Kliknij ten link, aby zobaczyć inne rodzaje publikacji na ten temat: Two way classification.
Książki na temat „Two way classification”
Utwórz poprawne odniesienie w stylach APA, MLA, Chicago, Harvard i wielu innych
Sprawdź 50 najlepszych książek naukowych na temat „Two way classification”.
Przycisk „Dodaj do bibliografii” jest dostępny obok każdej pracy w bibliografii. Użyj go – a my automatycznie utworzymy odniesienie bibliograficzne do wybranej pracy w stylu cytowania, którego potrzebujesz: APA, MLA, Harvard, Chicago, Vancouver itp.
Możesz również pobrać pełny tekst publikacji naukowej w formacie „.pdf” i przeczytać adnotację do pracy online, jeśli odpowiednie parametry są dostępne w metadanych.
Przeglądaj książki z różnych dziedzin i twórz odpowiednie bibliografie.
1
Len'kov, Roman. Social forecasting and planning. ru: INFRA-M Academic Publishing LLC., 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.12737/1058988.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
The tutorial describes the preconditions of sociopragmatics research in Russia on the background of evolutionary processes of social prognostics of the twentieth century. Considered the essential characteristics of social forecasting, its subject and range of issues. Based on analysis of classification schemes methods of scientific forecasting offers the author's approach to classification of methods of social forecasting. Special attention is paid to the description of the characteristics, the specific application and selection procedure of the ways of making social predictions.
Theoretical and applied analysis of the foundations of social design, the direction of its implementation and research methods used for it. The conceptual basis of design in education on the example of the educational process in the University. Given the model structure, rationale and testing of design solutions.
The third edition of the book is dedicated to the 100th anniversary of the State University of management.
Meets the current requirements of the Federal state educational standard of higher education.
For students of higher educational institutions, students of humanitarian directions and specialities.
2
Volkovitckaia, Galina. Management of labor incentives: Monograph. au: AUS PUBLISHERS, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.26526/monography_61c306c32b0054.44427921.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
The monograph is devoted to the problem of effective incentives for personnel
as one of the most acute in the theory and practice of modern management. The
paper considers the main stages of labor incentives , the specifics of personnel
management from the standpoint of a motivational approach, suggests ways
to assess the quality of incentive systems, analyzes the motivational structure
of the employee's personality. The definitions, classifications, typologies and
models proposed in the monograph can be used not only for educational and
methodological purposes, but also in the direct practice of personnel management.
The monograph is addressed to specialists in personnel management, students,
graduate students, teachers, as well as everyone who is interested in the field of
HR management.
3
Bagdasaryan, Vardan. Leadership. ru: INFRA-M Academic Publishing LLC., 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.12737/1086964.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
The study of the course "Leadership" is associated with an increasing demand for the formation and disclosure of human leadership potentials. The presented textbook allows you to carry out this work in a targeted way. It summarizes and systematizes the world experience in the development of the theory and practice of leadership, discusses the classification of types of leaders, issues of practical use in leadership scenarios of personal qualities of a person, and offers a methodology for developing team strategies and team building. The distinctive features of the proposed program are its adaptability to the socio-cultural context of Russian society and its strong connection with the task of training the future generation of leaders in the interests of the Russian state. Each of the sections of the textbook is accompanied by practical tasks, the solution of which develops the skills of self-knowledge of a person in the perspective of developing leadership potentials and understanding the variability of leadership strategies. It is focused primarily on the preparation of bachelors studying in pedagogical areas of training, but it can also serve as a basic source for training in the course "Leadership" within the framework of a bachelor's degree in the humanities and the direction of social sciences.
4
Arbustini, Eloisa, Valentina Favalli, Alessandro Di Toro, Alessandra Serio i Jagat Narula. Classification of cardiomyopathies. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198784906.003.0348.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
For over 50 years, the definition and classification of cardiomyopathies have remained anchored in the concept of ventricular dysfunction and myocardial structural remodelling due to unknown cause. The concept of idiopathic was first challenged in 2006, when the American Heart Association classification subordinated the phenotype to the aetiology. Cardiomyopathies were classified as genetic, acquired, and mixed. In 2008, the European Society of Cardiology proposed a phenotype-driven classification that separated familial (genetic) from non-familial (non-genetic) forms of cardiomyopathy. Both classifications led the way to a precise phenotypic and aetiological description of the disease and moved away from the previously held notion of idiopathic disease. In 2013, the World Heart Federation introduced a descriptive and flexible nosology—the MOGE(S) classification—describing the morphofunctional (M) phenotype of cardiomyopathy, the involvement of additional organs (O), the familial/genetic (G) origin, and the precise description of the (a)etiology including genetic mutation, if applicable (E); reporting of functional status such as American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association stage and New York Heart Association classification (S) was left optional. MOGE(S) is a bridge between the past and the future. It allows description of comprehensive phenotypic data, all genetic and non-genetic causes of cardiomyopathy, and incorporates description of familial clustering in a genetic disease. MOGE(S) is the instrument of precision diagnosis for cardiomyopathies. The addition of the early and unaffected phenotypes to the (M) descriptor outlines the clinical profile of an early affected family member; the examples include non-dilated hypokinetic cardiomyopathy in dilated cardiomyopathy and septal thickness (13–14 mm) in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy classes.
