be predicted. The novice driver group who received 12 trials of video based road commentary training significantly improved in their hazard detection skills, suggesting that video based road commentary could be an effective road safety intervention for young novice drivers and if developed into a more comprehensive programme, holds promise for future implementation into the New Zealand Graduated Driver Licensing System. The results also hold promise for future investigation into the use of the Visual Search and Attention Test as a predictor of hazard perception skills in novice drivers.

The aims and objectives of this thesis were to examine the reasons for the high proportion of collisions resulting in death or serious injuries, especially to young drivers on Northern Ireland roads by examining why they suffer more deaths and injuries than their proportion in the population. This was achieved by issuing and analysing a questionnaire based on one previously issued in GB; conducting a Naturalistic Driving experiment with a qualified, approved driving instructor and his pupils to study the use of an audible signal as a means of highlighting hazards; and desk research. Results showed that new drivers in Northern Ireland are not significantly different from those in GB and that an audible signal can be useful in slowing down drivers ahead of a hazard. It was concluded that traffic fatalities have reduced because of the depressed economy but are likely to rise as the economy improves and that the use of a pre-emptive/advanced warning or signal could be one means of enabling young driver road traffic fatalities to remain low, even as the economy improves and more younger drivers start driving on the roads.

A long-standing challenge for public health and safety is that motor vehicle crashes (MVCs) are the leading cause of death for U.S. teenagers, a population with disproportionately high crash involvement relative to other road users. Quantitative and qualitative research has identified distracted driving as a significant contributor to young drivers’ overrepresentation in MVCs. This study was designed in the context of this notable public health concern, and the primary goal was to examine psychological factors that are hypothesized, via the Theory of Planned Behavior, to underlie teenage drivers’ decisions to text-while-driving (TWD) with a focus on the influence of ADHD symptoms. The psychological factors of interest were attitudes toward TWD, perceptions of crash risk while TWD, self-perceptions of competence as a driver, and perceptions of task performance. The aims of this project were addressed through a program evaluation of an experiential driver training program designed to educate young novice drivers on the dangers associated with TWD. This program, Turn Off Texting (TOT), was designed and run by the Youth Safety Council of Vermont and the Vermont Department of Motor Vehicles, Safety and Education Unit. Participants included 1203 high school teenagers who participated in 42 TOT program demonstrations across Vermont. The first aim of this study was to examine the influence of ADHD symptoms on psychological factors and behavioral intentions while controlling for and examining the effects of age, gender, and driving experience. ADHD symptoms were associated with more favorable attitudes toward TWD, greater intentions to TWD in the future, and lesser intentions to intervene on a distracted driver in the future. Male gender and increased driving experience also tended to be associated with riskier attitudes, perceptions, and intentions. The second aim of this work was to examine if the psychological factors mediate the associations between ADHD symptoms and the two behavioral intention variables. Results from multiple mediation models showed that only attitudes toward TWD mediated the relations for both intentions to TWD and to intervene in the future. ADHD symptoms continued to have a direct effect on behavioral intentions even when accounting for the indirect effects of the psychological factors; these findings suggest a direct relation of ADHD symptoms and an indirect relation via attitudes. The third and final aim of this study was to investigate the influence of ADHD symptoms, as well as age, gender, and driving experience, on the rate of change in the psychological factors and behavioral intention variables over the course of the TOT program. Findings from two-level regression models showed that the TOT program generally was effective in its goal to produce safer views in regards to the psychological factors and intended behaviors. As hypothesized, ADHD symptoms were associated with less change toward safer attitudes, perceptions of crash risk, and both intentions to TWD and intentions to intervene in the future; the influences of male gender and increased driving experience were similar in their associations with less change toward safer attitudes, perceptions, and intentions. The findings from this study’s three aims have important implications for the development and continued evaluation of specialized driver training programs. Namely, attitudes toward TWD are a viable target for intervention given this factor’s direct and indirect (in the association of ADHD symptoms) effect on intended behavior. Increasing ADHD symptoms and male gender were associated with less change over the course of the program, which represent two areas for more specialized intervention and study.

In Norway, as well as in many other countries, traffic accidents are one of the greatest threats against adolescents’ health. Young Norwegian drivers are found to have 10-15 times as high a risk of being involved in traffic accidents compared to other drivers, and more than every forth Norwegian driver who is involved in traffic accidents resulting in physical injuries is 24 years of age or younger. The high accident rate indicates that traffic safety promotion may be of particular relevance to young drivers.

One way of influencing safer driving practices is through the use of public road safety campaigns. The effect of such campaigns has, however, been questioned. Several literature reviews have concluded that the majority of traffic safety campaigns aimed at influencing drivers’ attitudes or behaviour have failed to document any effects on the number of accidents. The supposed influence of attitudes on driving behaviour has also been questioned. On the other hand, a metaanalysis carried out recently suggests that campaigns be the most efficient measure to improve safety on the roads. This suggests that road safety campaigns still may be a useful mean for promoting road safety.

There may be several reasons for the campaigns’ apparent lack of success, as well as the uncertain relation between attitudes, driving behaviour and traffic accidents. This thesis aims at giving a more thoroughly insight into the dimensionality of adolescents attitudes to traffic safety, as well as the association between attitudes and driving behaviour. The motivations underlying attitudes and behaviour are also studied in terms of the correspondence between personality traits and young drivers’ safety orientation in traffic. Finally, the role of adolescent passengers as “guardian angels” is addressed.

The present thesis consists of four studies. The first study aims at developing a reliable and valid measure of adolescents’ risk-taking attitudes and how such a measure relates to driving behaviour and accident involvement. The second study investigates how personality dispositions are related to adolescents’ safety orientation in traffic. The third study aims at identifying reliable and valid subtypes of young drivers on the basis of personality characteristics. The fourth study has a different point of departure, focusing on the role of adolescent passengers rather than the drivers. This last study examines factors that may enhance or prevent adolescent passengers to promote safe driving among their peer drivers.

The results of study 1 demonstrated that adolescents’ attitudes towards risk-taking in traffic were multidimensional. The reported attitudes on the dimensions demonstrated that adolescents think differently concerning these aspects of traffic safety. On some dimensions, most adolescents report quite ideal attitudes concerning safety, on other dimensions the picture is the opposite. The attitude dimensions identified were related to both risk-taking behaviour in traffic and accident involvement. However, the influence of the various dimensions on behaviour differed in magnitude. This implies that some dimensions were more important predictors of behaviour than others. Thus, the attitude dimensions with the highest correspondence with self-reported behaviour could be given special attention when traffic safety programs are carried out.

The results of study 2 suggested that the relation between the personality traits and driving violations was mediated through attitudes. On this basis it was concluded that personality traits primarily influence risky driving behaviour indirectly through affecting the attitudinal determinants of the behaviour. This suggests that deeperlying motivations represented as personality traits is reflected in adolescents’ attitudes towards traffic safety. A practical implication of the results would be to acknowledge the importance of personality traits in traffic safety campaigns. Consequently, the messages of attitude campaigns could be tailored according to certain personality characteristic, in order to appeal to high-risk drivers. However, if risk-taking attitudes are partly a consequence of permanent motivational factors, this implies that drivers’ risk-taking attitudes may be difficult to change trough traditional mass-media campaigns.

Study 3 identified six subtypes of young drivers on the basis of a cluster analysis of personality measures. The subtypes were found to differ on self-reported risky driving behaviour, attitudes towards traffic safety, risk perception, estimation of own driving skills, and accident involvement. Two of the subtypes were identified as high-risk groups in traffic. The subtypes were also found to differ on how they evaluated and responded to a traffic safety campaign. The results indicated that the campaign seemed to appeal most to the low-risk subtypes and least to the high-risk subtypes. Gender differences within each subtype were also found on the different traffic related measures, as well as on response to the campaign. It is concluded that young drivers should not be treated as a homogenous group pertaining to road safety.

Study 4 showed that there were several factors influencing adolescents’ willingness to address risky driving. Females were in general most likely to report that they spoke out to the driver when feeling unsafe in the car. Males seemed to perceive more negative consequences of addressing unsafe drives, to be less confident in their ability to influence an unsafe driver, to be more likely to accept risk taking from other drivers, and perceive less risk than females. In turn, these beliefs affected the likelihood of confronting an unsafe driver. The results also demonstrated that a relatively large proportion of the adolescents thought that it is acceptable to ride with an unsafe driver. This kind of belief lessened the likelihood of addressing unsafe driving, as well as being most prominent among passengers who ride with friends with risky driving habits.

Possible implications of the results of the four studies for both driver-focused and peer-focused interventions aimed at promoting road safety are discussed.

The aim of the present study was to investigate the correlates and predictors of hazard perception skill among drivers. Specifically, it was examined whether novice and experienced drivers would differ from each other in terms of hazard perception skill. In addition, the role of personality factors and driving skills in predicting hazard perception among drivers was inspected. Drivers&rsquo
hazard perception skills were assessed by using both a computer-based hazard perception latency test (Turkish Hazard Perception Test in Traffic) which consists 31 video clips recorded in real traffic, and a self-report measure (Self-Reported Hazard Perception Scale). Following the completion of hazard perception measures, Turkish drivers (N = 135
90 males, 45 females) also responded to the measures of driving skills, big five personality factors, and sensation seeking. The results of the study indicated that both computer-based and self-reported hazard perception measures significantly differentiated novice and experienced drivers after controlling for the effects of age. Results of the regression analyses demonstrated that computer-based hazard perception skills were significantly predicted by perceptual motor skills subscale of the Driving Skill Inventory. Self-reported hazard perception skill was also strongly predicted by age and perceptual motor skills. The results further revealed that sensation seeking and big five traits did not predict either the computer-based or the self-reported hazard perception skill among drivers. It was concluded that the effects of personality factors could be more observable in on-road assessment of hazard perception. However, the significant difference between novice and experienced drivers showed that hazard perception training should be included to the driver-training curriculum in Turkey as an intervention to promote young novice drivers safety. The findings of the present study were argued in the light of the literature and in relation to the implications for traffic safety in Turkey. Additionally, limitations of the study and suggestions for future researches were discussed.

Merging from on-ramps to mainline traffic is one of the most challenging driving maneuvers on freeways. The challenges are further heightened for older drivers, as they are known to have longer perception-reaction times, larger acceptance gaps, and slower acceleration rates. In this research, VISSIM, a microscopic traffic simulation software, was used to evaluate the influence of the aging drivers on the operations of a typical diamond interchange. First, drivers were recorded on video cameras as they negotiated joining the mainline traffic from an on-ramp acceleration lane at two sites along I-75 in Southwest Florida. Several measures of effectiveness were collected including speeds, gaps, and location of entry to the mainline lanes. This information was used as either model input or for verification purposes. Two VISSIM models were developed for each site – one for the existing conditions and verification, and another for a sensitivity analysis, varying the percentage of older drivers and Level of Service (from A to E), to determine their influence on ramp operational characteristics. According to the results, there was a significant difference in driving behavior between older, middle-aged, and younger drivers, based on the measures of effectiveness analyzed in this study. Additionally, as the level of service and percentage of older adult motorists increased, longer queues were observed with slower speeds on the acceleration lanes and the right-most travel lane of the mainline traffic.

Most young drivers aged 17 to 25 years own a smartphone and many use it while driving. As the social interactive capabilities of smartphones (e.g., emailing, Facebook) increase, the risk of severe injury sustained by young drivers may also increase. This research utilised a theory-based approach to develop and evaluate the effectiveness of public education messages aimed at initiating, monitoring/reading, and responding to social interactive technology among young drivers. Overall, the messages that targeted monitoring/reading behaviour were considered the most effective with some gender differences identified. This research may help inform future design of messages addressing driver distraction and smartphone use.