5
van Huyssteen, CW. Relating the South African soil taxonomy to the World Reference Base for soil resources. SunBonani Scholar, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.18820/9781928424666.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
The South African Taxonomic soil classification system (SAT) is well established and utilised in South Africa. However, it is not internationally well known and therefore the need arose to provide a tool by which South African soil taxonomists can convert South African soil classifications and profile descriptions to the international classifications of the World Reference Base (WRB) for soil resources. The diagnostics and tacit knowledge presented in this publication are therefore based on the SAT and the WRB. When necessary, further substantiation was derived from the Land Type Survey of South Africa. The adopted procedure is effective in providing a reasonable classification based on the South African soil forms and families, while excluding certain WRB soil groups and qualifiers, because these are irrelevant to South African taxonomy. Lastly, this publication also highlights some peculiarities, omissions and inconsistencies observed between the SAT and WRB.
6
Giesen, Bernhard. Inbetweenness and Ambivalence. Redaktorzy Jeffrey C. Alexander, Ronald N. Jacobs i Philip Smith. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195377767.013.30.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
This article focuses on the extraordinary space in between the opposites based on a paradigm in cultural sociology that conceives of ambivalence and inbetweenness as a fundamental and indissoluble given of classification and interpretation. More specifically, it considers something that transcends the sucessful ordering and splitting of the world into neat binaries, arguing that this inbetweenness is essential for the construction of culture. Reality does not provide any firm ground for neat classification. Therefore, in applying classifications to raw reality, there will always be an unclassifiable remainder. Furthermore, in specifying meaning, there is no way to achieve absolute clarity and to avoid a rest of fuzziness. This article first provides an overview of some theoretical concepts that point to the essence of inbetweenness before discussing various phenomena of inbetweenness such as garbage and monsters, heroes and victims, and seduction.
7
Button, Tim, i Sean Walsh. Classification and uncountable categoricity. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198790396.003.0017.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
The topic of this chapter is classification. We start by formulating a wholly general philosophical framework for understanding classification programs within mathematics, in which calculable invariants play an important role. We then consider the most famous classification program in contemporary model theory, due to Shelah, who has suggested that classification concerns identifying which theories do not have too many models. We critically compare these two different perspectives on classification— calculable mechanisms vs. not too many models. We close the chapter by discussing Zilber's ambitious proposal for the classification of uncountably categorical theories (i.e. theories which have only one model up to isomorphism in a given uncountable cardinality). Whereas categoricity was seen as a potential philosophical salve in chapters 6-8, Zilber's program regards uncountable categoricity as a kind of extreme classification.
8
Catanzaro, Michael P., i Rachel J. Kwon. Hinchey Classification of Acute Diverticulitis. Redaktor Rachel J. Kwon. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199384075.003.0048.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
This chapter provides a summary of a landmark historical study in surgery: the Hinchey classification of acute diverticulitis. It describes the history of the disease, gives a summary of the study including study design and results, and relates the study to a modern-day principle of evidence-based medicine: validation of scoring systems. Hinchey’s classification of diverticulitis has become the most widespread system and while the Hinchey score may currently have less clinical relevance as it did in his time, its publication and eventual adoption marked a practice-changing paradigm shift in the way diverticulitis is viewed and managed today.
9
Muris, Peter. Classification and Diagnosis of Psychopathology. Redaktorzy Thomas H. Ollendick, Susan W. White i Bradley A. White. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190634841.013.4.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
This chapter deals with the classification and diagnosis of psychopathology in children and adolescents. An overview is given of the most prevalent mental health problems in youth that can be classified according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). Methods are then described that can be employed to classify psychopathology in youth in terms of DSM nomenclature. Next, the pros and cons of the DSM classification system are discussed, after which a number of alternative ways that can be employed to classify psychopathology are addressed. These include the Research Domain Criteria framework and the complex network approach.
10
Simmons, K. Merinda. Identifying Race and Religion. Redaktorzy Paul Harvey i Kathryn Gin Lum. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190221171.013.31.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
The common usage of “race” and “religion” in popular discourse makes overlooking the complicated histories of both terms easy to do. As a corrective to this simple oversight, this chapter examines the scholarly transitions that began to reintroduce race and religion as modern classifications rather than as universal phenomena that transcend specific societal contexts. Both terms underwent massive overhauls as recently as the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, at the height of European imperial projects. Even more recently were the mid-twentieth century transitions that saw Religious Studies and Black Studies formalized as academic fields grounded in social scientific approaches to identity. Poststructuralism paved the way for analyses that deviated from the essentialist logics of theology and biological determinism, respectively. The scholarly discourse on “slave religion” is one productive site for thinking about race and religion as organizing and legitimizing tools of classification.
11
Goldman, Alvin I. Theory of Mind. Redaktorzy Eric Margolis, Richard Samuels i Stephen P. Stich. Oxford University Press, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195309799.013.0017.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
The article provides an overview of ‘Theory of Mind’ (ToM) research, guided by two classifications. The first covers four competing approaches to mentalizing such as the theory-theory, modularity theory, rationality theory, and simulation theory. The second classification is the first-person/third-person contrast. Jerry Fodor claimed that commonsense psychology is so good at helping predict behavior that it is practically invisible. It works well because the intentional states it posits genuinely exist and possess the properties generally associated with them. The modularity model has two principal components. First, whereas the child-scientist approach claims that mentalizing utilizes domain-general cognitive equipment, the modularity approach posits one or more domain-specific modules, which use proprietary representations and computations for the mental domain. Second, the modularity approach holds that these modules are innate cognitive structures, which mature or come on line at preprogrammed stages and are not acquired through learning. The investigators concluded that autism impairs a domain-specific capacity dedicated to mentalizing. Gordon, Jane Heal, and Alvin Goldman explained simulation theory in such a way that mind readers simulate a target by trying to create similar mental states of their own as proxies or surrogates of those of the target. These initial pretend states are fed into the mind reader's own cognitive mechanisms to generate additional states, some of which are then imputed to the target.