Many drivers in highly motorised countries believe that aggressive driving is increasing. While the prevalence of the behaviour is difficult to reliably identify, the consequences of on-road aggression can be severe, with extreme cases resulting in property damage, injury and even death. This research program was undertaken to explore the nature of aggressive driving from within the framework of relevant psychological theory in order to enhance our understanding of the behaviour and to inform the development of relevant interventions. To guide the research a provisional ‘working’ definition of aggressive driving was proposed encapsulating the recurrent characteristics of the behaviour cited in the literature. The definition was: “aggressive driving is any on-road behaviour adopted by a driver that is intended to cause physical or psychological harm to another road user and is associated with feelings of frustration, anger or threat”. Two main theoretical perspectives informed the program of research. The first was Shinar’s (1998) frustration-aggression model, which identifies both the person-related and situational characteristics that contribute to aggressive driving, as well as proposing that aggressive behaviours can serve either an ‘instrumental’ or ‘hostile’ function. The second main perspective was Anderson and Bushman’s (2002) General Aggression Model. In contrast to Shinar’s model, the General Aggression Model reflects a broader perspective on human aggression that facilitates a more comprehensive examination of the emotional and cognitive aspects of aggressive behaviour. Study One (n = 48) examined aggressive driving behaviour from the perspective of young drivers as an at-risk group and involved conducting six focus groups, with eight participants in each. Qualitative analyses identified multiple situational and person-related factors that contribute to on-road aggression. Consistent with human aggression theory, examination of self-reported experiences of aggressive driving identified key psychological elements and processes that are experienced during on-road aggression. Participants cited several emotions experienced during an on-road incident: annoyance, frustration, anger, threat and excitement. Findings also suggest that off-road generated stress may transfer to the on-road environment, at times having severe consequences including crash involvement. Young drivers also appeared quick to experience negative attributions about the other driver, some having additional thoughts of taking action. Additionally, the results showed little difference between males and females in the severity of behavioural responses they were prepared to adopt, although females appeared more likely to displace their negative emotions. Following the self-reported on-road incident, evidence was also found of a post-event influence, with females being more likely to experience ongoing emotional effects after the event. This finding was evidenced by ruminating thoughts or distraction from tasks. However, the impact of such a post-event influence on later behaviours or interpersonal interactions appears to be minimal. Study Two involved the quantitative analysis of n = 926 surveys completed by a wide age range of drivers from across Queensland. The study aimed to explore the relationships between the theoretical components of aggressive driving that were identified in the literature review, and refined based on the findings of Study One. Regression analyses were used to examine participant emotional, cognitive and behavioural responses to two differing on-road scenarios whilst exploring the proposed theoretical framework. A number of socio-demographic, state and trait person-related variables such as age, pre-study emotions, trait aggression and problem-solving style were found to predict the likelihood of a negative emotional response such as frustration, anger, perceived threat, negative attributions and the likelihood of adopting either an instrumental or hostile behaviour in response to Scenarios One and Two. Complex relationships were found to exist between the variables, however, they were interpretable based on the literature review findings. Factor analysis revealed evidence supporting Shinar’s (1998) dichotomous description of on-road aggressive behaviours as being instrumental or hostile. The second stage of Study Two used logistic regression to examine the factors that predicted the potentially hostile aggressive drivers (n = 88) within the sample. These drivers were those who indicated a preparedness to engage in direct acts of interpersonal aggression on the road. Young, male drivers 17–24 years of age were more likely to be classified as potentially hostile aggressive drivers. Young drivers (17–24 years) also scored significantly higher than other drivers on all subscales of the Aggression Questionnaire (Buss & Perry, 1992) and on the ‘negative problem orientation’ and ‘impulsive careless style’ subscales of the Social Problem Solving Inventory – Revised (D’Zurilla, Nezu & Maydeu-Olivares, 2002). The potentially hostile aggressive drivers were also significantly more likely to engage in speeding and drink/drug driving behaviour. With regard to the emotional, cognitive and behavioural variables examined, the potentially hostile aggressive driver group also scored significantly higher than the ‘other driver’ group on most variables examined in the proposed theoretical framework. The variables contained in the framework of aggressive driving reliably distinguished potentially hostile aggressive drivers from other drivers (Nagalkerke R2 = .39). Study Three used a case study approach to conduct an in-depth examination of the psychosocial characteristics of n = 10 (9 males and 1 female) self-confessed hostile aggressive drivers. The self-confessed hostile aggressive drivers were aged 24–55 years of age. A large proportion of these drivers reported a Year 10 education or better and average–above average incomes. As a group, the drivers reported committing a number of speeding and unlicensed driving offences in the past three years and extensive histories of violations outside of this period. Considerable evidence was also found of exposure to a range of developmental risk factors for aggression that may have contributed to the driver’s on-road expression of aggression. These drivers scored significantly higher on the Aggression Questionnaire subscales and Social Problem Solving Inventory Revised subscales, ‘negative problem orientation’ and ‘impulsive/careless style’, than the general sample of drivers included in Study Two. The hostile aggressive driver also scored significantly higher on the Barrett Impulsivity Scale – 11 (Patton, Stanford & Barratt, 1995) measure of impulsivity than a male ‘inmate’, or female ‘general psychiatric’ comparison group. Using the Carlson Psychological Survey (Carlson, 1982), the self-confessed hostile aggressive drivers scored equal or higher scores than the comparison group of incarcerated individuals on the subscale measures of chemical abuse, thought disturbance, anti-social tendencies and self-depreciation. Using the Carlson Psychological Survey personality profiles, seven participants were profiled ‘markedly anti-social’, two were profiled ‘negative-explosive’ and one was profiled as ‘self-centred’. Qualitative analysis of the ten case study self-reports of on-road hostile aggression revealed a similar range of on-road situational factors to those identified in the literature review and Study One. Six of the case studies reported off-road generated stress that they believed contributed to the episodes of aggressive driving they recalled. Intense ‘anger’ or ‘rage’ were most frequently used to describe the emotions experienced in response to the perceived provocation. Less frequently ‘excitement’ and ‘fear’ were cited as relevant emotions. Notably, five of the case studies experienced difficulty articulating their emotions, suggesting emotional difficulties. Consistent with Study Two, these drivers reported negative attributions and most had thoughts of aggressive actions they would like to take. Similarly, these drivers adopted both instrumental and hostile aggressive behaviours during the self-reported incident. Nine participants showed little or no remorse for their behaviour and these drivers also appeared to exhibit low levels of personal insight. Interestingly, few incidents were brought to the attention of the authorities. Further, examination of the person-related characteristics of these drivers indicated that they may be more likely to have come from difficult or dysfunctional backgrounds and to have a history of anti-social behaviours on and off the road. The research program has several key theoretical implications. While many of the findings supported Shinar’s (1998) frustration-aggression model, two key areas of difference emerged. Firstly, aggressive driving behaviour does not always appear to be frustration driven, but can also be driven by feelings of excitation (consistent with the tenets of the General Aggression Model). Secondly, while the findings supported a distinction being made between instrumental and hostile aggressive behaviours, the characteristics of these two types of behaviours require more examination. For example, Shinar (1998) proposes that a driver will adopt an instrumental aggressive behaviour when their progress is impeded if it allows them to achieve their immediate goals (e.g. reaching their destination as quickly as possible); whereas they will engage in hostile aggressive behaviour if their path to their goal is blocked. However, the current results question this assertion, since many of the hostile aggressive drivers studied appeared prepared to engage in hostile acts irrespective of whether their goal was blocked or not. In fact, their behaviour appeared to be characterised by a preparedness to abandon their immediate goals (even if for a short period of time) in order to express their aggression. The use of the General Aggression Model enabled an examination of the three components of the ‘present internal state’ comprising emotions, cognitions and arousal and how these influence the likelihood of a person responding aggressively to an on-road situation. This provided a detailed insight into both the cognitive and emotional aspects of aggressive driving that have important implications for the design of relevant countermeasures. For example, the findings highlighted the potential value of utilising Cognitive Behavioural Therapy with aggressive drivers, particularly the more hostile offenders. Similarly, educational efforts need to be mindful of the way that person-related factors appear to influence one’s perception of another driver’s behaviour as aggressive or benign. Those drivers with a predisposition for aggression were more likely to perceive aggression or ‘wrong doing’ in an ambiguous on-road situation and respond with instrumental and/or hostile behaviour, highlighting the importance of perceptual processes in aggressive driving behaviour.

The customer equity framework was created by Rust et al. in 2000 after studying severalspecific industries. We use this framework as the theoretical basis for this study to examine the relative impact of the three customer equity drivers- value equity, brand equity and relationship equity- across two brands in the retail clothing industry on purchase intentions of young consumers. Based on the responses of 156 female university students who are the target for the two brands studied, value equity is the most important customer equity driver for customers whereas, for H&M relationship equity was the driver which had the greatest influence on purchase intentions while for Gina tricot brand equity had the greatest impact on purchase intentions.

Unga tillväxtföretag är svåra att värdera då tillgången till information är bristfällig. En potentiell investerare måste därmed uppskatta det unga tillväxtföretagets framtida utveckling då trender inte kan spåras i historisk data. Osäkerhetsfaktorn, såväl som den höga risken för misslyckande, måste således vägas in. Syftet med uppsatsen är att undersöka hur värderingen av unga tillväxtföretag går till i praktiken samt se hur risk och irrationalitet hanteras i processen. Vårt delsyfte är även att urskilja de faktorer som styr priset på ägarandelen. Vi har valt en kvalitativ ansats för att besvara vår frågeställning och för att få en djupare förståelse för de faktorer som inverkar på värderingen samt få en inblick i det mänskliga beteendet i investeringsprocessen. I denna undersökning har vi intervjuat tre representanter från Venture Capital-bolag samt tre affärsänglar. Respondenternas svar har sedan analyserats med utgångspunkt i uppsatsens teoretiska referensram som berör ämnena investeringsprocess, värdedrivare, värderingsmodeller, riskhantering samt irrationellt beteende. Studiens analys och slutsats visar att entreprenörens kvalitéer är den främsta värdedrivaren när ett ungt bolag med stor tillväxtpotential ska värderas och en avgörande faktor för ett investeringsbeslut. Andra viktiga parametrar är tillväxtmöjligheter så som goda marknadsförutsättningar och konkurrensfördelar gentemot andra aktörer. Mjuk och hårddata som finns till förfogande samt bedömarens intuition och erfarenhet från tidigare investeringar bildar tillsammans den slutgiltiga uppfattningen om hur företaget rimligtvis kan utvecklas. Intuitionen ses som ett viktigt kompletterande verktyg när informationsbrist råder vid värderingen. Avkastningen kan emellertid påverkas negativt när intuitionen vilseleder och resulterar i misstolkning av verkligheten. Den vanligaste värderingsmetoden som används är jämförande värdering där multiplar från liknande bolag används. Dock minskas kravet på en preciserad värdering ju större den potentiella avkastningen är. Innan investeringsbeslutet utförs en due diligence för att undersöka om den information de fått av bolaget stämmer samt att ingen information undanhållits. Investerarens uppfattning om bolagets värde ställs sedan mot entreprenörens under en förhandling där aktiepriset slutligen fastställs. En entreprenör som är en skicklig förhandlare och duktig på att marknadsföra sig i riskkapitalbranschen kan dock generera en högre värdering. Detta kan resultera i att investeraren vill förhandla om reglerande mekanismer som ska säkra investerarens avkastning. Strikta avtal, krav på preferensaktier samt andra specialklausuler kan då reducera värderingens betydelse.
Young companies with high growth potential are difficult to value since access to information is inadequate. A potential investor must therefore estimate the young growth company’s future development, since trends cannot be based on historical data. Thus the uncertainty factor as well as the high risk of failure must be weighed in. The purpose of this paper is to examine how valuation of young companies with high growth potential works in practice and see how risks and irrational behavior are managed during the evaluation process. Part of our purpose is also to identify factors that affect the price of ownership. We have chosen a qualitative approach to answer our question of formulation and to get a deeper understanding of the factors affecting valuation, as well provide insights into the human behavior in the investment process. In this paper, we have interviewed three representatives from venture capital companies, as well three business angel investors. The respondents' answers were then analyzed on the basis of the essays formulated theoretical framework, which affects the areas investment process, value-drivers, valuation models, risk management and irrational behavior. The study analysis and conclusions indicate that the entrepreneur’s own quality’s is the primary value-driver when a young company with great growth potential is valued and a decisive factor for an investment decision. Other important parameters are growth potentials such as favorable market conditions and competitive advantages over other players. Soft and hard data that is available as well as the assessor's intuition and experience from previous investments form together the final view of how the company reasonably can be developed. Due to the limited information, intuition is seen as a complementing tool in the valuation. The return may be negatively affected when intuition misleads and results in a misrepresentation of reality. The most common valuation method used is comparative valuation applying multiples of comparable companies. However, the greater the potential return is, the less important a precise value becomes. Before the investment decision is made, the investor executes a due diligence to ascertain whether the information gained by the company is correct and that no information is withheld. The investor's perception of the company's value is then set against the entrepreneur’s during a negotiation at which the stock price is finally determined. An entrepreneur who is a skilled negotiator and good at marketing themselves in the venture capital industry can however generate a higher valuation. This can result in that the investor wants to negotiate regulatory mechanisms that will secure the investor's return. Strict contracts, requirements for preferred stock and other special clauses can reduce the significance of the value.

Business Administration/Marketing
Ph.D.
This dissertation proposes that while traditional cognitive psychology literature suggests that cognitive function decreases with age, these decreases are dependent on the types of testing being performed. While traditional cognitive tests of memory and processing speed show declines associated with age, this research suggests these declines are not robust across all types of learning. The coming pages present four studies aimed at furthering our understanding of how different age cohorts of consumers learn about products in active and complex marketplaces. Study one reveals an age advantage associated with learning experientially; an interesting and somewhat surprising result that warrants further investigation given the rapid rate at which populations are aging. The additional studies presented here begin that investigation through the application of several psychological theories. This research explores increased vigilance associated with the security motivation system (based on the principles of evolutionary psychology), the possible impact of mortality salience through the application of Terror Management Theory and a positive correlation between age and cognitive control, as possible explanations.
Temple University--Theses

This thesis examined the extent to which individual differences, as conceptualised by the revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory, influenced young drivers' information processing and subsequent acceptance of anti-speeding messages. Using a multi-method approach, the findings highlighted the utility of combining objective measures (a cognitive response time task and electroencephalography) with self-report measures to assess message processing and message acceptance, respectively. This body of research indicated that responses to anti-speeding messages may differ depending on an individual's personality disposition. Overall, the research provided further insight into the development of message strategies to target high risk drivers.

L’objectiu d’aquesta recerca és avaluar l’eficàcia dels cursos de seguretat viària fonamentats en el canvi d’actituds aplicats a joves preconductors d’autoescoles de Catalunya. Per assolir l’esmentat objectiu es va fer servir un enfocament mixt, utilitzant metodologia quantitativa per tal d’avaluar l’eficàcia del curs i qualitativa per identificar els perfils de risc/seguretat dels alumnes que van participar-hi. Per l’anàlisi del grau de risc dels alum-nes abans i després de la implementació del curs, es va fer servir un disseny pretest-posttest amb grup de con-trol, aplicant el Qüestionari d’Avaluació del Risc adreçat a preconductors (QAR-Precon) que avalua sis factors de risc: alcohol i conducció, velocitat i tendència al risc, drogues i conducció, distracció, circumstàncies externes i altres elements de la conducció. Als alumnes del grup experimental se’ls va aplicar a més de la formació tradici-onal, el Curs objecte d’estudi, mentre que el grup de control només va rebre la formació tradicional. Els resultats de la recerca indiquen que els cursos són efectius per reduir els factors de risc tractats. Tot i que, tant el grup experimental com el de control, han millorat les puntuacions obtingudes en el QAR-Precon després de l’assistència a l’autoescola, la millora del grup experimental és significativament superior, especialment en els factors de risc amb més incidència en els joves: alcohol i conducció, velocitat i tendència al risc, circumstàncies externes en especial l’ús del mòbil i altres elements de la conducció. Per comprovar l’eficàcia del curs a mig termini es van comparar els compromisos de seguretat adquirits pels alumnes del grup experimental durant el Curs i els adquirits transcorregut un termini d’entre 6 i 9 mesos. Els resultats indiquen que els alumnes mantenen els compromisos adquirits durant el curs. Es va analitzar el perfil de risc dels alumnes mitjançant la realització d’entrevistes a alumnes que van obtenir puntuacions extremes en el QAR-Precon. S’hi observa que els comportaments de risc més freqüents entre els joves són l’excés de velocitat, el consum d’alcohol i cànnabis durant l’oci nocturn o pujar al cotxe d’un amic que ha begut i l'ús del telèfon mòbil. El perfil de risc alt és més freqüent en homes aficionats als esports o activitats d’aventura i que associen l’oci nocturn al consum d’alcohol. El perfil de risc baix correspon majoritàriament a dones, amb estudis superiors i associat a la transmissió de valors positius cap a la seguretat viària a l’entorn familiar. Tant els alumnes que partien amb més puntuació en el QAR-Precon com els que ho feien amb una puntuació més baixa, manifesten una major consciencia dels seus propis riscos i reconeixen haver adquirit al-guns hàbits com no portar el mòbil engegat o posar-se el casc i/o el cinturó en pujar al vehicle. A més, són cons-cients dels perills que comporta el consum d’alcohol i drogues i l’ús del mòbil durant la conducció. En relació al compromís, cal destacar també que el 88% dels entrevistats manifesten que ho porten a la pràctica. En conclusió, l’aplicació del Curs de Seguretat Viària ha contribuït a la millora dels factors de risc tractats, de manera que incideix directament en els comportaments de risc i afavoreix un canvi d’actitud que ajuda a la re-ducció de l’accidentalitat en els joves conductors.
The objective of this research is to evaluate the effectiveness of road safety courses based on changing attitudes applied to young predrivers driving school in Catalonia. To achieve the above objective it is to use a mixed ap-proach, using quantitative methodology to assess the effectiveness of the course and qualitative to identify risk profiles / safety of students who participated. From the analysis of the degree of risk students before and after the implementation of the course is made using a pretest-posttest design with control group, using the Risk Assessment Questionnaire aimed at predrivers (QAR-Precon) that assess six risk factors: alcohol and driving, speed and tendency to risk, drugs and driving, distraction, and other external circumstances driving. Students in the experimental group were applied in addition to traditional training, the course under study, while the control group only received traditional training. The research results indicate that the courses are effective in reducing risk factors treated. Although both the experimental group and the control have improved the scores obtained in QAR-Precon after attending driving school, improving the experimental group is significantly higher, especially in risk factors more impact on young people: alcohol and driving, speed and tendency to risk, external circumstances especially the use of mobile and other elements of driving. To test the effectiveness of the course in the medium term is compared the security commitments acquired by students in the experimental group during the course and acquired expiry of a period of between six and nine months. The results indicate that students maintain their commitments acquired during the course. The risk profile of the students was analyzed by conducting interviews with students who obtained far scores in QAR Precon. It notes that the most common risk behaviors among young people are speeding, consumption of alcohol and cannabis for nightlife or get in the car of a friend who has been drinking and using mobile. The high risk profile is more common in men sports fans and adventure activities and nightlife associated with the con-sumption of alcohol. The low risk profile corresponds mainly to women associated with higher education and the transmission of positive values towards road safety in the family. Both students who scored more in QAR-Precon as they did with a score lower demonstrate an awareness of their own risks and recognized as having acquired some habits as not carrying the phone on or putting on helmet and / or putting on the seat belt when they get into the car. Moreover, they are aware of the dangers of alcohol and drugs and the use of mobile phones while driving. In relation to the commitment, it is also noted that 88% of respondents state that they implement. In conclusion, the implementation of the Road Safety Year has contributed to the improvement of risk factors treated, which directly affect risk behavior and promote a change of attitude that helps to reduce the accident rate in young drivers.