12
Keil, Geert, Lara Keuck i Rico Hauswald, red. Vagueness in Psychiatry. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198722373.001.0001.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
Blurred boundaries between the normal and the pathological are a recurrent theme in almost every publication concerned with the classification of mental disorders. However, systematic approaches that take into account the philosophical discussions about vagueness are rare. This is the first volume to systematically draw various lines of philosophical and psychiatric inquiry together–including the debates about categorial versus dimensional approaches in current psychiatric classification systems, the principles of psychiatric classification, the problem of prodromal phases and subthreshold disorders, and the problem of overdiagnosis in psychiatry–and to explore the connections of these debates to philosophical discussions about vagueness. The book consists of an introduction (Part I) followed by three parts. Part II encompasses historical and recent philosophical positions regarding the nature of demarcation problems in nosology. Here the authors discuss the pros and cons of gradualist approaches to health and disease and the relevance of philosophical discussions of vagueness to these debates. Part III narrows the focus to psychiatric nosology. The authors approach the vagueness of psychiatric classification by drawing on contentious medical categories, such as PTSD or schizophrenia, and on the dilemmas of day-to-day diagnostic and therapeutic practice. Against this background, the chapters critically evaluate how current revisions of the ICD classifications and DSM manuals conceptualize mental disorders and how they are applied in various contexts. Part IV is concerned with social, moral, and legal implications that arise when being mentally ill is a matter of degree. Not surprisingly, the law is ill-equipped to deal with these challenges due to its binary logic. Still, the authors show that there are more and less reasonable ways of dealing with blurred boundaries and of arriving at warranted decisions in hard cases.
13
Meyers, Todd, Laurence Totelin, Iona McCleery, Elaine Leong, Lisa Wynne Smith, Jonathan Reinarz, Todd Meyers i Claudia Stein, red. A Cultural History of Medicine in the Modern Age. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781474206723.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
Over the last century, medical thinking and medical practice found their way into nearly every aspect of life, including how we care for others and ourselves, the food we eat, our understandings and representations of the human body and the mind, how we come into the world and how we depart. In this final volume of A Cultural History of Medicine, the chapters explore the ways in which biomedicine was organized through the regulation of the profession, responded unevenly to the challenges of new and reemerging diseases, ushered in new modes of therapy and classification, and reformed the cultures of medical practice and patienthood. The authors explore medicine from the moments following the First World War and the Spanish Flu to the AIDS epidemic through specific cases, in order to tell a story of medicine that is multifaceted, complex, often contradictory and ever evolving, offering a way to consider both our near past and our present moment.
14
Schor, Paul. Color, Race, and Origin of Slaves and Free Persons. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199917853.003.0006.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
This chapter focuses on the racial classification of slaves and free persons in the 1850 and 1860 censuses. The categories that were adopted and the procedures put into place in the field by 1850 defined the statistical population of black slaves, divided into two groups of different size, blacks and mulattoes. That there were two possible colors for slaves—black and mulatto—while there was no provision for “white” had two lasting implications for the American statistical apparatus and, more generally, for the definition of racial groups in American society: black individuals could be divided into two groups, and only two groups. Whatever the definition adopted for those who visibly were the product of a mixing between blacks and whites, called miscegenation, all such individuals remained within the confines of the black population, and they in no way occupied an intermediary position between the two races.
15
Klein, Julie Thompson. Typologies of Interdisciplinarity. Redaktor Robert Frodeman. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198733522.013.3.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
The dominant structure of knowledge in the twentieth century was division into domains of disciplinary specialization. In the latter half of the century this system was challenged by an increasing number of interdisciplinary activities. This chapter examines typologies of interdisciplinary activities, identifying patterns of consensus and fault lines of debate from the first major classification scheme in 1970 and continues to recent taxonomies that recognize new developments. The chapter compares similarities and differences in a framework of multidisciplinary juxtaposition and alignment of disciplines, interdisciplinary integration and collaboration, and transdisciplinary synthesis and trans-sector problem solving. It further distinguishes major variants of methodological versus theoretical interdisciplinarity, bridge building versus restructuring, and instrumental versus critical interdisciplinarity. Typologies are neither neutral nor static. They reflect choices of representation in a semantic web of differing purposes, contexts, organizational structures, and epistemological frameworks. They reassert, extend, interrogate, and reformulate existing classifications to address both ongoing and unmet needs.
16
Davies, Stephen. Ontology of Art. Redaktor Jerrold Levinson. Oxford University Press, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199279456.003.0008.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
Ontology is the study of the kinds of things there are in the world. The ontology of art considers the matter, form, and mode in which art exists. Works of art are social constructs in the sense that they are not natural kinds but human creations. The way we categorize them depends on our interests, and to that extent ontology is not easily separated from sociology and ideology. Nevertheless, some classifications and interests are likely to be more revealing of why and how art is created and appreciated. There are a number of traditional classifications of the arts, for instance in terms of their media (stone, words, sounds, paint, etc.), their species (sculpture, literature, music, drama, ballet, etc.), or their styles or contents (tragedy, comedy, surrealism, impressionism, etc.). The ontology of works of art does not map neatly on to these classifications, however.
17
Bonta, James, i J. S. Wormith. Adult Offender Assessment and Classification in Custodial Settings. Redaktorzy John Wooldredge i Paula Smith. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199948154.013.19.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
This chapter describes the developments that have occurred over the past three decades in the area of offender assessment and classification, including discussion of why offender classification is so vital to correctional agencies. The importance of using actuarial approaches to predicting the risk of reoffending and danger to others is discussed, as well as the inclusion of static and dynamic factors on composite measures of offender risk and need. Particular attention is paid to the application of the principles of Risk, Need, and Responsivity (RNR) to offender assessment, classification, and subsequent work with the offender, often described as “offender case management.” How prison environments (including inmate and officer subcultures) can potentially interfere with the accuracy of risk and needs assessments is also debated.