Tyrimo tikslas buvo nustatyti jaunų vairuotojų alkoholio vartojimo, patiriamos įtampos, pablogėjusios nuotaikos ir polinkio rizikingai vairuoti sąsajas. Tyrime dalyvavo 202 Lietuvoje gyvenantys jauni vairuotojai nuo 18 iki 29 metų amžiaus (82 vyrai ir 120 moterų). Tiriamieji pildė vairuotojų elgesio klausimyną (DBQ) polinkiui į rizikingą vairavimą nustatyti, pablogėjusi nuotaika buvo matuojama Zungo depresijos skale (SDS), o patiriama įtampa - subjektyviai suvokto streso skale (PSS), taip pat pateikti socialiniai - demografiniai klausimai. Tyrimo rezultatai parodė, kad polinkis rizikingai vairuoti siejamas su jaunų vairuotojų lyties skirtumais. Vyrai atlieka daugiau tyčinių vairavimo pažeidimų nei moterys, o moterys atlieka daugiau klaidų vairuodamos, tačiau lyties skirtumai nedaro įtakos patekimų į autoavarijas dažnumui. Kuo dažniau jauni vairuotojai vartoja alkoholį, tuo daugiau jie atlieka tyčinių vairavimo pažeidimų ir tuo dažniau patenka į autoavarijas, tačiau jie nedaro daugiau klaidų vairuodami. Jauni vairuotojai, kurie pasižymi didesne pablogėjusia nuotaika, daro daugiau klaidų vairuodami. Tuo tarpu jauni vairuotojai, pasižymintis pablogėjusia nuotaika, atlieka panašų kiekį tyčinių vairavimo pažeidimų bei autoavarijų kaip ir tie, kurių nuotaika yra geresnė. Taip pat nustatyta, kad kuo didesnė jaunų vairuotojų patiriama įtampa, tuo jie daro daugiau klaidų vairuodami. Tuo tarpu didesnė patiriama įtampa nepaveikia jaunų vairuotojų atlikti daugiau tyčinių vairavimo... [toliau žr. visą tekstą]
The research has been targeted to define the correlations between young drivers alcohol use, bad mood, sustained tension and risky driving. The research involved 202 young Lithuanian drivers from 18 till 29 years (82 men, 120 women). Participants had to fill in a questionnaire made up of Drivers Behavior Questionnaire (DBQ) to evaluate risky driving, Zung Self-rating depression scale (SDS) to evaluate bad mood, Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) to evaluate sustained tension and social-demographics questions. The research results showed existing association between risky driving and gender. Men more often than women make driving violations purposely. Driving mistakes are more common for women than for men. Crash involvement has not been associated with gender. The increase of young drivers alcohol use also increases the results of driving violations and involvement in crashes. However, increased alcohol use is not associated with bigger amount of driving mistakes. The greater degree of young drivers bad mood result, more driving mistakes are made. Whereas, greater degree of bad mood does not affect higher scores in driving violations and crash involvement. The greater degree of young drivers sustained tension result, more driving mistakes are made. Whereas, greater degree of sustained tension does not affect higher scores in driving violations and crash involvement. And finally, alcohol use and sustained tension have significant influence on young drivers risky driving, whereas... [to full text]

Les accidents routiers restent un problème important du secteur public de la santé au niveau international, national et régional. L’Organisation Mondiale de la Santé estime que plus d’un million de personnes meurent chaque année à cause d’un accident routier et entre 20 et 50 millions sont blessées ("Global status report on road safety: time for action," 2009). Parmi les conducteurs tués dans des accidents routiers, les jeunes conducteurs représentent au moins un quart (OECD, 2006). Les causes principales des accidents routiers, telles qu’elles sont mises en évidence dans le rapport de 2004 de l’Organisation Mondiale de la Santé (Peden et al., 2004), sont : la conduite sous l’influence de l’alcool, la vitesse, la conduite en état avancé de fatigue, l’utilisation du téléphone portable, la visibilité réduite et les facteurs appartenant à la qualité de la route. A ces causes, pour les jeunes, il faut rajouter la recherche des sensations, l’excitabilité et l’influence des pairs (A. F. Williams, 2006). L’influence des pairs représente un sujet controversé dans la littérature de spécialité à cause des résultats obtenus. Une partie des chercheurs considèrent que la présence des pairs a un effet plutôt négatif (Arnett et al., 1997; Doherty et al., 1998; Moller & Gregersen, 2008), pendant que l’autre envisage plutôt un effet positif (Delhomme, 1994; Engstrom, Gregersen, Granstrom, & Nyberg, 2008; Rueda-Domingo et al., 2004; Vollrath, Meilinger, & Krager, 2002). Cette recherche analyse l’effet des pairs sur les comportements à risque des jeunes conducteurs roumains et français en utilisant la théorie du comportement planifié, mais aussi l’effet de différents types de pressions de la part des pairs sur le comportement du jeune conducteur. Les résultats ont mis en évidence que les normes subjectives et surtout les normes subjectives de la part des amis, contribuent significativement à expliquer l’intention de réaliser des comportements à risque comme le dépassement de la vitesse et la conduite sous l’influence de l’alcool. Les analyses comparatives ont montré aussi des différences entre les deux populations. Par exemple, pour la population roumaine, les normes se retrouvent plus souvent dans les resultats des analyses que dans le cas de la population française. En plus, les jeunes conducteurs français ont un point de vue plutôt instrumental envers la voiture, en tant que pour les jeunes conducteurs roumains, la voiture représente plutôt un moyen d’impressionner les autres. Un autre résultat intéressant souligne le caractère souvent situationnel de la prise de risques chez les jeunes conducteurs accompagnés par des pairs, mais aussi les implications d’un groupe d’amis à prise de risques élevée. Pour conclure, les résultats obtenus à l’égard du rôle des normes et de l’effet de la pression des pairs sur les comportements à risque des jeunes conducteurs sont encourageants
Road crashes remain a significant public health problem at international, national and regional level. World Health Organization estimates that more than a million persons die each year in road car crashes and that 20 to 50 million other persons are injured in those crashes ("Global status report on road safety: time for action," 2009). Among the drivers that die in car crashes almost a quarter are young drivers (OECD, 2006). The main causes of car crashes identified by WHO are driving while intoxicated, speeding, driving while tired, phone use, low visibility and poor road conditions (Peden et al., 2004). To these causes, in the case of young drivers we can add sensation seeking, excitability and peer influence (A. F. Williams, 2006). Peer influence on young drivers’ behaviour is a controversial topic in the literature due to the rather contradictory conclusions of the researches on this theme. Some researchers have found a negative effect of peer presence (Arnett et al., 1997; Doherty et al., 1998; Moller & Gregersen, 2008), while others have found a protective effect (Delhomme, 1994; Engstrom, Gregersen, Granstrom, & Nyberg, 2008; Rueda-Domingo et al., 2004; Vollrath, Meilinger, & Krager, 2002). This research analyses the effect that peers can have on young drivers’ risky behaviours by using the theory of planned behaviour approach and by looking into the effect that peer pressure type can have on the young driver. The results highlight that subjective norms and especially friend’s perceived norms contribute significantly to explaining young drivers’ intention to speed or to drive while intoxicated. The comparative analysis showed some interesting differences among the two populations. For example, for the Romanian drivers norms play a much more important role in explaining risky driving behaviours that for the French population. Also, young French drivers perceive the car as having rather an instrumental role while Romanian drivers see it more like a way to impress. Another interesting result emphasizes on the situational character of young drivers risk taking but also on the implications that risk taking peers might have. Finally, the results obtained regarding the role of norms and the effects of peer pressure on young drivers’ behaviour are rather encouraging