18
Singer, Ruth. Beyond the classifier/gender dichotomy. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198795438.003.0005.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
The entrenched nature of the gender/classifier dichotomy stands in the way of better typologies of nominal classification. How can we move beyond it to a more integrated view of nominal classification? Looking at a range of kinds of data from the Australian language Mawng, it is clear that our understanding of many less well-known nominal classification systems reflects a lack of data on how the system is used. Mawng has what seems like a well-behaved system of five genders, including gender agreement in the verb. However, the genders, like classifiers, play a crucial role in constructing meaning in discourse, often in the absence of nouns. Nominal classification systems must be contextualized in terms of their roles in constructing meaning in discourse, in order to do them justice in typologies. Greater emphasis on the flexibility of nominal classification systems and less on the role of nouns will also move efforts forward.
19
Phillips, Katharine A. Classification of Body Dysmorphic Disorder and Relevance for Patient Care. Redaktor Katharine A. Phillips. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190254131.003.0004.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
The classification of body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) in the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) has evolved over the decades. This chapter discusses these changes and highlights their relevance to patient care. BDD was first briefly mentioned in DSM-III (1980). DSM-III-R (1987) was the first edition of DSM to classify BDD as a separate disorder and provide diagnostic criteria. The most notable changes introduced in DSM-IV (1994) and DSM-5 (2013) were the addition of a clinical significance criterion to DSM-IV and the addition of a repetitive behaviors criterion, as well as specifiers for insight and muscle dysmorphia, in DSM-5. Earlier editions of DSM classified delusional BDD symptoms as a distinct psychotic disorder, whereas DSM-5 classifies such beliefs as BDD with the absent insight specifier and as the same disorder as nondelusional BDD. DSM-5 also moved BDD to a new chapter; it is now classified as an obsessive-compulsive and related disorder rather than a somatoform disorder. This change has important implications for how BDD is conceptualized.
20
CESAR AYRES FERREIRA FILHO, JÚLIO. INSUFICIÊNCIA CARDÍACA ESSENCIAL. Redaktor JÚLIO CESAR AYRES FERREIRA FILHO. Brazil Publishing, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.31012/978-65-5861-779-2.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
The discussion about heart failure (HF) is always important, not only because of the expressive numbers so prevalent with advancing age in the population, but also because of the social and economic impact of thousands of lives. The HF due to its importance has and must be well conducted. Its diagnostic role is very valuable, being readily recognized and classified, its evolution may be delayed or even reversed with the patient well medicated and well oriented. Their mortality in the final phase with refractoriness cannot limit care and nor wane in the search for the best possible quality of life with the rehabilitation of these, abilities so little used today. In this book we have outlined a didactic classification in 6 chapters: 1) concept and classification 2) clinical picture 3) diagnosis 4) complementary exams 5) non-drug treatment and 6) drug treatment. The objective was not to exhaust all the possibilities of this universe that is HF, but we aim, in a didactic way, to update the theme in what seemed to us to be as important and current as possible. Research within a respected bibliography and the most current guidelines was done for our foundation. Davi Ferreira Melo
21
Rahimi, Kazem. Heart muscle disease (cardiomyopathy). Redaktorzy Patrick Davey i David Sprigings. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199568741.003.0106.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
Cardiomyopathy is defined as disease of heart muscle, and typically refers to diseases of ventricular myocardium. A consensus statement of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) working group on myocardial and pericardial diseases, published in 2007, abandoned the inconsistent and rather arbitrary classification into primary and secondary causes and based its classification on ventricular morphology and function only. This classification distinguishes five types of cardiomyopathy: dilated cardiomyopathy, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, restrictive cardiomyopathy, arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy, and unclassified cardiomyopathies (such as takotsubo cardiomyopathy and left ventricular non-compaction). Each category is further subdivided into familial and non-familial causes. In a departure from the 1995 WHO classification, the ESC consensus statement excludes myocardial dysfunction caused by coronary artery disease, hypertension, valvular disease, and congenital heart disease from the definition of cardiomyopathy. The rationale for this was to highlight the differences in diagnostic and therapeutic approaches of these common diseases, and to make the new classification system more acceptable for the routine clinical use. In contrast to the American Heart Association scientific statement, the ESC definition does not consider channelopathies as cardiomyopathies. The sections on cardiomyopathy in this chapter are based on the ESC definition, with a brief reference to channelopathies.
22
Shibasaki, Hiroshi, Mark Hallett, Kailash P. Bhatia, Stephen G. Reich i Bettina Balint. Involuntary Movements. Oxford University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190865047.001.0001.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
This book is aimed at describing clinical features of various kinds of involuntary movements by demonstrating a number of cases on video. Most of the video cases presented in this book were directly observed and studied by at least one of the five authors, and a few cases were from the published paper with permission. The authors also discuss the current consensus about the classification, pathophysiology, and current treatment of each involuntary movement. This book adopts a unique way of looking at movement disorders by considering two aspects of the diagnosis: Axis 1, the phenomenology, and Axis 2, the etiology and/or pathophysiology. The visual appearance of the disorder, as seen on video, is a big part of Axis 1 diagnosis.
23
Levesque, Roger J. R. Determining the Legitimacy of Laws That Use Racial/Ethnic Classifications. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190633639.003.0002.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
Under the US Constitution, the government must ensure that individuals receive the equal protection of laws. This mandate, however, becomes challenging in that equal protection may be different depending on the involved individuals and circumstances. This chapter examines the general parameters of how the legal system addresses claims alleging violations of rights, such as those involving differential treatment based on race. The analysis demonstrates when discrimination exists in law and, equally important, discusses what is needed to envision ways to reach societal interests relating to equal opportunities and equal treatment. The chapter concludes by noting how these legal developments influence the potential relevance and utility of empirical evidence.
24
Loporcaro, Michele. Mass/countness and gender in Asturian. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199656547.003.0005.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
Having shown at the end of Chapter 4 that mass/count may be encoded in the gender system, this chapter analyses in depth one Romance variety where the interaction of the mass/count distinction with gender presents itself in a distinctly intricate way, viz. Central Asturian. This features a ‘neuter’ agreement that has been variously analysed as the exponent of a value of the morphosyntactic categories gender or number, or as manifesting the value of some other, purely semantic, category. Complementing the evidence with new data, the chapter concludes that the most economical analysis is one according to which the Asturian neuter is a gender value, but within a second gender system. In this, Asturian parallels a few far-off languages which, in recent studies in linguistic typology, have been argued to possess two concurrent systems for noun classification.
25
Khan, Geoffrey. Judaeo-Arabic. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198701378.003.0006.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
The term ‘Judaeo-Arabic’ refers to a type of Arabic that was used by Jews and was distinct in some way from other types of Arabic. It is by no means a uniform linguistic entity and the term is used to refer to both written forms of Arabic and also spoken dialects. The first section of the chapter examines the various forms of written Judaeo-Arabic and their importance for the history of Middle Arabic and Arabic dialects. A classification of written texts into three broad periods may be made: these periods being Early Judaeo-Arabic, Classical Judaeo-Arabic, and Late Judaeo-Arabic. The second section of the chapter gives an overview of the Arabic dialects spoken by Jewish communities in the Middle East. Most of these dialects differ in some way from the dialects spoken by their Muslim and Christian neighbours. They are far more diverse in their structure than the various literary forms of Judaeo-Arabic.
26
Marcus, Smith, i Leslie Nico. Part I The Nature of Intangible Property, 4 Debts. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/law/9780198748434.003.0004.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
This chapter focuses on debts. A debt is a right to demand payment of money at a stipulated time. That stipulated time may be a future specific date, or the debt may be payable on demand or on the occurrence of some defined future event. In order to be a debt, the money must be due as a matter of legal obligation, that is, arising out of a contract or a deed. At times—particularly for accounting and tax purposes—attempts are made to further classify debts. One classification of debt is known as ‘book debt’. Book debts are best defined as debts in some way connected with the creditor's trade, or debts connected with and growing out of the creditor's trade. The chapter then looks at syndicated loans, where two or more banks severally lend to a single borrower, and the nature of debts as property.
27
Tumblety, Joan. France. Redaktor R. J. B. Bosworth. Oxford University Press, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199594788.013.0028.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
French scholars have been remarkably resistant to the idea that fascism ever had much purchase as a political force in France. Yet, this article argues that, whatever the authentic ‘fascist’ credentials of the various French movements that have begged classification by scholars of fascism, it was a configuration of contextual factors which kept them out of power rather than the intrinsic ideological weakness of fascism as a political force. The question is how far any of them were fascist and why their advocates failed to seize power. This article reconstructs some of the conversations in which historians and other scholars have been engaged, convey the variety of illiberal populist positions that sought to mobilize support in this period, and articulate the nature of the inter-war crisis in French democracy which made the radical right so appealing to many.
28
Idris, Murad. Summoning Hostility. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190658014.003.0003.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
The writings of al-Fārābī and Aquinas make visible a morality that informs the oppositions between the peaceful and the warlike, and between just war and illegitimate aggression. In their typologies of different groups and cities, each designates some group as warlike, or as waging war for no good reason. Each contrasts this group’s disposition to illegitimate aggression to other kinds of violence and war, including, for Aquinas, “just war.” But each also implies—at times inadvertently—that recourse to violence can radically transform those who use it, which puts into question the political work of such classifications and elisions. Indeed, each describes a peace-loving group that wages war. Unlike diagnoses of the warlike disposition, the commitment to peace privileges “intentions” in a way that elides and ultimately sanctions the desire to correct others—one’s brothers, neighbors, friends, and enemies—in the name of peace.
29
Tretkoff, Paula. Algebraic Surfaces and the Miyaoka-Yau Inequality. Princeton University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.23943/princeton/9780691144771.003.0005.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
This chapter discusses complex algebraic surfaces, with particular emphasis on the Miyaoka-Yau inequality and the rough classification of surfaces. Every complex algebraic surface is birationally equivalent to a smooth surface containing no exceptional curves. The latter is known as a minimal surface. Two related birational invariants, the plurigenus and the Kodaira dimension, play an important role in distinguishing between complex surfaces. The chapter first provides an overview of the rough classification of (smooth complex connected compact algebraic) surfaces before presenting two approaches that, in dimension 2, give the Miyaoka-Yau inequality. The first, due to Miyaoka, uses algebraic geometry, whereas the second, due to Aubin and Yau, uses analysis and differential geometry. The chapter also explains why equality in the Miyaoka-Yau inequality characterizes surfaces of general type that are free quotients of the complex 2-ball.
30
Goldman, Alvin I. Gettier and the Epistemic Appraisal of Philosophical Intuition. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198724551.003.0013.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
Gettier’s 1963 paper was enormously influential. Virtually all epistemologists agreed with Gettier that the JTB analaysis was mistaken. But this conclusion evidently depended on the reliability of the shared intuitions of Gettier’s and his philosophical contemporaries about the epistemological examples described in his chapter. How reliable are such intuitions? Today many philosophers challenge the reliability of classification intuitions. How are such challenges to be addressed, and what can we learn about the comparative reliability of putative experts (e.g. philosophers) and laypersons? Here it is proposed that philosophers can study this with the help of psychological techniques—including not only interview techniques of the kind utilized by experimental philosophers but other experimental techniques as well. Ways to investigate intuition’s reliability are illustrated.