Drivers under 25 years are over-represented in global road accident statistics. The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) has been used to identify individuals who are likely to engage in behaviours, such as speeding, which are associated with increased accident involvement. In an attempt to investigate adolescents‟ attitudes and behaviours from pre- to post-driver training, the studies presented incorporate past behaviour into the TPB. Three questionnaire-based studies were conducted in Scotland and New Zealand. The first study explored adolescent pre-drivers‟ road behaviour, driving attitudes and speeding intentions. Adolescents‟ with the greatest speeding intentions frequently engaged in high-risk road behaviour and had more accepting attitudes towards driving violations. The second study explored the development of attitudes and intentions from pre- to post-driver training. Drivers who frequently violated reported more accepting attitudes towards violations and engagement in frequent high-risk road behaviours as pre-drivers. The third study assessed the stability of pre-drivers‟ driving attitudes and speeding intentions. Adolescents‟ attitudes and intentions fluctuated significantly; however, males reported riskier driving attitudes and greater speeding intentions. This research suggests that the role of road safety education and pre-driver interventions on future driving behaviour has been under-estimated. Interventions that simultaneously reinforce safe road practices and motivate the reduction of dangerous practices will influence the future of adolescents as safe drivers.

Motorists are slowly becoming aware that they are legally and morally responsible for ensuring that they are fully rested and not at risk from sleepiness when driving, while vehicle manufacturers continue to attempt to find fail-safe warning systems. What further practical and theoretical advice can we give to drivers in order to reduce sleepiness-related accidents? Are technological countermeasures a viable alternative? Can we further predict the types of people who are most at risk by examining individual differences? This thesis outlines a series of experimental studies to investigate possible answers to these questions, and discusses the philosophy behind them.

The introduction of advanced technologies into novice driver education may improve its efficacy as a young driver crash countermeasure. Underpinned by the Goals for Driver Education and the Technology Acceptance Model, and using a mixed-methods approach, this thesis examined how young drivers, professional driver educators, and parents perceive five advanced technologies used for professional driver education, with a particular focus on driving simulators. Findings suggest that the perceptions of these groups are largely aligned. However, there is complexity in the way they view some technologies, particularly medium fidelity driving simulators and PC-based hazard perception training.

A Work Project, presented as part of the requirements for the Award of a Masters Degree in Management from the NOVA – School of Business and Economics
When I first took up this project the goal was to conceive a communication strategy for Continente. My first impression was that the biggest drawback of Continente was their localization and lack of convenience. After carrying out a market research I confirmed this theory and began strategizing against it. Although my initial brainstorm varies in target and objective, I’ve realized that all the solutions focused at some point, on the Continente’s convenience problem. Finally, I have decided to focus on the “The single young shoppers” target (young people who have moved out of their parents’ house either by need of independence or to be nearer to university/work). I believe this segment to be extremely important, not just because of their present value but mostly to attract the youngest generations to the brand, and to create a bond and loyalty with them right now. My solution, “The Continente Choose&Drive” where the consumer can shop without leaving the car through a drive-in system, intends to minimize the gap between the target and the brand, as well as boost their image of innovation and consumer-focused.

INTRODUCTION : Les jeunes de moins de 25 ans constituent le groupe de conducteurs le plus impliqué dans les collisions routières (CR). L’objectif de cette étude est de déterminer l’importance de certains facteurs humains et de l’environnement routier dans les collisions les nuits de la fin de semaine chez les jeunes conducteurs. Les hypothèses postulent des chances plus élevées de CR les nuits de la fin de semaine, comparativement aux CR survenant à d’autres moments de la semaine, en présence d’un seul facteur de risque et de deux facteurs de risque. MÉTHODE : Cette étude transversale porte sur les CR ayant causé des blessures légères, graves ou mortelles au Québec chez les conducteurs âgés de 16 à 24 ans. Les informations sur les 58 478 CR survenus de 2007 à 2011 et les facteurs associés à ces CR proviennent de la banque de données de la Société de l’assurance automobile du Québec. Les CR les nuits de la fin de semaine (vendredi à samedi et samedi à dimanche de 20 h 00 à 04 h 59) sont comparées aux CR survenues aux autres moments de la semaine. L’importance des facteurs humains (p. ex., conduite avec capacités affaiblies) et de l’environnement routier (p. ex., courbes) dans ces CR est évaluée à l’aide d’analyses de régression logistique binaire et multinomiale. RÉSULTATS : Plusieurs facteurs sont liés à une augmentation des chances de CR les nuits de la fin de semaine, comparativement aux autres moments de la semaine. Ces facteurs incluent, par ordre d’importance décroissant : la conduite avec les capacités affaiblies (rapport des cotes ajusté [RCA] = 5,05 et intervalles de confiance à 99 % [IC 99 %] = 4,53‒5,64), la fatigue et le sommeil (RCA = 2,40 ; IC 99 % = 2,12‒2,73), la présence de passagers (RCA = 1,81 ; IC 99 % = 1,69‒1,94), le genre masculin (RCA = 1,36 ; IC 99 % = 1,27‒1,46), les courbes (RCA = 1,21 ; IC 99 % = 1,11‒1,32) et la vitesse (RCA = 1,18 ; IC 99 % = 1,09‒1,28). Les résultats sur la présence de deux de ces facteurs suggèrent l’importance des capacités affaiblies. Les chances de CR sont particulièrement importantes lorsque la présence de capacités affaiblies et d’un autre facteur est comparée à l’absence de ces deux facteurs. Dans ces cas, les chances de CR s’étalent de 5,33 (IC 99 % = 4,40‒6,45) pour la combinaison avec les courbes à 7,68 (IC 99 % = 6,52‒9,05) pour la combinaison avec la présence de passagers. CONCLUSION : Cette étude a permis de déterminer l’importance de plusieurs facteurs de risque, notamment la conduite avec capacités affaiblies, dans l’implication des jeunes conducteurs dans les CR les nuits de la fin de semaine. Les résultats suggèrent diverses stratégies afin de mieux cibler la conduite avec capacités affaiblies, incluant l’accès graduel à la conduite avec de jeunes passagers la nuit après l’obtention du permis de conduire.
Abstract : INTRODUCTION: Young people under 25 represent the group of drivers most involved in motor vehicle crashes (MVC). The aim of this study is to determine the significance of certain human and road environment factors in weekend night crashes involving young drivers. The hypotheses postulate higher odds of crash occurrence on weekend nights, as compared to crashes at other times during the week, when there is the presence of a single risk factor and two risk factors. METHOD: This cross-sectional study examines MVC causing minor, severe or fatal injuries in Quebec drivers aged 16 to 24. The information pertaining to the 58 478 MVC that occurred from 2007 to 2011 and the factors associated with these MVC comes from the databank of the Société de l’assurance automobile du Québec. Weekend night MVC (Friday to Saturday and Saturday to Sunday from 8:00 p.m. to 4:59 a.m.) are compared to MVC occurring at other times of the week. The significance of human factors (e.g., driving under the influence) and road environment factors (e.g., curves) in these crashes is assessed using binary and multinomial logistic regression analyses. FINDINGS: Several factors are associated with the increased odds of an MVC occurring on weekend nights, as compared to other times of the week. These factors include, by order of decreasing significance: driving under the influence (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 5.05 and 99% confidence interval [99% CI] = 4.53‒5.64), fatigue and sleep (AOR = 2.40; 99% CI = 2.12‒2.73), presence of passengers (AOR = 1.81; 99% CI = 1.69‒1.94), male gender (AOR = 1.36; 99% CI = 1.27‒1.46), curves (AOR = 1.21; 99% CI = 1.11‒1.32), and speed (AOR = 1.18; 99% CI = 1.09‒1.28). The findings on the presence of two of these factors suggest the significance of driving under the influence. The odds of MVC occurrence are particularly high when the presence of driving under the influence and another factor is compared against the absence of these two factors. In such instances, the odds of MVC occurrence range from 5.33 (99% CI = 4.40‒6.45) when curves are also involved to 7.68 (99% CI = 6.52‒9.05) when passengers are also present. CONCLUSION: This study determined the significance of several risk factors, particularly driving under the influence, in young drivers’ involvement in MVC on weekend nights. The findings suggest various strategies to better target driving under the influence, including gradual access to driving with young passengers at night after obtaining a driver’s licence.