31
Jockers, Matthew L. Style. University of Illinois Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.5406/illinois/9780252037528.003.0006.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
This chapter shows how stylistic signals can be derived from high-frequency features and how the usage, or nonusage, of those features was susceptible to influences that are external to the so-called “authorial style,” external influences such as genre, time, and gender. These aspects of style were explored using a controlled corpus of 106 British novels where genre was a key point of analysis. The chapter first provides an overview of statistical or quantitative authorship attribution before discussing the author's project, in which he analyzed the degree to which novelistic genres express a distinguishable stylistic signal by focusing on the distribution of novels in a corpus based on their genres and decades of publication. Through a series of experiments, he demonstrates the use of the classification methodology as a way of measuring the extent to which factors beyond an individual author's personal style may play a role in determining the linguistic usage and style of the resulting text.
32
Richards, Nathan. Ship Abandonment. Redaktorzy Ben Ford, Donny L. Hamilton i Alexis Catsambis. Oxford University Press, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199336005.013.0037.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
Ship abandonment relates to the transfer of vessel possession and is at the core of marine insurance classification. This article explores the theme of ship abandonment in two sections—classification of abandonment activities and behaviors, and the history of ship abandonment studies by maritime historians and archaeologists. The history of ship abandonment is presented in the form of case studies in this article. Ship graveyards contain a high concentration of wrecked vessels and are also called ship traps. There are two types of ship graveyards, the first, where vessels are deliberately abandoned in situations like war, and the second, where unwanted vessels are dumped. Ship abandonment is a cycle of abandonment of one function for the adoption of another. These changes involve structural and functional transformations. This article emphasizes the fact that ships are objects abounding with the qualities of particular cultures, as well as the maritimity of culture.
33
Huybrechts, D. Derived Categories of Surfaces. Oxford University Press, 2007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199296866.003.0012.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
This chapter completes the classification of algebraic surfaces from the point of view of their derived categories. Abelian, K3, and elliptic surfaces play a special role. For all other surfaces, the derived category determines the isomorphism type. The reduction to minimal surfaces is due to Kawamata, and the case of elliptic surfaces was dealt with by Bridgeland and Maciocia.
34
Farb, Benson, i Dan Margalit. A Primer on Mapping Class Groups (PMS-49). Princeton University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.23943/princeton/9780691147949.001.0001.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
The study of the mapping class group Mod(S) is a classical topic that is experiencing a renaissance. It lies at the juncture of geometry, topology, and group theory. This book explains as many important theorems, examples, and techniques as possible, quickly and directly, while at the same time giving full details and keeping the text nearly self-contained. The book is suitable for graduate students. It begins by explaining the main group-theoretical properties of Mod(S), from finite generation by Dehn twists and low-dimensional homology to the Dehn–Nielsen–Baer–theorem. Along the way, central objects and tools are introduced, such as the Birman exact sequence, the complex of curves, the braid group, the symplectic representation, and the Torelli group. The book then introduces Teichmüller space and its geometry, and uses the action of Mod(S) on it to prove the Nielsen-Thurston classification of surface homeomorphisms. Topics include the topology of the moduli space of Riemann surfaces, the connection with surface bundles, pseudo-Anosov theory, and Thurston's approach to the classification.
35
Brower, Andrew V. Z., i Randall T. Schuh. Biological Systematics. Wyd. 3. Cornell University Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.7591/cornell/9781501752773.001.0001.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
Understanding the history and philosophy of biological systematics (phylogenetics, taxonomy and classification of living things) is key to successful practice of the discipline. In this thoroughly revised third edition, the authors provide an updated account of cladistic principles and techniques, emphasizing their empirical and epistemological clarity. The book covers the history and philosophy of systematics; the mechanics and methods of character analysis, phylogenetic inference, and evaluation of results; the practical application of systematic results to biological classification, adaptation and coevolution, biodiversity, and conservation; along with new chapters on species and molecular clocks. The book is both a textbook for students studying systematic biology and a desk reference for practicing systematists. Part explication of concepts and methods, part exploration of the underlying epistemology of systematics, the edition addresses why some methods are more empirically sound than others.
36
Swash, Michael. Myology. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199658602.003.0012.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
Diseases of muscle have become better understood by careful clinical observations, resulting in a clinically useful classification of the different groups of disorders e.g. inherited muscular dystrophies such as Duchenne muscular dystrophy, limb-girdle and metabolic myopathies, and myotonic disorders. A number of scientific approaches have determined the directions taken by this evolving classification. Understanding of the anatomy of the motor unit’s distribution in muscle transformed muscle pathology and muscle electrophysiology, and key to these pathological advances was the use of the histochemical technique for identifying myofibrillar ATPase in muscle fibres. This allowed studies of the distribution of fibre types in muscle in many different disorders. The inflammatory muscle diseases have been better understood since recent advances in immunology have characterized the underlying processes. The limb-girdle and childhood myopathies have proven to be heterogeneous, with many different, apparently causative, underlying genetic mutations.
37
Kondrakiewicz, Dariusz. Prognozowanie i symulacje międzynarodowe. Instytut Europy Środkowej, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.36874/m21580.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
International forecasting and simulation is a study that summarizes research, in a shortened and integrated version. The thematic scope concerns the basic terminology and methodological issues of forecasts and the forecasting process itself, forecasting institutions and the final product, i.e. international forecasts. The main goal is to present and systematize basic knowledge in the field of forecasting in international relations. The book is generally aimed at all those interested in international affairs. However, the author hopes that the publication will also be helpful for researchers and analysts dealing with difficult issues of international forecasting in the field of their scientific research methodologies. The work consists of two parts – theoretical and empirical. The theoretical part includes two chapters. The first chapter begins by discussing the concepts of forecasting and simulation. Next, considerations were made about the place of forecasting in science, pointing out the existing dilemmas in this regard, and also discussed categories, classifications and functions of forecasting and simulation. The second chapter presents the main elements of the forecast and the phases of the forecasting process. Most space was devoted to the presentation of the most important methods of forecasting in international relations, not limiting itself only to discussing them, but also assessing their usefulness for formulating international forecasts. In the third chapter, which is of an empirical nature, the selected forecasting institutions are first discussed according to the division applied into typically research, university, governmental, international and private institutions. This classification is of a contractual nature, but corresponds to the basic functions performed by individual institutions. In the further part of this chapter, the most important – according to the author – ecological, demographic and political forecasts are presented, focusing on discussing the main consequences of their possible implementation for international relations.
38
Keuck, Lara, i Allen Frances. Reflections on what is normal, what is not, and fuzzy boundaries in psychiatric classifications. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198722373.003.0008.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
This chapter takes the need to save ‘normal’ and avoid diagnostic inflation as a point of departure to reflect on what is normal, what is not, and what is in-between. It argues that ‘normal’ is a fallible and vulnerable comparative class to define mental disorders. Mental disorders must be distinguished from behaviours and mental states that reflect individual difference but not clinically significant psychopathology. Risk conditions, mild symptoms, and prodromal stages signify that a person is not yet or not severely diseased. Such notions of unclear cases and in-between states exhibit both vagueness and ambiguity. These considerations are used to suggest ways of limiting the (mis)uses of DSM in fields other than clinical psychiatry.
39
Phillips, Katharine A. Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders. Redaktor Christopher Pittenger. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190228163.003.0048.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
The category of Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders (OCRDs) is new to DSM-5 and was one of the more interesting, potentially impactful changes in the revised manual. The new DSM-5 chapter contains OCD, body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), hoarding disorder, trichotillomania (hair-pulling disorder), and excoriation (skin-picking) disorder. The addition of the new OCRD chapter to DSM-5, and grouping these disorders together, has diagnostic, clinical, and research implications. This chapter reviews why and how this new category was added to DSM-5, considers whether this grouping of disorders is correct, and examines the pros and cons of the change. The introduction OCRDs in DSM-5 had wide support. However, the current classification is not perfect, and much more research is needed to establish veridical relationships among disorders. In the meantime, it is hoped that these changes to DSM-5 yield advances in research and improvements in patient care.
40
Levesque, Roger J. R. Empirical Assessments of the Implementation of Laws Addressing School Segregation and Diversity. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190633639.003.0005.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
This chapter analyzes research related to the necessity of remedial approaches as well as potential alternatives to addressing racial disparity and the segregation of schools. These constitute critical analyses due to the manner in which the US Supreme Court addresses group classifications relating to race. These analyses reveal scant empirical evidence that addresses the law’s direct needs. Notably, it is not clear that integration efforts that use racial classifications are necessary to address the ills described by the legal system. In addition, it is not clear that alternatives, such as using economic status to shape school districts, increase integration in ways that reduce the harms associated with discrimination. In the end, the conclusion is not that these approaches could not receive empirical support; rather, it is that researchers simply have not engaged in the type of research needed to address key legal claims.
41
Streiner, David L., Geoffrey R. Norman i John Cairney. Basic concepts. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199685219.003.0002.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
This chapter begins by introducing the readers to finding existing scales that may meet their needs. It briefly summarizes the key concepts they should look for in a scale—reliability, validity, and feasibility. It discusses what is meant by these various terms and how they are measured. The chapter also contrasts the categorical versus the dimensional approaches to diagnosis and classification. Finally, it compares the medical versus the psychometric ways of trying to reduce measurement error.
42
Zirnbauer, Martin R. Symmetry classes. Redaktorzy Gernot Akemann, Jinho Baik i Philippe Di Francesco. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198744191.013.3.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
This article examines the notion of ‘symmetry class’, which expresses the relevance of symmetries as an organizational principle. In his 1962 paper The threefold way: algebraic structure of symmetry groups and ensembles in quantum mechanics, Dyson introduced the prime classification of random matrix ensembles based on a quantum mechanical setting with symmetries. He described three types of independent irreducible ensembles: complex Hermitian, real symmetric, and quaternion self-dual. This article first reviews Dyson’s threefold way from a modern perspective before considering a minimal extension of his setting to incorporate the physics of chiral Dirac fermions and disordered superconductors. In this minimally extended setting, Hilbert space is replaced by Fock space equipped with the anti-unitary operation of particle-hole conjugation, and symmetry classes are in one-to-one correspondence with the large families of Riemannian symmetric spaces.
43
Pouillaude, Frédéric. On Transcendental Absenting. Tłumacz Anna Pakes. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199314645.003.0001.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
This chapter posits a certain “void” upon which the few scraps of philosophical discussion of dance are scattered. It argues that this central void operates like a caesura, determining a “before” and an “after” This void implicates an absence—and the absence of dance from philosophy coincided precisely with the birth of aesthetics. There was thus a moment when a new kind of discourse about art and the beautiful was established, when a new discipline was formed which reorganized the disparate empirical realities of practices and works according to the architectonics of the concept. It was also the moment when dance was excluded, positioned beyond classification and ultimately marginalized as an art form.