A slight majority of American households headed by 55–64-year-olds do not have any savings for retirement, and those who have retirement savings have a median of around $109,000 saved, which is equivalent to an inflation-protected annuity of $405 per month (i.e., well below the official poverty level). Among the main reasons cited for the lack of retirement savings among parents is a desire to provide financial support to their young adult children. Indeed, on the whole, parents spend twice as much on financial support of their adult children as they save for retirement (Merryl Lynch, 2018). Understanding the precursors and predictors of this spending behavior may provide insight into decisions that lead to a lack of self-sufficiency in retirement, and hint at opportunities for prevention and intervention efforts aimed at bolstering retirement savings. To that end, this project was designed to examine the extent to which these financial decisions vary by context and belief systems. Specifically, three studies were developed to investigate motivation for providing support to young adult children in lieu of retirement savings. A sample of 496 respondents who were 40 years of age or older was recruited using the online Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk) platform. Respondents were presented three factorial vignettes in which hypothetical parents were deciding whether to provide support to their adult child with a major expense—a car (Study 1, Chapter 2), college tuition (Study 2, Chapter 3), and a house (Study 3, Chapter 4)—and respondents were asked on a four-point Likert-type response scale whether parents should (definitely yes, probably yes, probably no, definitely no) provide financial support to their adult children in the given context, and to provide a rationale for their response. In each study, key contextual variables were randomly manipulated within the vignette across respondents (e.g., adult child’s gender [female vs. male], parents’ age [early 60s vs. late 40s], source of money [withdrawal from vs. under-contributing to retirement savings], college major [social sciences vs. business degree], and number of siblings [one vs. three]). Ordinal regression models were used to estimate the effects of the randomly manipulated variables on endorsement of parental provision of financial support to adult children, and content analysis was used to identify the most common rationales respondents provided for the beliefs they espoused in the closed-ended items. Endorsement of parental use of retirement saving for financial support varied depending on whether the stated purpose of the money was for purchasing a car (67% endorsed), paying for college tuition (34% endorsed), or paying the down payment on a house (31% endorsed). Across the three studies, only older parents (in their early 60s [Study 1]) and withdrawing money from a retirement account (Studies 2 and 3) had negative effects on endorsement of parental support; responses according to the other randomly manipulated variables did not statistically vary in these data, suggesting norms that supersede the other manipulated variables. Among respondent sociodemographic characteristics—gender, socioeconomic status, clarity of retirement goals, having adult children, and helping them with large purchases similar to situations described in the vignette—only ownership of a retirement savings account or a pension plan had a consistent negative association with endorsement of parental support across all three studies, indicating that people with retirement plans were more conservative in their attitudes about financially supporting young-adult children than were those without retirement plans. Major rationales for the provision of parental financial support included (a) responsibility for the child (i.e., a solidarity belief system), (b) a belief that children pay back their parents (i.e., a reciprocity belief system), and (c) a belief that parents should make sacrifices for their children (i.e., an altruistic belief system). Given that the majority of studies investigate retirement planning from an individual perspective, as if workers were making their decisions rationally in isolation from their family context, future studies may benefit from a more inclusive approach that takes into account the complexity of family relationships and also social perception of parental financial obligations toward their children.

Thesis (M.A.)--University of West Florida, 2009.
Submitted to the Dept. Of Psychology. Title from title page of source document. Document formatted into pages; contains 77 pages. Includes bibliographical references.

Background: While the overall proportion of young people who report drinking alcohol in the UK appears to have decreased over the past fifteen years, those who do drink are consuming in larger quantities, and drinking more frequently. An association between industry-driven alcohol marketing and young people’s drinking behaviour has been demonstrated in a number of cross-sectional, longitudinal and qualitative studies, but less is known about how young people are affected by alcohol marketing and how marketing processes knit with other widely studied influences on young people’s drinking behaviour. This study aimed to investigate the influence of industrydriven alcohol marketing processes (price, promotion, product branding and placing) on young people’s drinking choices and behaviour. Methods: A mixed-methods approach underpinned by a critical realist perspective was adopted. A systematic review examined empirical studies concerning the impact of industry-driven price and other marketing techniques on young people’s drinking behaviour. Qualitative interviews were conducted with young people aged 14-17 from NE England (n=31) to explore accounts of when, why, where and how they drink alcohol. Q methodology was used to derive ‘factors’ underlying alcohol choices, based on the results of a card sorting procedure undertaken with young people aged 14-17 from NE England (n=28). Findings: The systematic review identified 32 papers which were predominantly crosssectional in design, and focused on the impact of alcohol promotion on young people’s alcohol use. Although industry-driven alcohol marketing appeared to influence young people’s drinking behaviour, studies reported on a variety of populations, study designs, exposure measures and outcome measures, making synthesis and extrapolation difficult, as well as underlining a shortage of longitudinal work establishing the effect of alcohol marketing over time. The review highlighted a paucity of studies conducted in the UK as well as a lack of research examining the influence of price for those under the legal drinking age only and exploring the impact of digital or social media marketing on young people’s drinking behaviour. Young people interviewed in the qualitative study appeared to make micro-level choices about alcohol (between products and brands), positioning themselves as autonomous agents and unaffected by overt forms of alcohol marketing. However, the majority of participants were able to recount brands and slogans, did not recognise less visible aspects of promotion (e.g. sponsorship, viral and digital marketing) and did not associate the pricing of alcohol as a form of marketing. Therefore, advertising and other promotional activity seemed to play a role in building recognisable imagery linked to alcohol products, as well as associations and expectancies related to drinking. The advisability of drinking per se did not appear to have been questioned by participants and was considered an acceptable and normal practice. Participants reported that they were not exclusively price-led and choices were made in conjunction with other criteria (e.g. taste, availability, strength and image). Q factor analysis revealed three accounts: Factor one illustrates a sense of individuality, autonomy, and maturity in alcohol choices; factor two is price-led, choosing to drink whatever is most accessible, cheapest or on special offer; and factor three is an account of bounded adventure, pleasure and hedonism. Conclusions: Bourdieu’s concept of ‘habitus’ is drawn on to illustrate that young people’s alcohol choices are influenced by structural predispositions (including industry processes and alcohol marketing) but that ‘taste’, social norms and interpersonal relationships (recognised as agency) can also play a role in reinforcing, normalising and driving behaviour. Deeply embedded social norms and industry processes culminate in ‘political economies of health’ where health behaviours are governed by historical traditions and the logic of advanced capitalism (the need to make a profit), and choices constrained into seemingly free, naturalised directions. Thus, a description of young people as individual, rational agents, who can make the ‘correct’ choices about alcohol use, minimises structural and cultural factors that are, in part, shaped by the alcohol industry in conjunction with other influences such as inter-personal relationships and social norms, and which constrain health choices and behaviours of young people. Public Responsibility Deals and voluntary self-regulation of alcohol marketing may be inadequate to counter this. Instead, it needs to be identified that young people are being subtly bombarded and further work is required to ‘unravel’ this impact. Nevertheless, tighter restrictions on the marketing of alcohol, such as a policy resembling France’s Loi Evin should be given consideration. The current alcohol strategy for England and Wales includes a commitment to implementing an alcohol minimum unit price. However, findings from this doctoral work demonstrate that it is difficult to disentangle the four elements of the marketing mix. Price encompasses just one facet of alcohol marketing and makes up only a small part of the external world in which young people are becoming acculturated. The effect that price changes alone could have on young people’s alcohol use should not be overemphasised. Thus, as well as examining the impact of price on young people’s drinking behaviour pre and post legislative change, further work should also explore the changing nature of industry-driven alcohol marketing processes. In particular, the influence of digital and social media marketing on young people’s drinking behaviour needs to be examined further, as well as the combined contribution that alcohol marketing, long-standing social norms and inter-personal relationships (‘the alcohol habitus’) all can make towards a ubiquitous culture of alcohol consumption.

The project investigated road crashes and traffic offences committed by novice drivers, using licensing and crash data from learner and provisionally-licensed drivers in New South Wales. The nature and extent of illegal driving behaviours was established. To address illegal driving behaviours, a novel online novice driver offender intervention was developed and implemented as part of a statutory driver education course. A framework to assess recidivism by novice drivers was developed, focusing on 2-year and 5-year follow-up of repeat offending for novice drivers who had received the intervention.

This thesis examined the effects of a novel blue-green light intervention, together with caffeine, on sleepiness and driving performance in young adults, a population that is overrepresented in sleepiness-related road crashes. Light, caffeine, and the combination of light and caffeine each improved alertness after chronic-partial sleep deprivation to a greater extent than did a placebo. Each condition improved subjective sleepiness, objective psychomotor performance, and objective driving performance, with the greatest effect found for light and caffeine in combination. These findings have implications for interventions to reduce mortality and morbidity associated with road crashes.

This research explores the complexities of young peoples’ personal understanding and experiences of violence and safety in public spaces. The research itself is constructed through establishing the interrelationships between the theories, practices and policies of safety and young people. Working through these links has facilitated an original framework for understanding by accessing data using young people’s own experiences and views. There is a significant body of published research exploring young people as offenders but a real absence, especially in the UK literature, of young people as potential victims of violent crime. In particular children’s own conceptualisations of risk, safety and victimisation are little understood. This research explores young people’s thoughts on exactly this. The empirical research draws upon qualitative data derived from semi-structured interviews with 21 young people aged from 10 to 18 years old taken from a socioeconomically mixed area of London. The findings show that irrespective of age, the young people have constructed a very real understanding of safety and risk. Children, even at a young age have developed a myriad of personal safety strategies that involve awareness of teenagers, locations and individuals who they perceive as guardians. However, these strategies emerge without meaningful reference to police or government policy and are largely embedded in a world far away from those in reach of official community safety agents. This research suggests that there needs to be a move away from portraying young people as ‘folk devils’ who sit at the heart of many ‘moral panics’ towards involving them as significant actors and contributors to social policy making by giving them a voice on the political stage.

Ce travail a pour objectif d’interroger l’influence de l’identité sexuée sur les comportements à risque au volant des jeunes conducteurs. Il s’organise autour de trois axes. Le premier porte sur la validation des outils de mesure et d’activation de l’identité sexuée (études 1-4). Le deuxième porte sur la validation d’outils de mesure des comportements à risque au volant, de la prise de risque et de la perception du risque et des bénéfices dans différents domaines, et sur la mise en relation de la conformité aux stéréotypes de sexe avec ces différentes variables chez des tout-venants (études 5 & 6). Le troisième axe (étude 7) vise à tester l’effet de l’identité sexuée dans sa multidimensionnalité (i.e., conformité aux stéréotypes de sexe et identification à son groupe de sexe) sur les comportements à risque déclarés et le risque perçu chez les jeunes conducteurs. Les effets de l’identité sexuée dans le domaine routier et dans différents domaines sont comparés et la relation de causalité entre identité sexuée et comportements à risque, testée. Les résultats montrent un lien entre l’identité sexuée et la prise de risque et le risque et les bénéfices perçus qui varie en fonction du domaine et du sexe. Toutefois, ils ne permettent pas de conclure à un effet plus marqué de l’identité sexuée dans le domaine routier, ni de montrer la relation de causalité entre identité sexuée et comportements à risque chez les jeunes conducteurs. Si les liens entre identité sexuée et prise de risque apparaissent complexes, ce travail montre l’intérêt de l’approche psychosociale pour comprendre les différences de sexe et intragroupes de sexe dans les comportements à risque
The objective of this thesis is to study the influence of gender identity on the risk-taking behaviour of young drivers. The work is laid out in three main sections. The first one focuses on the validation of measurement tools and the activation of gender identity (studies 1-4) The second one focuses on the validation of tools designed to measure driver risk-taking behaviour, risk and benefits perception in various fields, and on the link between gender stereotype conformity and the aforementioned variables in a broad range of subjects (studies 5 & 6). The third section of this thesis (study 7) aims to test the effect of gender identity in the multi-dimensional sense (i.e., conformity to gender stereotypes and identification to one’s gender group) on declared risk-taking behaviour and risk perception among young drivers. The effects of gender identity on driving and on various other fields are compared and the causality between gender identity and risk-taking behaviour is tested. The results show a link between gender identity and risk-taking, risk perception and benefits perception, which varies according to the domain and gender. However, the results leave us unable to ascertain the existence of a stronger effect of gender identity on driving behaviour. They also impede the highlighting of a causality effect between gender identity and risky behaviour among young drivers. Even if the link between gender identity and risk-taking seems to be complex, this work demonstrates the importance of a psychosocial approach in understanding gender differences and differences within a gender group in risk-taking behaviour

This PhD thesis contributes to social marketing research and practice in five main ways. First, this thesis provides a state-of-the-art review on eHealth weight management interventions targeting young adults identifying limitations of the current evidence base, namely a lack of optimal theory application. Second, this thesis illuminates a lack of and/or underreporting of theory in social marketing more broadly, and reveals a fundamental flaw in the discipline's assessment of theory use when reviewing the evidence base. Third, the TITE theory application process developed offers a procedural contribution to social marketing research and practice that can be applied to improve theory application and reporting in future interventions, and in so doing, advance the cumulative knowledge base. Fourth, this thesis takes a considerable step forward by applying elements of the TITE theory application process to an audience research study designed to inform the future development of a weight management intervention targeting young adults. Finally, this thesis shifts social marketing research and practice beyond the pre-dominant individual (downstream) focus with an empirical validation of the COM-B model across two different, but related, behavioural contexts (physical activity and healthy eating). Taken together, this research demonstrates how a theory-driven social marketing approach can deliver a fine-grained understanding of the active drivers of weight-related behaviours in young adults, thereby informing the future design of an intervention that is both evidence-based and theory-driven.
Thesis (PhD Doctorate)
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
Dept of Marketing
Griffith Business School
Full Text

Primary research on sustainable development has suggested that Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) activities can create a positive effect on employees and consumers. In order to improve CSR outcomes internally and externally, it is necessary to consider the ever-growing expectation of primary stakeholders in different business environment. This study explored the roles of young consumers and office employees in affecting CSR activities of Foreign-invested enterprises (FIEs) in China. Besides a large number of literature reviews, two surveys involved in this study to investigate in practice, the sentiments and expectation of Chinese young consumers and office employees towards FIEs’ CSR behavior in host country-China. To achieve this goal, theories on stakeholders, Maslow’s hierarchy needs and social responsible consumer behavior are main fundamental adopted. As a result, this study emphasized that as significant stakeholders, interest and expectation of young consumers and office employees positively affect FIEs’ sustainable business activities in China, and more importantly, survey in this study presented a clear view on their attitude and expectation on CSR activities of FIEs in China.