44
Gillon, Carrie, i Nicole Rosen. Nominal Contact in Michif. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198795339.001.0001.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
Michif is an endangered language spoken by approximately a few hundred Métis people, mostly located in Manitoba and Saskatchewan, Canada. Michif is usually categorized as a mixed language (Bakker 1997; Thomason 2003), due to the inability to trace it back to a single language family, with the majority of verbal elements coming from Plains Cree (Algonquian) and the majority of nominal elements coming from French (Indo-European). This book investigates Bakker’s (1997) often cited claim that the morphology of each source language is not reduced, with the language combining full French noun phrase grammar and Plains Cree verbal grammar. The book focuses on the syntax and semantics of the French-source noun phrase. While Michif has features that are obviously due to heavy contact with French (two mass/count systems, two plural markers, two gender systems), the Michif noun phrase mainly behaves like an Algonquian noun phrase. Even some of the French morphosyntax that it borrowed is used to Algonquianize non-Algonquian borrowings: the French-derived articles are only required on non-Algonquian nouns, and are used to make non-Algonquian borrowings visible to the Algonquian syntax. Michif is thus shown to be best characterized as an Algonquian language, with heavy French borrowing. With such a quintessentially ‘mixed’ language shown to essentially not mix grammars, the usefulness of this category for analysing synchronic patterns is questioned, much in the same way that scholars such as DeGraff (2000, 2003, 2005) and Mufwene (1986, 2001, 2008, 2015) question the usefulness of the creole language classification.
45
Schor, Paul. The Disappearance of the “Mulatto” as the End of Inquiry into the Composition of the Black Population of the United States. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199917853.003.0015.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
This chapter discusses changes in the categorization of blacks and mulattoes at the beginning of the twentieth century. In 1900, for the first time since blacks had been individually enumerated, the entire black population was combined into a single category, “Black”. This included all persons who were “negro or of negro descent.” The mulatto category then reappeared in 1910, but in the new context of a difference in ability rather than a biological difference between blacks and mulattoes but was dropped after the 1920 because the census noted that the classification varied greatly according to the race of the enumerator.
46
FitzGerald, Oliver, i Dafna Gladman, red. Oxford Textbook of Psoriatic Arthritis. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198737582.001.0001.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
Owing to recent advances in the recognition of psoriatic arthritis, its outcomes, its pathogenesis, and the development of several novel therapeutic approaches, it is believed that a comprehensive textbook on psoriatic arthritis was necessary. This book will provide the most up-to-date information in the advances in the field of psoriatic arthritis, its classification criteria, and mechanisms of bone destruction and formation. This chapter provides an overview of the scope of the textbook, the rationale behind writing a volume on this subject, and advice to clinicians.
47
Gladman, Dafna, i Oliver Fitzgerald. Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198737582.003.0001.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
Owing to recent advances in the recognition of psoriatic arthritis, its outcomes, its pathogenesis, and the development of several novel therapeutic approaches, it is believed that a comprehensive textbook on psoriatic arthritis was necessary. This book will provide the most up-to-date information in the advances in the field of psoriatic arthritis, its classification criteria, and mechanisms of bone destruction and formation. This chapter provides an overview of the scope of the textbook, the rationale behind writing a volume on this subject, and advice to clinicians.
48
Murray, T. Jock. The History of Multiple Sclerosis. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199341016.003.0001.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
This chapter provides an introduction to the history of MS. It explores the observations of multiple sclerosis that were made even before the disease was more formally framed and named by Charcot in 1868. It reviews how description of the disease advanced through the 20th century, and how classification of clinical disease types, development of various tests, and the advent of magnetic resonance imaging improved diagnosis. Early attempts at therapy are discussed and contrasted with the modern disease modifying agents that were introduced in 1993.
49
Rondinone, Troy. “And the Winner—Television!”. University of Illinois Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.5406/illinois/9780252037375.003.0002.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
This chapter traces boxing's crooked path to respectability in order to gain an understanding the incredible success of TV boxing in the middle of the twentieth century. Boxing was born in the late 1800s, when the adoption of the Queensberry rules ended the old bare-knuckle days of limitless rounds, neck choking, no weight classifications, and muddy deaths. The new rules imposed uniformly sized rings, three-minute rounds, standardized judging, weight categories, and padded leather boxing gloves. The new structure fit in well with Progressive Era concerns regarding social regulation and masculine regeneration. America was changing dramatically in the decades between the end of the Civil War and start of the First World War. Millions of non-English speaking New Immigrants from southern and eastern Europe poured into America's ports. By the 1940s, a single Mafia family managed to dominate the fight racket, led by a hit man named Frankie Carbo. When boxing came to television, the mob did not leave. In fact, it skimmed more money than ever. Home audiences were unaware that Gillette and the mob brought them the Friday Night Fights.
50
Detlefsen, Michael. Formalism. Redaktor Stewart Shapiro. Oxford University Press, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195325928.003.0008.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
Viewed properly, formalism is not a single viewpoint concerning the nature of mathematics. Rather, it is a family of related viewpoints sharing a common framework—a framework that has five key elements. Among these is its revision of the traditional classification of the mathematical sciences. From ancient times onward, the dominant view of mathematics was that it was divided into different sciences. Principal among these were a science of magnitude (geometry) and a science of multitude (arithmetic). Traditionally, this division of mathematics was augmented by an ordering of the two parts in terms of their relative basicness and which was to be taken as the more paradigmatically mathematical. Here it was geometry that was given the priority. The formalist outlook typically rejected this traditional ordering of the mathematical sciences. Indeed, from the latter half of the nineteenth century onward, it typically reversed it. This reversal is the first component of the formalist framework.